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M^^''i 


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5^^//. 


PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


>, 


BV  2105  .L3 

Laurie,  Thomas,  1821-1897 
The  Ely  volume;  or.  The 
contributions  of  our 


THE  "ELY  VOLUME 


The  Contributions  of  our  Foreign  Missions 


TO    SCIENCE  AND    HUMAN    WELL-BEING. 


By   THOMAS  \aURIE,  D.  D., 

FORMERLY    A    MISSIONARY    OF    THE    A.    B.    C.    F.    M. 


And  by  the  river  upon  the  bank  thereof,  on  this  side  and  on  that  side,  shall  grow  all 
trees  for  meat,  whose  leaf  shall  not  fade,  .  .  .  because  their  waters  they  issued  out  of  the 
sanctuary.  —  Ezekiel  xlvii :  12. 


BOSTON : 
AMERICAN   BOARD   OF   COMMISSIONERS    FOR   FOREIGN   MISSIONS, 

CONGREGATIONAL   HOUSE, 
188   I. 


Copyright,  i88i, 
BY  THE  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions. 


Stereotyped  by   Thomas   Todd,  Cofigregatiotial  Ho7tse,  Boston. 


5^ .T r r f ti    to    r fu"    .IM c m o r w 


THE     REV.    ALFRED     ELY,    D.  D.,    Monson,    Mass., 


A  ceo  K  DIN  C.       TU       THE       DESIRE       <IF       HIS       SON, 


THE     HON.     ALFRED     B.     ELY,     Nkwton,     Mass., 


Who    made    provision    for 


!■  II  E       1'  U  li  L  I  C:  A  T  ION       OF       THIS       \- 1  )  L  f  .M  K 


CONTENTS. 


PAG  K. 

Introduction vii 

Chapter    I.  Geography  (Western  Hemisphere) i 

II.  Geography  (Eastern  Hemisphere) 23 

III.  Geography  (Western  Asia  and  Africa) 58 

IV.  Geology 94 

V.  Meteorology 103 

VI.  Natural  Science ,122 

VII.  Archaeology 148 

VIII.  Cabinets  and  Cuneiform  Inscriptions       ......  174 

IX.  Philology 184 

X.  Ethnography 197 

XL  General  Literature 204 

XII.  Periodical  Literature 215 

XIII.  Music 221 

Ir^     XIV.  Bible  Translations 22S 

XV.  Religious  Beliefs 257 

XVI.  Contributions  to  History 317 

XVII.  Education 372 

yXVIII.  Medical  Science      .       ■ 406 

XIX.  Commerce  and  the  Arts 417 

XX.  Wines  of  the  Bible 430 

XXI.  National  Regeneration 442 

XXII.  Philanthropy 474 

Appendix  I.  Home  Literature  of  the  American  Board 485 

II.  Foreign  Literature  of  the  American  Board 495 

Index 525 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


(FULL-PAGE.; 


Smyrna J'rontispiece. 

Peking 36 

Armenian  Ecclesiastics 61 

Mount  Argaeus 77 

Antioch 86 

Mardin,  Eastern  Turkey in 

Abeih  Seminary 146 

Gateway  in  Sivas 157 

Haran 15S 

Derbe i  eg 

Lystra 159 

Soli 160 

Taj  Mahal 164 

Dindigul  Rock 167 

Teppa  Kulam 16S 

Temple  of  Minatchi 170 

New  Choltry 171 

Pagoda  at  T'ung-cho 172 

Zulu  Prophetess 202 

Tamil  Type 210 

Marathi  and  Gujerati  type 242 


Lord's  Prayer  in  Modern  Syriac      .     . 

Translators  of  the  Bible 

Lord's  Praver  in  Japanese  

Buddha  

Syrian  Protestant  College,  Beirut  .  . 
Medical  Department  of  College,  Beirut 
Robert  College,  Constantinople  .  .  . 
Armenia  College,  Harpoot  .... 
First  Graduates  of  the  Kioto  Training 

School     

Female  Seminary  at  Beirut      .  • .     .     . 

Talas 

Bitlis 

Girls  School  in  Erzruni 

Lord's  Prayer  in  Arabic 

Church  at  Pasunialai 

Parsonage  in  Kessab 

Armenian  Women  of  Kars       .... 

Brahman  Family 

Bible  House  in  Constantinople    . 


244 
246 

248 

374 
37S 
3S0 
384 

391 
393 

400 
402 
404 
427 
429 
456 
457 
480 

499 


MLN'OR    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The     "  Morning     Star  "     approaching 

Honolulu 16 

Mercantile  Warehouse,  Peking    ...  36 

Rev.  Rufus  Anderson,  D.  D 59 

Lagoon  Island  in  Micronesia  ....  95 

Taj  Mahal 165 

A  Zulu  Kraal 201 

A  Zulu  Warrior 202 

Women  in  Africa 203 

Matt,  v:    1-13   in   the    Mandarin    Collo- 
quial Dialect 237 


Japanese  and  Chinese  Characters     .     .  241 

The  Medicine  Man 259 

A  Buddhist  Hermit 279 

Yezidees 310 

Melek  Taoos .515 

St.  Paul  De  Loandu 337 

Central  College,  Aintab,  TurUey      .     .  386 

Medical  Missionary  Hospital,  Fuhchau  412 

A  Memorial  Tablet 414 

Queen  Opatinia 449 

James  Dube,  a  Zulu  Pastor     ....  452 


INTRODUCTION. 


A  FEW  confidential  words  between  writer  and  reader,  at  the  outset  of  the  journey,  enable 
them  to  walk  together  more  pleasantly,  especially  if  the  way  be  long  and  difficult. 

This  volume  had  its  origin  in  the  same  devotion  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  that  leads  some 
to  found  lectureships  for  the  better  elucidation  and  defense  of  the  truth.  The  late  Hon. 
Alfred  B.  Ely  inherited  his  father's  love  for  the  missionary  work.  He  felt  that  the  amount  of 
scientitic  information  given  by  it  to  the  world  during  the  last  fifty  years  was  greatly  underesti- 
mated, and,  therefore,  made  provision  for  the  preparation  and  publication  of.  this  volume,  to 
show  what  the  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  had  done,  especially  for  geography,  phi- 
lology, and  archaeology,  not  overlooking  any  contribution  they  had  made  to  the  advancement 
of  human  well-being.  He  hoped  thus  to  interest  some  in  the  great  work,  through  its  incidental 
results,  who  had  not  yet  learned  to  love  it  for  its  own  sake. 

The  idea  was  originally  suggested  by  the  remark  of  one  connected  with  a  scientific  journal, 
who,  when  Mr.  Ely  spoke  about  the  debt  of  science  to  our  missionaries,  replied :  "  I  was  not 
aware  that  missionaries  had  ever  done  anything  for  science."  '  Other  incidents  show  the  need 
of  such  a  work.  Dr.  Bliss,  of  Beirut,  tells  of  an  American  clergyman  passing  through  that 
city,  who  said  to  a  friend  :  "  Missionaries  here  seem  to  accomplish  nothing."  "  You  heard  Ur. 
Thomson  preach  this  morning,  I  presume  ? "     "  No,  I  did  not  know  there  was  any  service." 

'  As  the  impression  prevails  among  some,  that  scientists,  as  such,  are  inimical  to  the  missionary  work,  it  may 
be  well  to  quote  several  passages  from  the  celebrated  Charles  Darwin.  In  his  J  otirnal  of  Researches  m  Natural 
History  a7id  Geology,  in  connection  with  the  voyage  of  H.  INI.  S.  "  Beagle,"  he  says  (Harper's  edition,  Vol.  I,, 
pp.  191-193) :  "  My  impression,  derived  from  Beechey  and  Kotzebue,  that  the  Tahitians  had  become  a  gloomy- 
race,  and  lived  in  fear  of  the  missionaries,  I  found  decidedly  incorrect.  Of  fear  I  saw  no  trace,  unless,  indeed, 
fear  be  confounded  with  respect.  On  the  whole,  it  appears  to  me  that  their  morality  and  religion  are  highly  credit- 
able. Many  attack  the  missionaries,  and  the  results  of  their  labors,  even  more  acrimoniously  than  Kotzebue  did; 
but  they  never  compare  the  present  stale  of  the  island  with  what  it  was  only  twenty  years  ago,  nor  even  with  that 
of  Europe  at  the  present  day.  They  only  compare  it  with  the  high  standard  of  Gospel  perfection.  They  expect 
missionaries  to  effect  that  which  the  Apostles  themselves  failed  to  do ;  and  as  the  condition  of  the  people  falls  short 
of  this  high  standard,  the  missionary  is  blamed,  instead  of  being  commended  for  that  which  he  has  effected.  Tliey 
forget,  or  will  not  remember,  that  human  sacrifices  and  the  power  of  an  idolatrous  priesthood;  a  system  of  prof- 
ligacy unparalleled  elsewhere ;  infanticide,  a  consequence  of  that  system;  bloody  wars,  where  neither  women  nor 
children  were  spared, —  that  all  these  have  been  abolished,  and  that  dishonesty,  intemperance,  and  licentiousness 
have  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  In  a  voyager  to  forget  these  things  is  base  ingrati- 
tude, for  should  he  chance  to  be  at  the  point  of  shipwreck  on  some  unknown  coast,  he  will  devoutly  pray  that  the 
lesson  of  the  missionary  may  have  extended  thus  far.  But  it  is  useless  to  argue  against  such  reasoners.  I  be- 
lieve thai,  disappointed  in  not  finding  the  field  of  licentiousness  quite  so  open  as  formerly,  they  will  not  give  credit 
to  a  morality  which  they  do  not  wish  to  practice,  or  to  a  religion  which  they  undervalue,  if  not  despise."  (Slightly 
abbreviated.)     The  man  who  pens  such  words  is  no  enemy  of  missions. 

In  New  Zealand,  he  describes  the  missionary  settlement  of  Waimate,  with  its  fertile  fields,  and  adds:  ".A.1! 
this  is  very  surprising,  when  it  is  considered  that  five  years  ago  nothing  but  the  fern  flourished  here.  Native 
workmanship,  taught  by  the  missionaries,  has  effected  this  change.  The  lesson  of  the  missionary  is  the  enchantei's 
wand.  The  house  has  been  built,  the  windows  framed,  the  fields  ploughed,  and  even  the  trees  grafted  by  the  New 
Zealander.  At  the  mill  he  appeared  powdered  white  with  flour,  like  his  brother  miller  in  England.  When  I 
looked  ai  this  whole  scene,  I  thought  it  admirable.  It  was  not  merely  that  England  was  brought  vividly  befcra 
me,  but  rather  the  high  hopes  thus  inspired  for  the  future  progress  of  this  fine  island."     (pp.  207-208.) 

On  a  later  page  (214),  he  adds:  "I  believe  we  were  all  glad  to  leave  New  Zealand.  It  is  not  a  pleasant  place. 
I  look  back  but  to  one  bright  spot,  and  that  is  Waimate,  with  its  Christian  inhabitants." 

(Vii) 


via  INTRODUCTION. 

"Then,  did  you  hear  Dr.  Van  Dyck  this  afternoon  ?"  "You  don't  mean  that  he  preaches  in 
addition  to  all  his  other  work  !  "  "  Yes,  and  he  had  a  large  audience,  too.  Have  you  visited 
any  of  their  schools  ? "  "  Schools  !  have  they  schools,  also  ?  I  am  glad  to  hear  it."  "  Have 
you  looked  in  on  their  press  and  publication  rooms.'"  "What!  have  they  a  printing  estab- 
lishment besides .'' "  "  Yes,  and  it  keeps  twenty  men  constantly  busy."  This  may  be  rather 
hard  on  the  clergyman;  but  when  missionaries  are  too  busy  to  speak  for  themselves,  it  shows 
the  need  of  letting  men  know  what  they  are  doing. 

It  was  well  this  American  clergyman  fell  into  good  hands.  In  some  places  foreign  resi- 
dents have  little  sympathy  with  a  missionary.  Their  aims  are  so  unlike  his,  that  he  would  be 
in  the  way  of  their  success,  just  as  their  lives  hinder  his;  and.  while  he  is  not  given  to  com- 
plaining of  them,  they  are  sometimes  not  slow  to  slander  him.  The  last  place  to  look  for  some 
editors,  unfriendly  to  missionaries,  would  be  either  in  mission  churches  or  mission  schools. 
As  Mr.  Griffis  says  of  some  merchants  in  Japan,  "They  are  unable  to  comprehend  the  object 
of  a  missionary,  and  yet  some  of  the  best  work  in  the  enlightenment  of  Japan  is  done  by  mis- 
sionaries. They  were  the  first  teachers  and  counselors  of  the  people,  and  the  ripe  fruits  of 
scholarship  that  open  up  the  Japanese  "language  to  the  world  are  from  them."  ' 

A  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  writing  from  Eastern  Asia,  says :  "  When 
a  man  speaks  ill  of  missionaries  it  is  well  to  look  at  the  life  of  the  critic,  to  see  what  there  is 
there  which  religion  condemns.  There  may  possibly  be  good  men  who  speak  of  missions  as  a 
failure,  and  missionaries  as  impostors,  but  I  have  not  found  them,  though  I  have  met  manv 
rakes,  drunkards,  and  blackguards  who  have  a  thorough  contempt  for  inissions."^ 

For  a  time  it  was  hoped  that  the  venerable  Dr.  Anderson  would  be  able  to  prepare  this 
volume,  after  be  should  have  finished  his  histories  of  missions,  and  when  that  hope  failed,  the 
work  was  assigned  to  Rev.  E.  Strong,  D.D.,  of  W^est  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  who  labored  on 
it  for  several  years  in  the  intervals  of  ]5astora]  work,  but  he  felt  constrained  to  give  it  up  at  the 
close  of  1879.  The  present  writer  was  then  requested  to  undertake  it ;  but  to  do  justice  to 
such  a  task,  one  must  work  out  the  idea  as  it  lies  in  his  own  mind,  and  so,  while  availing  him- 
self of  the  valuable  material  got  together  by  his  predecessors,  he  had  to  begin  to  build  from 
the  foundation.  He  found  no  lack  of  matter,  but  the  difficulty  was  how  to  use  it  to  the  best 
advantage.  A  mere  catalogue  of  what  liad  been  done  by  our  missionaries  would  neither  suit 
the  scientist  nor  interest  the  general  reader,  while  to  present  their  work  in  full  would  require 
an  encyclopaedia  rather  than  a  volume  ;  so  the  attempt  has  been  to  present  a  general  view  of 
the  whole,  and  illustrate  the  several  parts  by  specimens.  But  the  illustrations  had  to  be  so 
condensed,  that  if  some  miss  riuotation  marks  where  they  expected  them,  the  reason  is  that  the 
process  of  condensation  has  been  carried  so  far  it  was  hardly  honest  to  use  them,  yet  the  refer- 
ences will  enable  the  student  to  investigate  the  original  authorities  as  thoroughly  as  he-  may 
desire. 

It  has  been  exceedingly  difficult  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  scholar  and  at  the  same 
time  interest  the  general  reader.  Had  this  last  been  the  sole  object  in  view,  whole  chapters 
would  have  been  left  out,  e.g.,  those  on  meteorology  and  on  ethnography,  and  the  list  of  scien- 
tific topics  discussed  in  the  Chinese  Repository  and  Indian  Evangelical  Review  had  shared  the 
t^ame  fate.  As  it  is,  many  scholars  will  be  disappointed  by  the  meager  contributions  to  their 
own  sijecial  department, of  science,  while  others  may  complain  of  the  large  amount  of  dull 
reading. 

The  writer  contributed  a  chapter  to  the  volume  in  1S69;  but  since  it  came  into  bis  hands,  in 
January,  1880,  that  chapter  has  been  divided  into  three,  and  additions  made  to  them  all  up  to 
the  moment  of  going  to  press.  The  careful  reader  will  sometimes  find  facts  where  they  do  not 
really  belong,  because  some  chapters  were  divided  after  the  book  was  written,  and  all  the  mat- 
tter  pertaining  to  some  topics  had  not  been  removed  to  its  proper  place  before  the  stereotyper 
.'had  cut  off  every  avenue  of  approach. 

The  chapters  relating  to  China  owe  much  to  the  full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Hon. 
S.  Wells  Williams,  LL.D.,  and  that  on  Bible  translations  is  much  indebted  to  the  careful 
revision  of  Rev.  E.  W.  Oilman,  D.D.,  secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

Let  no  reader  expect  to  find  (he  latest  statistics,  especially  in  relation  to  Japan  ;  for  after 
altering  them  repeatedly,  the  figures  had  to  be  changed  to  correspond  with  different  statements 

»  The  Mikado's  Empire,  p.  345.  -missionary  Herald,  1S76,  p.  139. 


INTRODUCTION.  •  ix 

in  the  same  number  of  the  Missioitary  Herald,^  and  long  before  this  page  reaches  the  reader, 
other  changes  will  be  needed  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  movements  of  that  i^iterestinrr 
peo])]e. 

The  part  of  the  volume  that  has  cost  the  greatest  labor  and  will  be  of  the  least  interest  to 
readers  in  general,  is  the  list  of  books  published  by  the  missions.  In  spite  of  a  laborious  cor- 
respondence, it  is  very  incomplete,  though  it  is  hoped  that  missionaries  will  yet  furnish  the 
data  for  more  accurate  statements.  In  this  connection  special  thanks  are  due  to  Mrs.  Isabella 
H.  Bliss,  of  Constantinople,  and  to  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Riggs,  of  the  Dakota  mission,  for  their  val- 
uable aid  in  this  department. 

The  more  minute  the  detail  in  a  table  of  contents,  the  greater  is  the  confusion.  For  this 
reason,  the  subject  of  each  chapter  has  been  expressed,  as  far  as  possible,  by  a  single  word  • 
but  it  is  hoped  that  the  reader  will  find  in  the  index  just  such  help  as  a  student  loves  in  a  book 
of  reference. 

The  thought  has  sometimes  been  discouraging  that  the  book  is  too  miscellaneous  to  be 
read.  Was  it  presumption  at  such  times,  to  find  comfort  in  the  thought  that  The  Book  is 
made  up  of  prose  and  poetry,  history  and  prophecy,  truth  revealing  God,  and  wise  sayings 
gathered  from  earthly  experience  ;  and  so  go  on  filling  up  this  humble  herbarium  from  far  off 
forests  and  remotest  shores .'' 

If  any  think  that  too  much  has  been  said  about  Presbyterian  missions,  they  must  remember 
that  it  is  only  a  few  years  since  some  of  theirs  were  ours.  The  writer  was  a  missionary  under 
that  Board  in  what  are  now  Presbyterian  missions  among  the  Nestorians,  and  in  Syria. 

It  is  due  to  the  officers  of  the  Board  to  state  that,  while  they  publish  this  volume,  the  writer 
alone  is  responsible  for  its  contents.  The  entire  plan  and  arrangement  have  been  left  with  him. 
Perhaps  if  they  had  supervised  him  more,  the  work  had  been  better  done  ;  but  their  hands  were 
too  full  of  work  to  hold  any  more. 

It  is  some  indication  of  the  connection  of  missions  with  secular  things  that,  with  one  trifling 
exception,  on  page  315,  every  illustration  in  the  volume  has  been  taken  from  publications  cor- 
nectcd  with  the  work  of  the  Board. 

Papal  violence  threw  down  the  wall  that  enclosed  the  graves  of  Dr.  Grant  and  his  asso- 
ciates, on  the  hillside  near  Mosul,  and  so  shattered  the  stones  erected  to  their  memory,  that  to 
save  them  from  further  injury  they  had  to  be  buried  in  the  graves  over  which  they  had  been 
set  up.  But  it  was  given  to  the  writer  to  erect  a  memorial  to  them  in  1853,-  that  is  safe  from 
such  violence.  Again,  in  1863,  he  had  the  rare  felicity  of  putting  on  record  the  remarkable 
labors  of  Miss  Fidelia  Fisk,3  and  now  that  he  has  been  called  unexpectedly  to  this  work,  he 
can  hardly  expect  another  repetition  of  such  favor;  but  he  desires  no  higher  heaven  than  to 
serve  the  same  divine  kingdom  where  there  will  be  no  imperfections  to  become  more  conspic- 
uous the  more  we  strive  to  remove  them. 

They  who  love  the  missionary  work  for  its  own  sake  may  be  grieved  that  the  spiritual  side 
is  not  made  more  prominent  in  these  pages ;  but  they  must  remember  that  they  were  written  to 
record  its  incidental  fraiis.  The  scientist,  on  the  other  hand,  will  miss  his  scientific  nomencla- 
ture, and  the  reference  of  the  facts  brought  forward  to  their  proper  place  in  the  more  advanced 
discussions  in  science,  but  he,  too,  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  writer  is  not  a  scientist  but  a 
missionary. 

May  the  writer  also  record  the  conviction  that  has  grown  stronger  all  through  the  work, 
that  these  incidental  results  of  missions  do  not  constitute  their  chief  glory.  That  lies  in  bring- 
ing back  a  lost  world  to  the  knowledge  of  its  Divine  Redeemer ;  and  the  fullness  of  that  glory 
can  be  seen  only  in  the  light  that  is  round  about  the  Throne. 

Providence,  Rhode  Island,  Septeiiiber  i,  18S1. 

1  iSSi,  pp.  59  and  71,  one  of  which  gives  si.\ty-[our  ch.urch  members,  the  other  sixty-seven  ;  also  pp.  5  and  56, 
where  the  native  pastors  increase  from  eight  to  ten. 

^Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mouniam  Nestorians.  ^  Woman  and  Jier  Saviour  in  Persia, 


CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  GEOGRAPHICAL  SCIENCE. 


A  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY  may  be  formed  in  response  to  a  Macedonian  cry  from 
some  interesting  field  of  labor,  but,  if  it  is  wise,  it  will  not  establish  a  station 
till  it  has  looked  over  the  ground  carefully.  It  must  ascertain,  not  only  the 
center  of  the  largest  population,  but  the  center  of  greatest  intellectual  activity  ; 
not  only  the  place  most  easily  reached,  but  of  the  greatest  mental  accessibility. 
Then  the  cost  of  living,  healthiness  of  location,  and  readiest  access  to  other 
parts  of  the  field,  must  all  be  taken  into  account. 

Afterwards,  as  other  fields  open,  these  also  must  be  explored.  It  will  not 
do  to  depend  on  rumor,  or  the  report  of  observers  unfamiliar  with  missionary 
work.  Men  well  acquainted  with  such  service  must  search  into  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  openings  for  the  Gospel,  the  size  of  the  fields,  and  their  prospects 
for  the  future,  before  anything  can  be  done  intelligently,  or  with  such  promise 
of  success  as  shall  enlist  the  interest  of  the  churches.  Hence,  thorough  explora- 
tion of  the  field  is  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  a  successful  mission ;  and  as 
missionary  work  begins  here,  it  is  fitting  that  this  volume  commence  with  an 
account  of  missionary  contributions  to  Geographical  Science. 

The  investigations  now  being  made  by  the  American  Board  preparatory  to  a 
mission  in  Central  Africa  furnish  a  good  illustration  of  such  exploration,  and: 
its  value  when  well  done.  The  admirable  paper  by  Dr.  J.  O.  Means,  read  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  in  1879,  brings  together  from  all  quarters  all 
accessible  information  about  the  field ;  and  the  fact  that,  out  of  the  sixty-one 
names  quoted  as  authority  for  his  statements,  forty-four  were  connected  with 
missionary  work,  shows  how  much  we  are  indebted  to  missionaries  for  our 
knowledge  of  foreign  lands.  Of  the  paper  itself,  it  is  sufiicient  to  say  that  it 
has  just  been  pronounced  by  an  English  authority  to  be  "  the  best  thing  ever 
yet  written  on  Africa."^  Quotations  would  be  made  from  it  were  it  not  for  the 
hope  that  a  volume  will  appear  devoted  to  our  new  work  in  Africa. 

!vIissionaries  have  always  been  contributors  to  geographical  science.  As 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century  they  collected  information  about  Central  and 
Eastern  Asia.  Rubruquis,  a  Franciscan,  A.  D.  1253,  traveled  further  east 
than  any  European  before  him.  Jesuits  traveled  in  Central  Asia  and  China 
for  two  hundred  years,  and  described  the  topography  and  natural  history  of 
those  countries.     Sometimes  they  were  too  credulous,  at  others  they  did  not 

1  Letter  of  Rev.  N.  G.  Clark,  D.D. 

(I) 


2  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

observe  accurately;  but  they  were  always  busy.  They  prepared  the  best  map 
of  China  then  known,  reported  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  their 
language  and  literature,  their  commerce  and  manufactures.  They  wrote  of 
botany  and  zoology,  of  entomology  and  precious  stones.  They  published  a 
Chinese  encyclopaedia  in  one  hundred  volumes,  containing  five  thousand  and 
twenty  articles  —  a  complete  digest  of  Chinese  literature,  now  in  the  British 
Museum.^ 

Spanish  and  Portuguese  missionaries  contributed  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
Africa  and  America.  They  wrote  the  first  accounts  of  Congo  and  Abyssinia. 
Father  Pays  describes  the  sources  of  the  Nile  as  minutely  in  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  as  Bruce  did  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth.  Jesuits 
first  explored  and  described  large  portions  of  South  America. 

The  Danish  missionary,  Hans  Egede,  and  his  grandson,  give  us  our  best 
accounts  of  Greenland.  Dr.  E.  Henderson  has  done  the  same  for  Iceland,  its 
geography  and  geology,  its  history  and  its  poetry.  The  journeys  of  Marsden 
in  Australia  and  New  Zealand ;  the  voyages  of  Wilson  and  of  Tyermann  and 
Bennett  in  the  Pacific,  and  the  travels  of  J.  Campbell  in  South  Africa,  were 
valuable  contributions  to  geography  fifty  years  ago. 

Yet,  though  all  might  fall  below  the  standard  of  the  present,  the  contribu- 
tions of  Protestant  missionaries  were  both  richer  and  more  reliable  than  those 
of  Papists. 

The  very  term  "geography"  has  in  these  days  enlarged  its  meaning.  A 
modern  writer  says :  "  It  surveys  the  platform  on  which  all  human  interests 
play  their  part,  and  makes  all  knowledge  tributary  to  itself.  It  embraces  all 
the  natural  sciences,  geology  and  mineralogy,  botany  and  conchology,  zoology 
and  meteorology  —  whatever  pertains  to  land,  or  sea,  or  air."  Ancient  geog- 
raphy never  ventured  into  such  fields.  Physical  geography  did  not  become  a 
distinct  science  till  1848. 

During  the  last  half-century  great  progress  has  been  made.  Our  own  vast 
interior  has  been  explored.  Central  Asia  traversed,  and  the  river  systems  of 
South  America  surveyed.  The  Dead  Sea  has  been  navigated ;  the  source  of 
the  Niger  ascertained.  A  steamer  has  ascended  the  Tshadda  to  Bornou.  The 
desert  of  Australia  and  the  frozea  shores  of  Siberia  have  been  examined. 
The  charm  of  the  study  is  now  appreciated,  and  travelers  have  accumulated  a 
large  store  of  facts;  still,  they  do  not  dwell  among  the  people  they  describe,  nor 
do  they  know  their  language ;  hence  their  misapprehensions  and  mistakes. 
But  educated  missionaries  describe  their  own  homes,  and  are  masters  of  the 
vernacular.  They  are,  therefore,  more  reliable  in  their  statements.  They 
study  the  people,  so  as  to  make  the  most  of  them  for  Christ,  and  their  language, 
;as  the  weapon  of  their  warfare.  They  do  not  hurry  through  a  land,  intent  on 
ithe  next  railroad  connection,  but  make  it  their  permanent  abode ;  and  while 
.a  people  like  the  Chinese  often  purposely  misinform  ordinary  explorers,  the 
tnissionary  masters  all  the  information  they  possess. 

Just  as  our  meteorological  signal  stations  from  Florida  to  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  from  Calais  to  San  Francisco,  flash  their  observations  to  the  central  office 

^Bombay  Gttardian,  October  26,  1S78. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE,  j 

at  Washington,  so  four  thousand  missionary  stations,  six  hundred  of  them  occu- 
pied by  our  own  Board,  supply  geographical  information  to  scholars  at  home. 

It  was  said  of  Dr.  H.  Lobdell,  that  he  was  at  once  geographer,  antiquariatr, 
philologist,  and  naturalist.  His  associate.  Dr.  D.  W.  Marsh,  was  impressed 
with  his  ceaseless  activity.  He  was  almost  always  reading  or  writing.  He 
traced  the  route  of  Xenophon  and  his  ten  thousand,  and  followed  the  road  of 
Alexander  to  Arbela.  He  pondered  the  problems  suggested  by  Layard's  dis- 
coveries, and  questioned  all  classes  on  every  topic  of  Biblical  geography  or 
Oriental  customs.  With  one  large  note-book  on  his  desk,  and  another  in  his 
pocket,  he  was  constantly  gathering  facts. ^  Such  men,  traveling  so  much,  as 
missionaries  must  in  the  prosecution  of  their  work,  cannot  but  contribute 
to  geographical  science.  Rev.  Dr.  William  Adams,  of  New  York,  says  :  "  I 
believe  that  more  has  been  done  in  philology,  geography,  and  ethnology,  indi- 
rectly, by  our  missionaries,  than  by  all  the  royal  and  national  societies  in  the 
world  that  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  these  objects ; "  and  the  Princeton 
Review'  says :  "  Our  missionaries  have  rendered  more  real  service  to  geography 
than  all  the  geographical  societies  of  the  world." 

Dr.  C,  Hamlin  says  :  "  Hundreds  of  educated  men  have  given  accounts  of 
observations  in  many  lands,  describing  countries,  climates,  and  modes  of  travel, 
nations  and  races,  their  physical,  mental  and  moral  characteristics,  their  social 
condition  and  habits,  their  religion,  education,  and  government,  their  industries 
and  modes  of  subsistence,  involving  a  large  contribution  to  our  geographical 
knowledge." 

Carl  Ritter,  "the  prince  of  geographers,"  confesses  that  he  could  not  have 
written  his  fnagnum  opus,  the  Erd-kimde,  without  the  aid  of  material  collected 
and  transmitted  by  missionaries.  "  The  Missionary  Herald,''  he  says,  "  is  the 
repository  to  which  the  reader  must  look  to  find  the  most  valuable  documents 
that  have  ever  been  sent  over  by  any  society,  and  where  a  rich  store  of  scientific, 
historical,  and  antiquarian  details  may  be  seen." 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Anderson  says  :  "  As  the  work  of  the  missionary  is  generally 
undertaken  for  life,  and  as  he  must  cultivate  intimacy  with  the  people,  he  has 
advantages  for  research  such  as  no  other  class  can  have,  and  his  statements  are 
more  trustworthy.  I  can  hardly  conceive  of  their  being  tempted  to  speak  of 
mountains,  rivers,  plains,  climates,  governments,  languages,  and  even  religious 
dogmas,  otherwise  than  correctly."  Thus,  as  has  been  well  said,  "Geography 
and  Philology  are  largely  missionary  sciences."  At  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Oriental  Society  in  1867,  there  was  a  discussion  on  the  wisdom  of  missionaries 
engaging  in  literary  or  scientific  investigations,  in  which  Dr.  Anderson,  Dr. 
Pitkin,  Prof.  Whitney,  and  others  took  part.^  The  opinion  was  unanimous  that 
such  investigations,  carried  on  as  opportunity  offered  in  the  intervals  of 
missionary  work,  were  important  for  the  culture  and  mental  activity  of  the 
missionary,  and  for  his  usefulness  both  abroad  and  at  home  ;  and  reference  was 
made  to  the  immense  amount  of  valuable  contributions  to  knowledge  made  by 
missionaries,  and  to  the  honorable  estimation  in  which  they  were  held  on  account 

'^Memoir,  410.  =Vol.  XXXVIII,  p.  622. 

^Journal  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  IX,  p.    x\n. 


4  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

of  such  labors.  Prof.  Whitney  says  elsewhere:  "I  have  a  strong  realization  of 
the  value  of  missionary  labor  to  science.  The  American  Oriental  Society  has 
been  much  dependent  on  them  for  its  usefulness.  There  would  hardly  be 
occasion  for  the  society  at  all,  but  for  them.  I  have  heard  the  manager  of 
one  of  the  great  Oriental  societies  abroad  speak  with  admiration  of  the  learn- 
ing, good  sense,  and  enterprise  of  American  missionaries,  and  lament  that  those 
from  his  own  land  were  so  decidedly  their  inferiors." 

Mr.  L.  H.  Morgan  says  :  ^  "  No  class  of  men  have  earned  a  higher  reputation 
as  scholars  or  philanthropists  than  our  missionaries.  Their  contributions  to 
history,  ethnology,  philology,  geography,  and  religious  literature  form  their 
enduring  monument." 

Nor  have  the  officers  of  the  Board  at  home  been  lacking  in  their  contribu- 
tions to  geographical  science.  Besides  giving  space  in  the  Missionary  Herald 
to  strictly  geographical  information  furnished  by  missionaries  abroad,  they 
have  themselves  also  furnished  articles  involving  no  small  amount  of  research 
in  that  line.  The  preparation  and  publication  of  missionary  maps  was  begun 
at  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Board.  The  first  map  that  appeared  in 
the  Herald  \v:\.s  one  of  the  island  of  Hawaii,  engraved  on  copper  plate,  as  early 
as  January,  1826.  The  editor  says  (page  27):  "Some  acquaintance  with  the 
topography  of  a  country  is  needed  to  give  missionary  information  its  due 
interest  and  effect."  As  the  object  was  to  illustrate  the  comparatively  small 
regions  occupied  by  particular  missions,  these  maps  were  drawn  on  a  large  scale, 
and  went  into  details  not  to  be  found  elsewhere.  Nor  have  they  been  content 
with  one  map  of  the  various  fields,  but  new  ones  have  been  prepared  from  time 
to  time,  as  more  thorough  exploration  superseded  those  in  use.  Some  of  the 
most  accurate  maps  of  Turkey,  China,  and  Japan,  have  been  those  prepared  to 
illustrate  the  operations  of  the  Board  in  those  countries  ;  while  the  region 
round  the  Gaboon  river,  the  valley  of  the  Columbia,  the  vicinity  of  Canton, 
of  Bangkok,  portions  of  Macedonia  and  Borneo,  the  Bosphorus,  and  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Broosa,  the  country  occupied  by  the  Marathi  mission,  the  Nestorian 
country,  the  Central  Turkey  mission,  and  others,  may  serve  as  specimens  of 
the  accuracy  of  their  maps  in  minute  details.  The  fact  that  in  most  cases  the 
original  draft  was  prepared  by  those  on  the  ground,  and  familiar  with  the  lo- 
calities described,  accounts 'for  their  unusual  reliability. 

A  map  of  the  district  of  Madura  is  here  cited  in  corroboration  of  these 
remarks.^  The  writer  has  used  in  preparation  for  the  monthly  concert  of 
prayer  as  many  as  three  different  sets  of  maps  prepared  for  that  purpose  by 
the  American  Board. 

And  this  suggests  another  phase  of  the  contribuf.ons  of  our  missions 
to  geographical  knowledge  :  that  science  may  be  advanced  in  two  ways  ;  either 
by  the  addition  of  original  material,  or  by  the  speedy  and  extensive  dissemina- 
tion of  the  information  thus  obtained,  among  the  people.  Now,  while  mission- 
aries at  the  front  send  home  their  hard-won  contributions  to  geography,  the 
Board    at    home  —  to  put   it   in   tlie  mildest  form  —  moves   abreast  of    every 

'  Preface  to  Sinithsoiiian  Contributions  to  Knoivkdgc,  Vol.  XVIL 
-See  Missionary  Herald,  1S74,  p.  1. 


CONTRIBUTION'S    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE.  C 

Other  agency  in  popularizing  tlie  information  thus  obtained.  The  ponderous 
tomes  of  the  EncydopcBciia  must  wait  —  it  may  be  many  years  —  for  the  issue 
of  a  new  edition,  before  it  can  embody  the  results  of  recent  discoveries. 
Even  the  school  geography,  direct  as  is  its  contact  with  the  masses,  cannot 
be  changed  often  enough  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  advance  of  discovery ; 
but  the  maps  issued  by  the  American  Board  go  at  once  into  the  monthly  con- 
certs throughout  the  land,  disseminating  among  the  most  intelligent  classes  the 
latest  geographical  as  well  as  missionary  intelligence  from  the  ends  of  the 
earth. 

Take  Africa  as  an  illustration.  How  many  encyclopedias,  or  even  school 
geographies,  contain  the  results  of  the  explorations  of  Livingstone,  Cameron, 
Stanley,  and  others  in  the  interior  of  that  continent?  The  costly  volumes  of 
the  latter  are  in  the  hands  of  comparatively  few ;  but  the  map  of  Central  and 
Southern  Africa  issued  by  the  Board,  at  once  a  marvel  of  accuracy  and  cheap- 
ness, carries  the  discoveries  of  these  travelers  in  the  most  striking  form  before 
the  eyes  of  reading  and  thinking  congregations  all  over  the  land,  while  they  are 
constructed  so  as  to  aflord  room  for  the  insertion  of  any  additional  information 
from  our  advance  line  of  pioneers. 

Mr.  G.  M.  Powell,  of  the  Oriental  Topographical  Corps,'in  a  paper  read  be- 
fore the  American  Institute,  1874,  says  :^  "  Probably  no  source  of  knowledge 
in  this  department  has  been  so  vast,  varied,  and  prolific  as  the  investigations  and 
contributions  of  missionaries.  They  have  patiently  collected  and  truthfully 
transmitted  much  exact  and  valuable  geographical  knowledge,  and  all  without 
money  and  without  price,  though  it  would  have  cost  millions  to  secure  it  in 
any  other  way.  This,  with  theiV  work  as  a  civilizing  and  commerce-creating 
agency,  is  so  much  net  gain  —  a  parasitic  growth  on  the  Tree  of  Life  they  go 
to  plant." 

"  Much  of  discovery  in  regions  difficult  of  access,  credited  to  travelers  and 
explorers  as  their  own,  would  be  stated  more  correctly  as  simply  forwarded 
through  them  by  these  missionaries,  whose  versatility,  originality,  and  executive 
ability,  not  only  in  their  own  work,  but  in  the  promotion  of  geography  and 
kindred  sciences,  need  no  praise." 

Our  missionaries  to  the  Pacific  have  proved  that  thousands  of  islands  there 
were  settled  by  the  same  race,  through  simply  reducing  the  languages  to 
form,  and  bringing  them  within  the  range  of  philosophical  investigation.  The 
Ethnological  Society  in  New  York  rarely  meets  without  reading  papers  from 
missionaries  on  this  topic. 

One  writer  says :  "  Missions  enable  the  German  in  his  closet  to  compare 
more  than  two  hundred  languages  :  the  unpronounceable  polysyllables  used  by 
John  Eliot,  the  monosyllables  of  China,  the  lordly  Sanskrit  and  its  modern  as- 
sociates, the  smooth  languages  of  the  South  Seas,  the  musical  dialects  of  Africa, 
and  the  harsh  gutturals  of  our  own  Indians."  And  another:  "But  for  the 
researches  of  missionaries,  further  India  would  be,  most  of  it,  terra  mcognitaP 

Their  outposts  are  stationary,  yet  scattered  over  the  earth  like  the  stars 
above  us.  This  permanence  of  location,  their  numbers,  and  their  scholastic 
training  insure  a  great  amount  and  a  good  quality  of  scientific  work. 

■See  Missio'iary  Herald,  1S75,  p.  120. 


6  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Rev.  W.  Warren^  says:  "I  have  seen  a  letter  from  Herschel,  the  celebrated 
astronomer,  thanking  Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard,  of  Persia,  for  important  meteorolog- 
ical discoveries.  He  pledged  to  Mr.  Stoddard  a  vote  of  thanks  from  the 
Royal  Society." 

It  now  remains  to  see  how  their  labors  justify  such  eulogiums.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  American  Board,  organized  in  1810,  on  our  own  continent,  began 
with  some  of  the  Indian  tribes.  In  18 17  Mr.  Kingsbury  went  among  the 
Cherokees.  He,  his  successors  and  co-laborers  among  the  Choctaws  and  other 
tribes  published  in  the  Afissionary  Herald,  from  year  to  year,  accounts  of  the 
country  and  people,  containing  much  geographical  information. 

BUENOS  A  VRES. 

Rev.  J.  C.  Brigham  and  Rev.  T.  Parvin  were  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres  in  1S23.  Mr.  Parvin 
remained,  but  Mr.  Brigliam,  according  to  instructions,  crossed  the  continent  to  the  western 
coast,  visited  the  republics  there,  and  returned  through  Mexico  in  1826.2 

Mr.  Brigham's  description  of  one  of  the  coaches  in  which  he  traveled  might  serve  for  a 
symbol  of  Buenos  Ayres  civilization.  It  was  a  ponderous  old  Spanish  vehicle,  that  looked  as 
though  it  dated  from  the  days  of  the  conquest.  To  secure  it  against  damage  on  the  journey, 
spokes,  shafts,  springs,  and  under-rigging  were  wound  round  with  strips  of  raw  hide,  as  a  sailor 
serves  3  parts  of  the  standing  rigging  of  his  ship.  Two  entire  hides  were  then  spread  over  it, 
to  exclude  sun  and  rain,  and  held  in  place  by  numerous  strips  lashed  to  the  rigging  below. 
Other  hides  were  then  suspended  below  the  body  of  the  coach  to  receive  the  numerous  pots 
and  pans  for  cooking,  and  the  axes,  saws,  chisels,  hammers,  nails,  and  ropes  that  might  be 
needed  for  repairs.  Then  several  spare  axles  and  other  timbers  were  lashed  in  front,  under 
the  boot,  to  meet  emergencies,  and,  to  crown  all,  some  thirty  muskets,  blunderbusses,  swords, 
and  pistols  were  lashed  along  the  sides  with  more  strips  of  raw  hide,  so  that  scarce  a  square 
inch  of  surface  was  free  from  them.  This  outre  conveyance  was  drawn  by  six  horses,  whose 
onlv  harness  besides  the  bridle  was  a  belt  or  surcingle,  to  which  was  attached  a  long  twisted 
rope  of  raw  hide,  fastened  at  the  other  end  to  the  coach.  Rude  as  the  whole  outfit  appeared, 
it  moved  very  swiftly  over  the  level  pampas,  so  that  our  travelers  had  no  ground  of  complaint 
on  the  score  of  speed. 

ARAUCANIANS. 

His  account  of  the  Araucanians  in  Southern  Chili  is  too  interesting  to  be  passed  over. 
Their  country  lies  between  the  river  Biobio  and  Valdivia,  and  reaches  from  the  Andes  to  the 
Pacific.  It  is  about  two  hundred  and  forty  miles  long  by  one  hundred  in  breadth.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  get  at  their  numbers,  as  they  do  not  live  in  villages,  but  are  scattered  along  the  vallej'S  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Though  some  estimate  their  number  at  fifty  thousand,  others  make 
it  only  half  as  large.  They  are  the  most  intelligent  and  warlike  of  the  Chilian  Indians,  divided 
he  says,  into  numerous  tribes  —  another  writer  says,  into  four  large  tribes  — under  chiefs  called 
toquis,  who  are  independent  of  each  other,  like  our  several  States,  but  confederated  for  the 
common  defense.  Each  of  these  tribes  is  composed  of  five  divisions  governed  by  apo-ulmen, 
and  these,  again,  of  nine  subdivisions  governed  by  an  ulman  subject  to  the  apo-ulmen,  as  they 
are  to  the  toquis.  These  various  chiefs  are  hereditary  in  the  male  line.  The  supreme  power 
of  each  tribe  is  vested  in  a  general  council  of  the  ulmen,  which  meets  annually,  like  the  old 
Icelandic  parliament,  in  the  open  air;  but  their  extreme  love  of  liberty  hardly  brooks  even  this 
authorit}-.  Indeed,  the  chiefs  are  little  more  than  leaders  in  war,  for  they  receive  no  taxes,  and 
the  right  of  private  revenge  limits  their  civil  authority.  Each  family  occupies  the  same  lands 
which  its  ancestors  have  done  for  many  generations.     Though  centuries  have  passed  since 

*  These/or  Those,  p.  267. 

2  See  Missionary  Herald,  iZzs,  pp.  44-48,  72-7S,  176,  321-326.  Do.,  1826,  pp.  42-47)  73-8o,  111-116, 
iSs-187  271-273.  "  Winds  round  with  rope  yarn. 


GEOGRAPHY  —  ARAUCANIANS.  y 

they  were  invaded  by  the  Spaniards,  they  are  the  same  athletic,  manly  race  that  they  were  then. 
After  centuries  of  war,  they  remain  unconquered  and  invincible.  Their  glory  is  in  their  mili- 
tary strength,  and  the  army  is  the  only  place  of  honor.  Every  healthy  and  vigorous  man  be- 
longs to  that,  and  for  that  reason  is  exempt  from  labor,  which  is  the  portion  of  the  infirm,  the 
aged,  and  the  women.  '  The  men  make  and  exercise  themselves  in  the  use  of  their  arms,  and  in 
athletic  games.  Sometimes  the  men  of  one  valley  challenge  those  of  another  to  a  game  of  ball, 
and,  though  many  are  maimed  and  some  killed,  yet  quarreling  is  infrequent.  Each  man  is  as- 
signed one  kind  of  weapon.  These  weapons  are  the  lance,  the  arrow,  the  sling,  and  the  war- 
club.  A  few,  and  only  a  few,  are  armed  with  muskets.  The  lancers  are  on  horseback,  and  some- 
times the  archers  also.  To  the  strongest  is  assigned  that  most  effective  weapon,  the  war-club, 
and  this  is  counted  the  most  honorable.  It  is  massive,  about  three  and  a  half  feet  long,  with 
projecting  knobs  pointed  with  a  sharp  stone  or  bone.  One  writer  says  that  when  they  take 
the  field  they  carry  parched  meal  with  them  for  provision,  send  out  scouts,  and  dig  entrench- 
ments when  needed.  They  charge  in  well-formed  lines,  and  fight  with  a  deliberate  courage 
unknown  to  other  Indians.  When  they  learned  the  inefficiency  of  their  old  weapons  against 
muskets,  they  advanced  so  near  at  the  outset  that,  after  receiving  a  volley  without  flinching, 
they  could  rush  to  close  quarters  and  decide  the  battle  with  their  swords  and  clubs. 

When  war  is  imminent,  some  aged  chief  calls  a  meeting  of  the  ulmen,  who  choose  a  com- 
mander-in-chief; he  then  sends  an  arrow  dipped  in  blood  to  all  the  rest,  who  come  to  the 
rendezvous  with  their  forces.  Their  courage  may  be  learned  from  the  following  incidents.  A 
young  man  condemned  to  death  walked  calmly,  with  unflinching  step,  to  the  appointed  place. 
The  executioner  cut  the  scalp  from  his  head,  pierced  his  throat,  and  then  his  breast.  He  fell, 
but  instantly  rose  again  and  leaped  high  in  the  air,  then  expired  only  after  herculean  struggles, 
that  compelled  a  German  military  officer  to  leave  the  scene,  unable  to  endure  it ;  but  the  Indians 
sat  unmoved.  In  another  case,  a  Chilian  officer  had  been  killed  by  a  large  party,  and  an 
envoy  was  sent  to  demand  an  explanation.  The  ulmen  met,  and  after  inquiry  decided  that 
the  whole  party  had  committed  crime;  and  one  hundred  men  were  at  once  arrested,  brought 
into  the  open  field,  and  put  to  the  knife  in  presence  of  the  embassy  and  a  large  multitude,  with- 
out a  murmur  from  the  victims  or  any  show  of  sympathy  from  the  spectators. 

They  seem  to  be  the  finest  race  in  the  New  World.  They  have  the  germs  of  civilization 
possessed  by  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians,  without  the  ferocity  of  the  one  or  the  apathy  of  the 
other.  They  are  the  only  Indians  that  can  look  a  white  man  fully  in  the  face.  They  pierce 
one  with  a  look  that  says,  "  We  are  the  equals  of  any  man  or  set  of  men  on  the  earth."  Other 
Indians,  when  asked  for  a  drink  of  water,  bring  it  with  a  cringing,  slavish  air.  These  are  accus- 
tomed to  reply,  "  There  is  the  water;  go  and  help  yourself."  Though  not  lacking  in  hospitality, 
they  will  submit  to  no  act  which  might  imply  that  they  were  made  to  serve.  Their  faces  are 
unusually  large,  with  well-formed  mouth  and  nose,  and  eyes  remarkable  for  brightness,  yet 
frank  and  full  of  nobleness. 

They  believe  in  one  Supreme  Being,  called  Billan,  and  in  a  future  life ;  also  that  on  the  other 
side  of  the  water  a  large,  beautiful  island  will  receive  them  at  death.  Their  sacrifices  are  few 
and  simple.  The  most  common  is  wine,  which  they  throw  into  the  air  from  a  small  cup,  say- 
ing, "This  to  Billan."  Animals  are  rarely  offered  except  before  war  or  in  some  great  peril. 
Then  the  usual  victim  is  a  colt.  Of  this  they  first  take  out  the  heart  and  entrails,  and  sprinkle 
the  blood  in  the  air;  then  they  divide  the  entire  animal,  entrails  and  all,  among  themselves,  and 
devour  it.  They  believe  iir  many  subordinate  spirits,  good  and  bad ;  especially  an  evil  one 
named  Eponamon,  who  inflicts  disease.  They  propitiate  him  also  by  sacrifice.  Sometimes 
they  think  he  takes  possessionA)f  a  child,  and  then  they  either  kill  or  sell  it  to  the  Spaniards; 
but  they  will  on  no  account  become  Papists.  Not  long  before  Mr.  Brigham's  visit,  they  killed 
two  friars  who  attempted  to  proselyte  them. 

When  a  young  man  likes  one  of  the  opposite  sex,  he  often  visits  her,  and  treats  her  with 
marked  attention,  though  without  speaking  a  word  of  his  intentions,  till,  either  at  night  or  in 
the  absence  of  her  parents,  he  seizes  and  carries  her  to  his  own  home.  There  he  treats  her 
for  several  days  with  great  affection,  seeking  to  make  her  contented  to  remain.  If  he  fails  in 
this,  he  must  return  her  in  safety  or  incur  a  terrible  retribution.  If  he  succeeds,  her  relatives 
are  invited  to  visit  her.     They  find  her  decked  in  all  the  glory  of  feathers,  shells,  rings,  and 


S  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Other  ornaments.  Her  father  is  presented  with  horses  and  cattle,  her  mother  with  new  dresses, 
and  all  the  rest  of  the  family  with  appropriate  gifts.  Her  sisters  usually  receive  a  new 
tradclonko,'  and  her  brothers  a  llaming  red  new  bow  and  arrow;  and,  after  a  splendid  feast, 
lasting  several  days,  she  is  his  bride.  Polygamy  exists  among  them,  though  few  have  more 
than  two  or  three  wives.  The  great  cost  stands  in  the  way  of  having  many,  and  frequent  do- 
mestic broils  —  for  al!  must  live  in  the  same  house  —  still  further  discourage  the  practice;  so 
unmarried  girls  are  cautious  about  being  stolen  by  a  man  who  is  alreadv  married. 

They  assemble  in  the  house  when  a  death  occurs,  talk  of  the  virtues  of  the  departed,  and 
sometimes  make  it  the  scene  of  noisy  revelry,  as  well  as  mourning.  The  men,  before  leaving, 
deposit  the  body  in  a  spacious  grave,  with  his  clothes,  arms,  and  provisions,  not  forgetting 
their  favorite  "chica";  ^  indeed,  everything  they  think  will  please  him  in  the  happy  island. 

They  have  a  confused  tradition  of  the  deluge ;  believe  in  omens  and  divinations,  but  have 
no  temples  or  idols.  They  divide  the  year  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each,  and  add  in- 
tercalary da3's.  They  are  to-day,  in  habits,  feelings,  and  mode  of  life,  essentially  as  Valdivia 
and  Mendoza  found  them  more  timn  three  hundred  years  ago.  They  glory  in  the  perfection  of 
the  customs  handed  down  from  their  ancestors,  Colocolo,  Caupolican,  and  Lautaro.  Intemper- 
ance is  tlieir  distinguishing  vice.  They  are  shrewd  and  eloquent  in  debate,  and  more  gifted  than 
other  Indians.  'They  prefer  death  to  foreign  domination,  and  teach  their  children  that,  while 
other  Indians  have  been  enslaved,  they  are  unconquered,  and  the  bravest  people  in  the  world. 
They  are  strict  in  observing  their  jjublic  treaties,  and  punish  any  breach  of  them  with  terrible 
severity.  Too  much  cannot  be  said  of  their  valor  and  patriotism,  but  there  is  little  else  in 
them  that  is  attractive.  Ytt  the  record  of  their  courageous  defense  of  their  liberties  must  in- 
terest Christians  in  making  them  acquainted  with  the  liberty  wherewith  Christ  makes  free. 3 

PA  TA  GOiVIA . 

In  1S33,  Rev.  Titus  Coan  and  Rev.  William  Arms  were  sent  to  explore  Patagonia  as  a 
missionary  field;  and  as  little  is  known  of  that  region,  a  brief  digest  will  be  given  of  their  ob- 
servations, so  far  as  they  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  volume.  They  were  there  a  little  over 
two  months,  from  November  14,  1S33,  to  January  25,  1S34,  unacquainted  with  the  language, 
and  without  an  interpreter;  yet  in  that  brief  space  they  obtained  much  valuable  information. 

Though  in  that  latitude  Noveml:)er  corresponds  to  our  May,  on  landing,  they  saw  high  hills 
capped  with  snow,  and  the  whole  landscape  was  cheerless.  Not  a  tree  or  field  was  to  be  seen; 
only  stunted  thorn  bushes,  some  bearing  a  small  yellow  blossom.  There  was  no  village,  nor 
even  a  house.  The  hills  were  sandy  and  bare,  and  the  plains,  though  covered  Avith  a  rich, 
black  soil,  produced  nothing  but  tall  grass  and  wild  celery.  Granite  boulders  were  scattered 
here  and  there,  and  there  were  many  marshes  and  small  ponds,  with  aquatic  plants ;  but  no  riv- 
ers were  to  be  seen,  though  there  are  a  few  flowing  from  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic.  Flocks  of 
geese,  clucks,  and  gulls  were  found  in  the  ponds,  and  small  binis  —  among  them  the  curlew  and 
some  songsters  —  flitted  among  the  bushes. 

The  missionaries  pitched  their  tent  among  those  of  the  natives,  which  are  made  of  guanaco 
skins  sewed  together  and  supported  by  poles,  leaving  the  east  side  open,  where  they  build  their 
fires.  The  interior  is  divided  into  stalls  by  skin  partitions,  according  to  the  number  of  fami- 
lies that  occuj^y  it.  Their  only  furniture  consists  of  a  few  skins  to  sleep  on,  a  large  skin  bag 
for  a  water  pail,  and  a  smaller  one  for  a  cup,  with  a  few  stones  for  roasting  meat,  and  a  bundle 
of  sharp  sticks  with  which  to  fasten  skins  to  the  ground  in  drying  them. 

The  natives  are  from  four  and  a  half  to  si.x  feet  high,  with  straight  limbs,  jjlump,  and  well 
formed.  The  women  are  smaller,  and  not  so  well  formed  as  the  men.  As  to  clothing,  the  arms 
and  breast  are  bare,  while  a  loose  mantle  of  guanaco  skin  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  and 
bound  round  the  waist  with  the  bolas.  The  hair,  black  and  coarse,  is  parted  in  the  middle  and 
hangs  down  over  the  shoulders,  bound  by  a  narrow  fillet  round  the  head.  Their  color  is  a  light 
olive,  but  they  paint  their  faces  with  black  and  red  or  dark-brown  colors,  and  stripe  their  arms  and 
legs  with  white.     Their  check  bones  are  high  and  broad,  giving  the  face  an  angular  aspect.     The 

•  Head-dress  made  of  beads,  shells,  and  feathers.  -  Beer,  from  iiuii/.e. 

^Missionary  Herald,  1825,  pp.  323-326. 


GEOGRAPHY PATAGONIA.  .    g 

men  have  no  beard,  as  they  pluck  out  both  their  beard  and  eyebrows.  They  are  fond  of  orna- 
ments, wearing  bracelets  and  anklets  of  beads ;  and  some  thimbles  given  to  them  were  at  once 
bored  and  hung  round  the  neck,  while  the  needles  were  fitted  into  handles,  to  be  used  like 
awls.  Some  of  them  wear  boots  made  of  the  skins  of  horses'  legs,  stripped  off  whole  and 
transferred  to  those  of  their  masters.  As  may  be  conjectured  from  this  account,  the  sexes 
are  not  distinguished  by  their  dress.  The  women  do  most  of  the  work,  while  the  men  lounge 
and  look  on.  They  are  all  indolent  and  filthy  in  their  habits.  Few  of  them  ever  was!i  their  faces, 
and  a  crowd  looked  on  very  much  amused  to  see  their  stranger  guests  wash  their  clotlies  —  a 
process  they  had  never  heard  of  before.  Flesh  is  their  onlv  food.  They  have  no  bread,  onlv 
as  now  and  then  they  get  a  morsel  from  passing  ships.  When  they  kill  guanacos,  they  tear  out 
the  entrails,  and  eat  them  warm  from  the  carcass,  not  so  much  from  the  pressure  of  hunger  as 
because  they  count  them  a  luxury.  Even  children  eat  the  most  offensive  parts  of  the  intestines, 
unwashed  as  well  as  raw. 

Their  domestic  animals  are  the  horse  and  the  clog.  The  latter  are  mere  skeletons,  as  their 
masters  leave  them  little  besides  the  blood  and  bones  of  the  animals  they  kill;  and  the  horses 
used  in  hunting  are  also  loaded  mercilessly  whenever  they  move,  so  that  sometimes  they  are 
literally  crushed  down  by  the  burden.  Nor  are  these  their  only  uses.  When  guanaco  is 
scarce,  one  of  the  horses  tied  near  every  tent  is  shot  with  an  arrow,  and  eaten,  all  except  the 
skin,  bones,  and  hoofs.     Some  of  them  also  keep  a  few  hens,  but  these  are  rare. 

A  few  of  them  have  guns,  though  they  do  not  use  them  very  skillfully.  The  bow  and  the 
bolas  are  their  principal  weapons.  There  were  perhaps  half  a  dozen  home-made  blankets  in 
the  country,  made  from  the  wool  of  the  guanaco,  spun  by  the  women,  and  woven  in  a  most 
primitive  way.  The  loom  consisted  of  two  poles,  one  above  the  other,  to  which  the  ends  of 
the  warp  were  tied,  while  the  woof  was  inserted  by  means  of  a  stick  and  ostrich  feather,  pulled 
out  and  re-inserted  by  hand  at  every  separate  thread.  No  wonder  two  weeks  were  consumed 
in  weaving  one  only  four  feet  square. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  a  young  man  purchases  his  bride  from  the  father  of  the 
young  woman,  usually  for  a  horse  or  some  mantles;  and  after  this,  there  is  no  more  ceremony 
than  the  feast  to  which  the  bridegroom  invites  his  friends  to  gormandize  and  jest.  Yet  even 
this  is  not  the  worst.  The  wife  is  sold  again  at  pleasure,  so  that  a  man  not  seldom  has  six  or 
seven  wives  in  succession. 

Pulmonary  diseases  are  the  most  prevalent,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  climate  and  their 
mode  of  dress;  and  the  sick  meet  with  verv  little  of  either  sympathy  or  attention.  The 
missionaries  saw  a  man  apparently  dying,  and  yet  no  one  went  near  him. 

Their  only  doctorsare  conjurers,  who  howl,  blow,  scream,  and  shake  their  rattles  like  their 
representatives  among  our  own  Indians.  Their  i^rincipal  duty  is  to  bury  the  dead  —  in  a  sitting 
posture,  with  the  feet  drawn  close  up  to  the  body,  and  the  face  to  the  east.  They  tread  down  the 
earth  over  all,  and  go  through  a  set  mourning,  after  which  the  household  utensils  of  the  deceased 
are  buried,  and  his  horses  and  clogs  are, killed,  so  that  no  memento  of  him  remains;  no  mark  is 
even  left  to  designate  the  grave. 

Though  Messrs.  Coan  and  Arms  tried  every  means  to  discover  it,  they  could  not  detect 
among  them  the  slightest  idea  of  a  Creator.  They  believe  that  after  death  the  good  go  to  a 
land  of  perpetual  sunshine,  with  pleasant  houses,  beautiful  fields  and  horses,  where  hunger 
and  thirst  are  unknown  ;  while  the  bad  descend  to  a  wretched  land  of  darkness  and  thorns, 
where  is  constant  quarreling  and  distress. 

They  are  inveterate  beggars,  teasing  for  the  last  morsel  of  food  that  is  in  sight ;  and  yet 
some  of  them  were  very  kind  to  their  guests,  ready  to  share  with  them  their  last  piece  of 
giianaco  or  horse-flesh.  So,  also,'  while  some  stole,  one  motherly  old  woman  never  rested  till 
the  stolen  axe,  hammer,  or  whatever  it  might  be,  was  restored  to  its  owner. 

They  were  generally  kind  and  good-natured;  but  Mr.  Coan  draws  a  picture  of  the  chief's 
wife  which  even  a  patient  man  would  pronounce  unbearable.  Disgustingly  filthy,  she  begged 
all  she  saw,  tried  to  force  him  to  open  every  trunk  and  exhibit  all  its  contents,  and,  failing  in 
this,  struck  their  lids  furiously  with  her  clenched  fists.  At  meal  time  she  brought  a  squad  of 
children  to  make  her  begging  more  resistless,  peeped  into  every  dish,  and,  if  she  and  her 
harpies  were  not  fed  from  it,  thrust  her  filthy  hand  even  into  soup,  and  dealt  round  among 


lO  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

them  whatever  it  brought  up;  and  tliis,  just  as  much  when  she  was  filled  to  repletion  as  when 
she  was  hungry.  Her  own  people  also  suffered  from  her  wrath.  The  host  of  the  missionaries 
was  a  very  amiable  and  intelligent  young  man,  but  the  fact  that  they  were  his  guests  rather 
than  hers,  so  that  she  could  not  have  so  much  opportunity  to  fleece  them,  excited  her  anger  so 
that  she  dashed  into  his  face  and  eyes,  striking,  scratching,  tearing  off  his  ornaments,  and  pull- 
ing out  his  hair,  bringing  on  a  general  melee,  in  which  many  a  dark  face  was  streaked  with 
blood  as  well  as  paint. 

Another  chief,  also  a  woman,  though  she  received  the  missionaries  kindly  when  they  visited 
her,  yet  avowed  to  the  captain  of  the  vessel  that  took  them  away  her  intention  of  plunging 
her  knife  into  the  heart  of  Mr.  Arms;  so  that  the  captain  detained  her  till  the  boat  containing 
Mr.  Arms  had  left  the  shore. 

The  natives  sought  rum  and  tobacco  in  exchange  for  their  skins,  more  than  anything  else ; 
and  though  their  morals  were  foul  enough  before,  sailors  did  not  improve  them,  but  left  them 
a  legacy  of  disease  and  death.  They  are  also  inveterate  gamblers,  some  of  them  using  English 
packs  of  cards  in  addition  to  their  own  games;  and  the  only  entire  English  sentence  our 
missionaries  heard  among  them  was  an  oath. 

They  had  a  strange  and  most  intense  dislike  to  books  and  paper,  said  to  have  originated  in 
the  death  of  numbers  of  them  from  small-pox  introduced  by  some  old  papers. 

The  missionaries  learned  that  the  Andes  were  impassable,  owing  to  deserts  of  salt  and  ex- 
tensive thickets  of  thorns  in  the  interior,  besides  the  scarcity  of  food ;  whfie  the  mountains 
themselves  shot  up  into  the  region  of  perpetual  snow,  with  no  available  passes,  even  should 
the  desperate  traveler  succeed  in  climbing  over  the  sharp,  rough  rocks  that  form  their  base.' 

NORTHWEST   COAST. 

Rev.  J.  S.  Green  explored  our  northwest  coast  from  52'^  to  57°  north  latitude,  or  from 
Monterey  as  far  as  New  Archangel.  He  was  engaged  in  the  work  from  February  13  to  Octo- 
ber iS,  1S30,  going  up  and  down  the  coast  in  a  merchant  vessel,  and  stopping  a  few  days  in  a 
place.  We  give  a  brief  resume  of  his  account  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  territory  visited. 
He  describes  the  climate  as  cold  and  wet,  the  rains  frequent  and  excessive,  and  the  air  often 
so  thick  with  moisture  that  they  could  hardly  see  the  adjoining  shore.  This  is  generally 
abrupt,  rising  at  once  from  the  water  into  mountains  crowned  with  snow,  and  heavily  covered 
with  forests  of  spruce  and  hemlock.  The  garden  of  the  northern  portion  is  Queen  Charlotte's 
Island,  where  the  soil  is  rich,  and  no  hill  is  seen  for  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  With  this  ex- 
ception the  country  is  hard  and  cold.  He  found  as  many  as  ten  tribes  along  the  shore  north 
of  California,  numbering,  all  told,  about  fifteen  thousand.  Of  these,  sixty-five  hundred  speak 
the  Sitka  language,  which  is  very  soft  and  musical;  fifty-five  hundred  speak  the  Nass,  which 
is  rough  and  harsh;  and  three  thousand  the  language  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  which  is  the 
language  of  commerce.  Of  this  he  compiled  a  vocabulary,  containing  seven  hundred  words, 
but  had  not  time  or  opportunity  to  be  more  thorough. 

The  natives  have  the  characteristic  Indian  features  and  hair,  and  are  well-built  and  athletic. 
Their  dress  generally  consists  of  a  blanket,  under  which  the  women  wear  a  gown ;  and  a  few 
of  the  men  don  English  clothes.  All  are  excessively  fond  of  ornaments,  wearing  them  in  the 
nose  as  well  as  ears,  with  a  profusion  of  beads  on  the  neck  and  ankles.  They  paint  the  face, 
using,  when  better  material  fails,  a  mixture  of  a  kind  of  clay  and  soot.  The  steetgar,  or  lip 
ornament,  peculiar  to  that  coast,  is  described  minutely,  from  the  first  puncture  of  the  lower  lip 
to  the  insertion  of  the  full-sized  steetgar.  With  all  their  ornaments,  they  are  intolerable 
slovens,  with  a  fixed  aversion  to  water  as  an  external  application.  Their  hair  is  full  of  rancid 
fish  oil,  and  their  blankets  alive  with  vermin  and  foul  with  filth. 

Their  homes  are  generally  hovels,  without  door,  floor,  chimney,  or  window ;  though  a  few 
have  good  houses,  with  a  short  mast  set  up  in  front,  and  elaborately  carved.  The  houses  are 
built  of  slabs,  set  in  the  earth  endwise,  and  the  roof,  slightly  sloping,  is  covered  with  the  same 
material. 

The  men  arc  industrious,  hunt,  fish,  and  build  their  houses,  while  the  women  take  care  of 

"^  Missio7iary  Herald,  1S34,  pp.  376-381,  397-402,  429-432.    Do.,  1835,  37-41- 


GEOGRAPHY OREGON.  II 

the  provisions,  make  garments  and  hats  from  a  kind  of  grass,  and  weave  their  blankets.  In 
making  war  canoes,  and  furniture  for  their  houses,  the  men  exhibit  considerable  skill. 

They  are  shrewd  at  a  bargain,  and  have  intellects  of  good  capacity,  but  are  intolerably  self- 
conceited,  selfish,  arrogant,  and  overbearing.  They  manifest  no  sense  of  obligation,  and  show 
no  gratitude  for  any  favor ;  indeed,  kindness  only  increases  insolence.  They  are  quite  shame- 
less in  begging,  resenting  any  refusal  of  the  gift  they  demand,  as.  a  personal  injury.  They 
show  an  utter  disregard  of  truth,  and  are  not  ashamed  when  their  lies  are  exposed.  They 
steal,  not  only  out  of  sight,  but  right  before  one's  eyes ;  so  that  it  is  not  strange  that  quarrels 
and  murders  are  frequent. 

Polygamy  is  common ;  one  chief,  Shebasha,  having  as  many  as  ten  wives,  and  others  two 
or  three.  Young  women  go  on  board  vessels  for  no  good  purpose,  and  the  fruit  of  such 
transgression  is  killed  at  birth ;  but  the  married  are  very  kind  to  their  children.  They  have 
slaves,  brought  from  more  southern  tribes,  and  one  hardly  needs  to  describe  the  extreme 
wretchedness  of  those  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  such  a  race.  A  slave  is  killed  at  the  death  of 
a  chief,  and  sometimes  even  at  the  feast  that  celebrates  the  completion  of  one  of  the  better 
sort  of  houses.  Like  some  other  tribes,  they  are  passionately  fond  of  gambling,  and  in  their 
social  life  is  little  law  or  order.  The  adage  that  "might  makes  right"  has  full  force  among 
them,  and  produces  its  bitter  fruits.  Even  during  so  short  a  stay  among  them^  Mr.  Green  nar- 
rowly escaped  a  violent  death,  once  on  shore,  and  again  in  a  quarrel  on  shipboard,  in  which 
the  chief  officer  was  dangerously  wounded  and  two  natives  killed. 

Their  religious  ideas  are  very  vague.  They  have  no  forms  of  worship,  and  are  so  ignorant 
of  God  that  they  believe  their  country  was  created  by  the  yealth,  or  crow.  They  believe  in 
Nimkelsus,  the  author  of  sickness,  war,  and  famine.  Those  who  are  drowned,  they  think,  con- 
tinue in  the  sea,  and  only  those  who  die  in  battle  go  to  the  house  of  the  sun.  Thev  think  that 
their  priests,  or  shargars,  can  inflict  sickness  and  foretell  the  future ;  and  on  certain  occasions, 
when  they  rush  among  the  people,  biting  and  maiming,  or  even  worse,  they  only  flee  and  hide 
themselves,  but  do  not  think  of  resisting.' 

OREGON. 

In  May,  1834,  Rev.  S.  Parker,  Rev.  J-  Dunbar,  and  S.  Allis  left  Ithaca,  New  York,  to  explore 
the  country  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  but  did  not  reach  St.  Louis  in  time  to  join  the 
annual  caravan  that  season.  Messrs.  Dunbar  and  Allis  spent  the  winter  among  the  Pawnees 
of  the  upper  Missouri.  Dr.  M.  Whitman  joined  Mr.  Parker  in  1835,  and,  leaving  St.  Louis  in 
April,  they  reached  a  branch  of  the  Colorado  in  August,  where  they  heard  such  favorable  ac- 
counts of  the  openings  for  missionary  operations  beyond  the  Rocky  mountains,  that  Dr.  Whit- 
man returned  to  make  arrangements  for  entering  the  field,  and  Mr.  Parker  continued  on  alone 
to  Fort  Vancouver,  whence  he  sailed  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  returned  round  Cape  Horn. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  journey  in  1838,2  which  was  so  well  received  that  the  third 
edition  was  called  for  in  1842,  and  the  whole  work  revised  and  enlarged  to  four  hundred  and 
eight  pages.  It  contained  a  large  and  accurate  map  of  the  region,  compiled  from  his  own 
observations  and  the  reports  of  previous  explorers,  and  accounts  of  the  geology  of  the  route  over 
which  he  passed,  with  an  engraving  of  a  remarkable  basaltic  formation  on  the  Columbia  river. 

He  contrasts  the  bold,  striking'scenery  with  the  tame  monotony  of  the  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi; five  isolated  cones,  from  ten  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  feet  high,  and  covered  with 
perpetual  snow,  being  in  sight  from  a  hill  near  Fort  Vancouver.  He  describes  three  main 
ranges,  running  north  and  south,  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains :  one  above  the  falls  of  the 
Columbia,  the  second  at  and  below  the  cascades,  and  the  third  along  the  shore  of  the  Pacific ; 
and  between  them,  wide-spread  valleys  and  plains,  most  of  them  covered  with  grass.  The 
larger  part  of  the  country  is  destitute  of  forests,  though  they  abound  near  the  sea.3  He  dwells 
on  the  abundance  of  the  streams  and  the  clearness  of  the  water,  though  falls  and  rapids  hinder 
navigation,  but  speaks  of  the  kind  forethought  that  provided  passes  through  the  highest  moun- 
tains, as  though  on  purpose  for  railroads.     Speaking  of  the  Rocky  mountains,4  he  says  the 

1  Missiojiary  Herald,  1830,  pp.  343-345.  369-373-     Do.,  1S31,  pp.  33-39,  7S-78,  105-107. 

-  Jojcrnal  of  an  Explorifig  Tour  Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains.     Ithaca,  N.  Y.     i2mo,  pp.  371. 

3  Do.,  pp.  205-6.  *  Do.,  pp.  76,  77. 


12  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

passage  through  them  is  in  a  valley  so  gradual  in  its  rise  tliat  he  should  not  have  kno^vn  he 
was  passing  them,  but  for  the  cold,  and  the  sight  of  the  perpetual  snow,  thousands  of  feet 
above  him.  This  valley  is  from  three  to  fifteen  miles  wide ;  in  length  about  eighty  miles ;  and 
so  level  that  even  at  that  early  day,  he  says  :  "  There  would  be  no  difficulty  in  constructing  a 
railroad  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  probably  the  time  may  not  be  far  distant  when 
trips  will  be  made  across  the  continent."  He  did  not  dream  of  the  gold  discovery  that  would 
fylfill  his  hopes  so  soon. 

He  gives  careful  statements  about  the  aborigines  —  their  numbers,  dress,  habits  of  life,  char- 
acter, and  religious  belief.  He  speaks  of  the  Chiltz  tribe,  north  of  the  Columbia ;  the  Klicatats, 
north  of  the  cascades;  the  Chenooks,  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia,  once  powerful,  but  then 
numbering  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand ;  the  seventeen  tribes  of  the  Calapooahs,  on  the 
Willamette  river,  numbering  eight  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty,  occupying  a  couritrv 
two  hundred  miles  by  sixty ;  south  of  them,  the  Umbaquas,  divided  into  the  Sconta, 
Chalula,  Palakahu,  Quattamya,  and  Chasta  clans,  in  all  about  seven  thousand;  south  of  them, 
the  Kincia  tribe  up  to  1829  boasted  four  thousand  warriors,  but  then  numbered  probably  not 
more  than  eight  thousand  in  all ;  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  were  the  Killamooks,  their 
numbers  not  known;  and  south  of  them,  the  Saliootla  and  two  other  tribes,  supposed  to  num- 
ber two  thousand  persons.  In  addition  to  these,  he  estimated  about  twenty-five  thousand  more 
between  latitude  42''  and  47^,  and  nineteen  thousand  between  47°  and  55°. 

Besides  these  he  describes  the  Indians  of  the  interior,  who  occupy  the  upper  plains  between 
the  falls  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Rocky  mountains,  whose  leading  tribes  are  the  Nez  Perces, 
Cayuses,  Walla  Wallas,  Bonax,  Shoshones,  Spokeins,  Flatheads,  Coeur  d'Alene,  Ponderas, 
Cootanies,  Kettle  Falls,  Okanagans,  and  Carriers.  These  tribes,  on  account  of  their  poverty, 
are  called  Snakes  or  Root-diggers. 

He  says  that  both  polygamy  and  slavery  exist  among  them,  and  that,  when  they  kill  their 
slaves,  the  loss  of  property  is  the  only  thing  they  think  of.  When  two  chiefs  quarrel,  instead 
of  fighting,  one  kills  a  number  of  slaves,  and  challenges  the  other  to  kill  as  many ;  and  so  they 
go  on,  till  one  or  the  other  confesses  that  he  is  unable  to  kill  more,  and  acknowledges  himself 
beaten.  In  1829,  the  wife  of  Calpo,  a  Chenook  chief,  killed  two  female  slaves  to  paddle  the 
canoe  of  her  dead  daughter  to  the  spirit  land,  and  deposited  the  bodies  of  the  three  in  a  canoe, 
with  garments  and  domestic  implements. '  These  Indians  never  repeat  the  names  of  their 
friends  after  they  are  dead.  Cazenove,  another  chief,  lost  a  son.  Mr.  Parker  conducted  the 
funeral  services,  but  the  father,  though  he  had  his  son  buried  according  to  the  customs  of  the 
white  man,  went  home  and  tried  to  kill  his  favorite  wife,  the  mother  of  this  son;  for,  like  the 
Africans,  they  say  no  one  in  the  family  of  a  chief  can  die,  unless  through  witchcraft,  and  he 
looked  on  her  as  the  guilty  one,  though  she  had  been  most  kind  to  the  deceased  through  a 
long  sickness,  in  which  she  did  everything  she  could  think  of  for  his  comfort.  Providentially, 
she  succeeded  in  fleeing  to  the  fort,  and  implored  protection,  which,  it  is  needless  to  add,  was 
not  refused,  and  she  was  sent  away  safely  to  her  own  people. 2 

We  have  another  glimpse  of  heathenism  from  the  journal  of  Mr.  Dunbar  among  the  Paw- 
nees, in  1S38.  They  had  a  fight  with  the  Sioux,  killed  some,  and  took  some  women  and 
children  prisoners.  The  small-pox  broke  out  among  these,  and  only  two  or  three  survived. 
Many  of  the  young  children  of  the  Pawnees  died  of  the  same  disease,  and  the  older  people  did 
not  dare  to  hunt  for  fear  of  the  Sioux.  So,  to  recover  their  good  fortune,  they  offered  up  one 
of  the  remaining  captives  as  a  sacrifice.  This,  their  ancient  custom,  had  been  interrupted  by 
white  men ;  and,  not  long  before,  the  last  victim  was  shot  by  them,  on  the  horse  where  she  sat 
behind  the  agent,  who  had  rescued  her,  as  he  thought,  from  her  cruel  fate. 

One  who  had  thrice  witnessed  the  cruel  deed  thus  describes  it.3  The  victim  is  disrobed, 
half  of  her  body  painted  red,  the  other  half  black;  her  right  wrist  and  ankle  are  tied  to  one  up- 
right post,  and  the  left  wrist  and  ankle  to  another ;  and  after  v,arious  ceremonies,  the  boys  shoot 
arrows  made  of  a  tall  kind  of  reed,  till  her  body  is  full  of  them.  They  do  not  pierce  deep 
enough  to  kill,  but  cause  intense  .pain.  Then  an  old  man  steps  forward  and  ends  her  misery 
by  an  iron-pointed  arrow.  Her  chest  is  now  cut  open,  and  the  heart  is  torn  out  and  burned,  while 
their  weapons  and  implements  are  passed  through  the  smoke,  to  insure  success  in  hunting  and 

^  E>o.,  p.  245.  -  Do.,  pp.  251,  252.  •■  lilisswitary  Herald,  1S3S,  p.  384. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE.  13 

tilling  of  the  ground.  The  flesh  is  then  cut  off  and  thrown  to  the  dogs,  and  the  skeleton 
remains  lashed  to  the  poles  till  it  falls  to  pieces.  Such  scenes,  occurring  alike  among  the 
Khonds  of  Hindostan,  and  so  recently  among  the  Indians  of  our  own  country,  show  the  need 
of  the  missionary  work  which  it  is  the  object  of  this  book  to  recommend. 

DR.    WHITMAN. 

In  his  letter  to  the  Prudential  Committee  of  the  Board,  making  provision 
for  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  Mr.  Ely  desired  that  some  account  be  given 
of  "  instances  where  the  direct  influence  of  missionaries  has  controlled  and 
hopefully  shaped  the  destinies  of  communities  and  States."  Perhaps  no  event 
in  the  histor)'  of  missions  will  better  illustrate  this  than  the  way  in  which  Oregon 
and  our  whole  Northern  Pacific  coast  was  saved  to  the  United  States.  Our 
right  to  the  territory  drained  by  the  Columbia  river  was  based  on  the  purchase 
of  all  French  claims  in  1803,  and  all  Spanish  claims  in  18 19,  besides  the  title 
of  discovery  by  Capt.  Gray,  in  the  ship  "Columbia,"  of  Boston,  in  1791.  Our 
possession  of  the  region,  however,  was  long  thwarted  by  the  agents  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company,  whose  forts  and  factors  controlled  it.  The  fur-trading 
posts  of  J.  J-  Astor  were  broken  up  by  it,  and  his  far-famed  Astoria  was  oc- 
cupied by  them,  and  called  Fort  George.  In  1828,  they  took  possession  of  the 
falls  of  the  Willamette,  with  a  view,  as  Sir  George  Simpson  said,  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  British  colony  in  the  valley  above.  Other  colonies  were  planted 
at  various  available  points,  so  that  they  practically  held  the  whole  country  in 
1832.  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman  and  Rev.  Henry  H.  Spaulding,  with  their  wives, 
crossed  the  mountains  in  1836,  and  established  two  stations,  one  on  the  Walla 
Walla  river,  and  the  other  on  the  Clear  Water.  These  missionary  ladies  were 
the  first  white  women  who  ever  crossed  the  Rocky  mountains.  Though  neither 
of  them  was  strong,  their  courage  and  patience,  in  performing  the  journey, 
astonished  both  hunters  and  traders.  As  a  physician  and  surgeon,  Dr.  Whit- 
man often  visited  the  forts  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  saw  how  it  was 
planning  to  secure  that  whole  beautiful  and  valuable  region  for  Great  Britain, 
not  only  by  immigration,  but  by  creating  the  impression  that  wagons  could 
never  cross  the  Rocky  mountains  to  the  Columbia  river.  He  felt  that  an 
American  immigration  must  be  brought  over  those  mountains,  or  the  whole 
region  would  be  lost  to  the  United  States.  In  the  autumn  of  1842,  he  was  sit- 
ting at  the  table  in  Fort  Walla  Walla,  when  a  messenger  came  in,  announcing 
the  arrival  of  some  British  emigrants  from  Red  river  this  side  the  mountains. 
Toasts  were  drank,  and  one  of  the  company  said,  "  Now  the  Americans  may 
whistle  ;  the  country  is  ours."  Sir  George  Simpson,  their  Governor-General,  in 
his  published  report,^  afterwards  declared  that  "  the  colonists  in  the  Willamette 
were  British  subjects  ;  "  that  "  they-  had  no  rivals  but  the  Russians  \ "  and  he 
"defied  Congress  to  establish  the  Atlantic  tariff  in  the  Pacific  ports."  Dr. 
Whitman  excused  himself  from  the  company,  rode  that  night  twenty-four  miles 
to  his  home,  sent  his  wife  to  the  family  of  a  Methodist  missionary  at  the  Dalles, 
donned  his  buffalo  cloak,  packed  his  pemmican  ^  and  flour  on  an  e.xtra  pon}', 
and  started  off  to  cross  the  continent,  in  mid-winter,  risking  cold,  starvation, 

1  Narrative  of  Voyage  Romtd  the  IVorld  in  1841  a7id  1842.  -  The  English.         »  Dried  buffalo  meat. 


14  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

and  hostile  Indians,  to  save  Oregon  for  his  country.  He  reached  Missouri  in 
February,  1843,  frost-bitten  and  exhausted,  yet  preached  as  he  went  a  crusade 
to  rescue  the  Pacific  coast  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  He  contradicted 
the  reports  that  no  wagons  could  cross  the  mountains,  and  engaged  to  pilot  a 
colony,  in  the  spring,  to  the  Columbia  river. 

In  Washington,  he  called  on  Daniel  Webster,  then  Secretary  of  State,  and 
told  his  story.  The  secretary  replied  :  "  Wagons  cannot  cross  the  mountains. 
Sir  G.  Simpson,  who  is  here,  affirms  that,  and  so  do  all  bis  correspondents  in 
that  region.  Besides,  I  am  about  trading  that  worthless  territory  for  some 
valuable  concessions  in  relation  to  the  Newfoundland  cod-fisheries."  Dr. 
Whitman  replied  :  "  I  hope  you  will  not  do  it,  sir ;  we  want  that  valuable  terri- 
tory ourselves."  He  then  went  to  President  Tyler,  and  said  the  same  things. 
The  President  replied :  "  Dr.  Whitman,  since  you  are  a  missionary,  I  will 
believe  you;  and  if  you  take  your  emigrants  over  there,  the  treaty  will  not  be 
ratified,"  In  March,  after  a  hurried  visit  to  Boston,  he  was  back  in  Missouri, 
and  led  a  thousand  emigrants  to  Fort  Hall.  Capt.  Grant,  who  commanded  it, 
in  the  service  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  asked  where  they  were  going, 
and,  pronouncing  the  rest  of  the  way  impassable  for  wagons,  ofiiered  to  change 
them  for  pack-horses,  as  he  had  done  for  others.  The  men  were  in  great 
trouble  at  the  news.  Dr.  Whitman  rose  up  and  said  :  "  Friends,  you  have 
trusted  me  so  far  ;  have  I  deceiv^ed  you  ?  Continue  to  trust  me,  and  I  will  take 
you,  wagons  and  all,  to  Oregon."  They  trusted  him,  and  he  went  before,  mark- 
ing the  road  with  stakes  and  bits  of  paper  with  written  directions,  till  they 
reached  his  home,  and  at  length  the  Willamette  valley,  Oregon  was  saved, 
and  that  by  the  patriotic  energy  and  enterprise  of  a  missionary.^ 

Dr.  Whitman  and  his  eight  hundred  emigrants  emerged  on  the  plains  of  the 
Columbia,  September  4,  1843.  On  November  29,  1S47,  he  and  his  estimable 
wife  were  massacred  by  the  Cayuse  Indians.  It  may  not  always  be  safe  to 
rest  on  circumstantial  evidence  ;  but  the  intelligent  freemen  of  these  United 
States,  when  they  ask  how  such  an  end  could  come  to  such  a  life,  cannot  for- 
get that  between  1843  and  1847  a  succession  of  intrigues  was  planned  against 
Protestant  and  American  influence ;  that  the  introduction  of  measles  and  other 
diseases  by.  the  emigrants  of  1847  was  represented  to  the  Indians  by  the 
priests  as  "the  judgment  of  God  on  the  Americans  for  their  heresy."  They 
will  remember  the  great  kindness  of  the  Indians  to  Dr.  Whitman,  up  to  this 
date ;  that  in  the  massacre,  all  connected  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
and  the  Papists,  were  spared,  as  a  priest  said  they  would  be ;  and  that  the 
very  next  morning  this  paj^al  priest  baptized  the  children  of  the  murderers  ;  and 
that  an  Indian,  whom  Rev.  Mr.  Spaulding  met  riding  with  that  priest, 
within  three  miles  of  the  station,  had  started  with  him  on  purpose  to  kill  that 
missionary  also,  but,  having  accidentally  discharged  his  pistol  just  before  meet- 
ing him,  he  could  not  do  it  then ;  and  before  he  had  another  opportunity  to 
attempt  the  bloody  deed,  Mr.  Spaulding  had  got  out  of  reach  by  walking  ninety 
miles,  without  food,  traveling  at  night  and  hiding  in  the  day-time.  And  yet  it 
was  not  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  that  prompted  the  deed.     Mr.  Spaulding 

'  Rev.  G.  H.  Atkinson,  D.  D.,  in  Alissionary  Herald,  1S69,  pp.  76-.S0. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE,  1 5 

writes :  "  Too  much  praise  cannot  be  awarded  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
especially  to  Mr.  Ogden,  for  their  timely,  prompt,  judicious,  and  Christian  efforts 
in  our  behalf.  We  owe  it,  under  God,  to  Messrs.  Ogden  and  Douglass,  that 
we  are  alive  to-day."  ^ 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

Our  missionaries  have  done  much  for  geography  among  the  isles  of  the 
Pacific.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  have  awakened  great  interest  during  the  last 
fifty  years.  More  than  sixty  volumes  have  been  written  about  them  in  English, 
relating  chiefly  to  missionary  work. 

Little  was  known  of  them  previous  to  1820,  when  the  missionaries  went 
there ;  now  little  relating  to  them  is  unknown.  Their  geography  is  as  well 
known  as  that  of  any  State  in  New  England.  They  number  twelve,  lying  in 
the  North  Pacific, extending  three  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  northwest  to 
southeast,  between  latitude  18^  55'  and  22*^  20'  north,  and  longitude  154°  55' 
and  160^  15'  west.  Their  names  and  areas  are  :  Hawaii,  four  thousand  and 
forty  square  miles ;  Maui,  six  hundred  and  three  square  miles  ;  Kahoolawe, 
sixty  square  miles ;  Lanai,  one  hundred  and  fifty  square  miles  ;  Molokai,  one 
hundred  and  sixty-nine  square  miles ;  Oahu,  five  hundred  and  twenty-two 
square  miles  ;  Kauai,  five  hundred  and  twenty-seven  square  miles ;  and  Niihau, 
seventy  square  miles  ;  with  four  small  islets,  named  Molokini,  Lehua,  Kaula, 
and  Bird  Island ;  in  all,  sixty-one  thousand  square  miles.  Only  seven  of  them 
are  inhabited.  They  are  two  thousand  one  hundred  miles  from  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  three  thousand  four  hundred  miles  from  Japan,  and  nearly  the  same 
from  China,  Australia,  and  Panama.  They  are  all  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
mountainous ;  the  arable  land  lying  mostly  in  the  valleys  and  in  an  alluvial 
belt  along  the  shore.  The  uplands  are  fitted  for  grazing,  and  the  mountains,  cov- 
ered with  dense  forests,  are  unfit  for  cultivation.  The  trade  winds  strike  their 
northeastern  coasts,  causing  frequent  rains,  a  fertile  soil,  and  perennial  streams. 
On  that  side  the  mountain  forests  are  most  dense ;  and,  while  mosses  have  been 
found  on  the  east  of  Mauna  Kea  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  twelve  thousand 
feet,  on  the  west  side  of  Mauna  Loa  they  disappear  at  the  height  of  eight 
thousand  feet.  In  one  year^  182  inches  rain  fell  at  Hilo ;  38.156  inches  in 
March,  1847;  10.466  inches  in  a  single  day.  On  the  west  coast  rain  seldom 
falls.3 

Sm-face.  The  three  principal  mountains  of  Hawaii  are  :  Mauna  Kea,  thirteen 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty-three  feet ;  Mauna  Loa,  an  active  volcano, 
thirteen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty  feet;  and  Mauna  Hualalai,  seven 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  twenty-two  feet.  Kilauea,  three  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  seventy  feet  high,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Mauna  Loa,  is  the 
largest  active  crater  in  the  world.  It  is  a  pit  eight  miles  in  circumference,  and 
one  thousand  feet  in  depth.  Its  activity  is  independent  of  the  summit  crater. 
Mauna  Haleakala,  on  the  eastern  peninsula,  is  ten  thousand  two  hundred  feet 

1  See  Missionary  Herald,  1S48,  pp.  237-241  ;  where  is  also  a  map  of  the  vicinity.  ^  1846-7. 

3  Anderson's  Hawaiian  Isia7ids,  pp.  25-28.     T.  M.  Coan,  M.  D.,  in  American  Cyclopedia. 


i6 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


high,  and  on  its  summit  is  the  largest  crater  known,  two  thousand  feet  deep 
and  twenty-seven  miles  in  circumference.  The  highest  peak  on  Oahu  is  three 
thousand  three  hundred  and  ten  feet  high.  Molokai  presents  a  magnificent 
wall  of  precipices  to  the  north.  Nowhere  in  the  islands  can  one  journey  far 
without  seeing  extinct  craters,  generally  covered  with  vegetation.  Many  hundred 
square  miles  of  Hawaii  are  covered  with  recent  and  barren  lavas.  Volcanic 
eruptions  enlarge  the  area  of  Hawaii.  That  of  1843  poured  out  seventeen  bill- 
ions, and  that  of  1855  thirty-eight  billions,  of  cubic  feet  of  lava.  One  part  of 
south  Kona  has  broad  fields  of  jagged  lava  and  a  wild  sea  of  slag  and  cinders. 
It  is  a  terrible  wilderness  of  vitreous  matter,  with  a  choppy  surface,  like  the 
'ocean  suddenly  petrified  in  a  storm  ;  another  part  is  beautiful  and  fertile,  with 
groves  of  fruit  trees  and  a  perfect  jungle  of  shrubbery  and  vines.  Much  of 
the  scenery  of  the  islands  is  exceedingly  beautiful. 

An  excellent  map  of  the  group,  and  six  views  of  island  scenery,  may  be 
found  in  Rev.  H.  Bingham's  Twenty-ofte  Years''  Residence  at  the  Sandwich 
Jslafids. 


THE   "morning    star"    APPROACHING    HONOLULU. 


Harbors.  That  of  Honolulu,  on  the  south  side  of  Oahu,  is  the  best.  It  is 
protected  by  a  coral  reef,  with  twenty-one  feet  of  water  on  the  bar  at  low  tide, 
and  from  four  to  six  and  a  half  fathoms  inside.  The  anchorage  is  safe,  and  it 
is  easy  of  access  with  all  winds.  A  view  of  it  is  here  given,  with  the  missionary 
packet,  "The  Morning  Star,"  approaching  the  shore.  Hilo,  on  the  northeast 
shore  of  Hawaii,  has  a  good  natural  harbor,  protected  by  a  reef,  and  with 
from  three  to  eight  fathoms  of  water ;  but  it  lacks  good  wharves.  Lahaina, 
on    Maui,    has   an    open   roadstead,    with   good    anchorage.      Kawaihai    and 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  1 7 

Kealakeakua,  on  the  west  of   Hawaii,  and  Waimea,  Koloa,   Nawiliwili,  and 
Hanalei,  on  Kauai,  have  tolerable  harbors. 

Flora.  The  indigenous  Flora  numbers  about  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
three  species,  and  many  more  have  been  introduced.  The  cocoanut,  banana, 
bread-fruit,  pandanus,  cordyline,^  and  taro  or  kalo  -  belong  to  the  first.  The 
productions  of  the  islands  are,  sugar,  rice,  coffee,  cotton,  sandal-wood,  tobacco, 
arrowroot,  wheat,  maize,  tapioca,  oranges,  lemons,  bananas,  tamarinds,  bread- 
fruit, guavas,  potatoes,  yams,  kalo,  fungus,  pulu,^  and  ornamental  woods. 

Fauna.  The  indigenous  Fauna  is  small.  Swine,  dogs,  and  rats  tell  the. 
whole  story  in  the  line  of  quadrupeds ;  and  domestic  fowls,  a  bat  that  flies  by 
day,  snipes,  plovers,  and  wild  ducks  are  the  principal  birds.  There  are  only 
a  few  species  of  songsters,  but  many  birds  noted  for  brilliant  plumage  ;  one  of 
these,  Melithreptes  Pacifica,  has  a  golden-yellow  tuft  of  feathers  under  each 
wing,  about  an  inch  long.  The  war-cloak  of  Kamehameha  I,  four  feet  long, 
and  eleven  and  a  half  round  the  bottom,  was  made  of  these,  and  it  took  the 
reigns  of  nine  kings  to  complete  it.  Many  varieties  of  fish  frequent  the  shores, 
and  form  a  staple  article  of  food.  Now  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  are  raised. 
Herds  of  wild  cattle,  descended  from  those  introduced  by  Vancouver,  in  1793, 
roam  in  the  mountain  forests,  and  are  hunted  for  their  horns  and  hides. 

Commerce.  The  islands  lie  several  hundred  miles  south  of  the  route  between 
California  and  China,  and  form  a  station  between  San  Francisco  and  Australia, 
whither  the  trade  of  the  islands  now  tends.  Much  of  the  sugar  crop  of  1873 
went  there.  Three  times  have  the  islands  sought  to  make  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  United  States  —  in  1856, 1867,  and  1869  —  but  in  vain.  The  government 
even  offered  a  harbor  as  an  inducement,  but  that  also  failed  to  secure  it. 
Commerce,  till  now,  has  been  mainly  with  California.  Its  value  from  1853  to 
1873,  including  freights,  passage  money,  and  cargo  values,  in  and  out,  exceeded 
$19,750,000.  The  American  duties  on  Hawaiian  sugar  were  $225,000  ;  on 
rice,  etc.,  $75,000 ;  in  all,  $300,000  annually.  The  imports  from  the  United 
States  in  1873  exceeded  $1,000,000.  The  sugar  sent  to  California  rose  from 
282,000  pounds  in  1853  to  15,500,000  in  1872.  The  total  export  in  1873  was 
23,129,101  pounds.  The  total  value  of  exports  in  1873  was  $2,128,055,  and  of 
imports  $1,349,448.  The  number  of  vessels  arriving  was  one  hundred  and  six, 
with  a  tonnage  of  sixty-two  thousand  and  eighty-nine.  The  number  of  cargoes 
valued  at  over  $10,000  was  thirty-four;  twenty-eight  of  them  in  American  ves- 
sels, three  in  British,  and  three  in  Hawaiian.  Whalers  touching  at  Honolulu 
fell  off  from  five  hundred  and  forty-nine  in  1859  to  sixty-three  in  1873.  In 
1872,  eighty-sLx  American  vessels,  twenty-two  Hawaiian,  fifteen  British,  six 
German,  three  Italian,  three  Norwegian,  two  Tahitian,  and  one  Swedish  vessel 
arrived  at  Honolulu,  making  the  custom  house  receipts  $218,375. 

Government.  Up  to  1839,  this  was  an  absolute  monarchy.  Then  Kameha- 
meha signed  a  bill  of  rights,  and  in  1840  and  1842  granted  constitutions,  with 

1  Ki.  "^  A  rum  exulenttim.  s  Xhe  fiber  of  the  tree  feru. 


1 8  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

universal  suffrage,  and  a  biennial  parliament.  Civil  and  penal  codes  of  laws 
were  enacted,  and  one  third  of  the  land  was  secured  to  the  people,  which  for- 
merly all  belonged  to  the  king  and  chiefs.  August  13,  1864,  Kamehameha  V 
altered  the  constitution  so  as  to  impose  qualifications  on  suffrage  and  cen- 
tralize the  government.  Voters  must  read  and  write,  pay  their  taxes,  and  have 
an  annual  income  of  seventy-five  dollars.  The  executive  department  consists 
of  the  king,  a  privy  council,  and  four  responsible  ministers.  The  legislature 
consists  of  the  king,  and  a  parliament  of  fourteen  nobles  and  twenty-eight 
representatives,  which  discusses  and  votes  in  one  body.  The  judiciary  consists 
of  a  supreme  court,  composed  of  a  chief  justice,  who  is  also  chancellor,  and  at 
least  two  judges;  four  district  courts,  police,  and  other  tribunals.  In  1870 
the  income  of  the  government  was  $456,000.  The  salaries  amounted  to  half  of 
this.  That  of  the  king  was  $22,500.  Liberty  of  worship  and  of  the  press,  free 
education,  the  right  of  petition,  trial  by  jury,  and  the  right  of  habeas  corpus 
are  guaranteed.     There  is  no  army  or  navy,  though  the  king  has  a  body  guard. 

The  condition  of  the  people  could  not  have  been  much  worse  than  it  was 
when  the  missionaries  arrived.  The  chiefs  were  regarded  with  superstitious 
awe ;  even  their  persons  were  much  larger  than  those  of  their  subjects. 
They  owned  not  only  the  land,  but  the  people,  also  ;  the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  the 
bodies  and  implements  of  the  fishermen.  Everything  that  grew  on  land  or  in 
the  sea  was  theirs.  They  were  reverentially  obeyed  while  living,  and  deified 
after  death. 

Laborers  did  not  receive  more  than  one  third  of  their  earnings,  paid  in  kind, 
and  even  that  was  separated  by  no  line  of  demarcation  from  the  property  of 
their  employers.  If  a  tenant  improved  his  ground  better  than  his  neighbors, 
it  only  marked  him  out  for  plunder.  At  the  death  of  the  king,  every  man  was 
liable  to  be  deprived  of  all  he  had.  There  was  no  law  or  courts  to  which  any 
could  appeal.  Taxes  knew  no  limit  in  amount  or  frequency  of  exaction,  and 
the  king  demanded  as  much  labor,  and  as  often,  as  he  wished  ;  hence  no  man 
dared  to  have  a  good  house,  a  large  hog,  or  a  good  dress. 

The  system  of  tabu  favored  oppression.  If  the  shadow  of  a  subject  fell  on 
a  chief,  the  penalty  was  death  ;  so,  also,  if  he  stood,  instead  of  bowing  down, 
when  anything  belonging  to  the  king  was  carried  by  ;  and  many  similar  "  inci- 
dents "  were  made  excuses  for  murder.  The  priests  also  promoted  this  state 
of  things. 

If  human  victims  were  needed  for  the  altars,  the  king's  enemies,  or  even 
those  whom  he  disliked  without  cause,  were  selected  for  slaughter.  When  the 
king  visited  a  place,  he  often  required  heavy  stones  and  timber  from  the 
mountains,  to  build  a  temple ;  and  after  their  toil,  some  of  the  builders  were 
sacrificed  to  consecrate  the  altars.  If  the  priests  demanded  food,  or  land,  or 
human  sacrifices  for  the  gods,  they  were  given  at  once.  Moreover,  the  husband 
must  eat  in  one  house,  and  his  wife  in  another.  The  oven  could  not  be 
used  for  both  at  once  ;  and  if  a  woman  ate  pork,  cocoanuts,  bananas,  or  certain 
kinds  of  fish,  she  must  die. 

The  Hawaiians  had  four  principal  gods,  Ku,  Lono,  Kane,  and  Kanaloa,  and 
they  were  supposed  to  enter  into  their  images  only  through  certain  ceremonies. 


HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS. 


19 


They  had  an  indistinct  notion  of  a  future  state  of  rewards  in  Wakea,  and  a 
place  of  misery  called  Milu.  One  of  their  idols  was  made  of  a  poisonous  wood, 
and  was  often  used  as  the  most  convenient  method  of  destroying  those  whom 
chiefs  or  priests  wanted  out  of  the  way. 

The  vegetable  food  of  the  people  was  mostly  kalo  and  sweet  potatoes,  with 
bananas,  and  a  few  cocoanuts  and  bread-fruit.  For  animal  food  they  had  dogs 
and  hogs,  and  especially  fish.  Arrowroot  grew  there,  but  the  people  knew  not 
how  to  prepare  it.  Sugar  cane  is  of  modern  introduction.  They  made  an  in- 
toxicating drink  from  a  narcotic  root  called  awa. 

Having  no  iron,  they  used  tools  of  stone,  bone,  and  wood  to  build  their 
huts  and  canoes  and  make  their  weapons  and  fishing  gear. 

Their  social  state  was  about  as  bad  as  often  exists,  even  among  the  heathen. 
The  five  or  six  inmates  of  a  hut  could  hardly  be  called  a  family,  for  the  men 
often  had  several  wives,  whom  they  changed  for  slight  cause,  and  with  little 
form  of  law.  Women  also  frequently  had  several  husbands,  whom  they  changed 
with  equal  facility.  In  their  huts,  with  the  merest  apology  for  clothing,  in  the 
form  of  a  fringed  girdle,  they  ate  poi  —  a  preparation  of  the  kalo,  or  taro  — 
with  their  fingers,  from  one  calabash,  and  with  or  without  a  kapu  ^  they  lay 
down  on  the  same  mat. 

Some  lived  in  caves,  with  the  earth  for  a  floor,  and  a  small  excavation  in  it, 
their  fire-place  and  oven.  Though  they  had  a  mild  climate,  and  a  fruitful  soil 
in  their  valleys,  with  no  winter  to  provide  for,  they  were  in  a  state  of  poverty, 
compared  with  which  our  poor  are  rich. 

But  the  worst  of  all  was  their  moral  condition.  Society  was  one  mire  of 
pollution.  Marriage  was  practically  unknown ;  husbands  interchanged  wives, 
and  wives  husbands,  as  an  ordinary  civility.  Refusal  of  illicit  intercourse  was 
counted  meanness.  It  is  not  strange,  then,  that  parents  often  gave  away  their 
children  as  soon  as  born,  or  buried  them  alive,  or  killed  them  by  other  meth- 
ods, to  get  rid  of  the  trouble  of  caring  for  them.  Two  thirds  of  the  children 
thus  perished.  Mothers,  instead  of  soothing  their  suffering  infants,  dug  holes 
and  trampled  down  the  earth  above  their  faint  struggles  and  smothered  cries. 
Often  five,  or  even  seven,  in  succession,  were  thus  disposed  of,  that  she  might 
be  more  free  for  vicious  indulgence.  Their  sports  were  at  once  cruel  and 
licentious.  In  their  boxing  matches,  sometimes  quite  a  number  were  left 
dead  on  the  field.  They  were  exceedingly  given  to  gambling.  Their  dances 
were  utterly  abominable  and  indescribable,  and  were  protracted  through  the 
night.  Their  punishments  were  cruel  and  barbarous,  and  the  bodies  of  those 
slain  on  the  altar  were  left  there  to  rot  in  the  sun.  Their  modes  of  burial  were 
revolting.  The  corpses  of  chiefs  were  allowed  to  decay  till  the  bones  readily 
separated  from  the  flesh,  when  they  were  gathered  together  and  preserved  ;  and 
the  dead  bodies  of  the  people  were  buried  secretly  in  the  night,  lest  their  bones 
should  be  made  into  arrows  or  fish-hooks. 

At  the  death  of  a  chief,  the  people  plunged  unrestrained  into  all  wicked- 
ness. They  threw  off  what  little  clothing  they  wore,  and  stole,  plundered,  and 
glutted   personal   revenge  with   impunity ;    promiscuous   lewdness   prevailed ; 

'  Coverlid. 


20  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

men  knocked  out  each  other's  front  teeth,  as  badges  of  mourning,  and  no  one 
was  safe  from  any  kind  of  wrong  or  violence. 

The  people  were  trained  to  be  expert  thieves.  Robbery  also  was  common ; 
and  murder  for  the  sake  of  robbery.  In  the  island  of  Oahu  lived  a  clan  of 
notorious  cannibals.  The  deformed,  instead  of  receiving  pity,  were  ridiculed 
and  abused.  If  the  chief  took  a  man's  land,  his  neighbors  seized  his  personal 
property ;  if  his  house  burned  down,  his  furniture  was  stolen.  Aged  parents 
were  often  thrown  from  precipices,  or  buried  alive  ;  and  the  sick  were  often  left 
to  die  a  lingering  death  from  neglect,  while  those  who  should  have  cared  for 
them  indulged  in  revelry  out  of  the  sight  of  their  suffering  and  out  of  the 
reach  of  their  cries.  The  treatment  of  their  so-called  doctors  neither  relieved 
suffering  nor  promoted  recovery  ;  and  the  insane  were  often  stoned  to  death. 
The  children  of  prisoners  taken  in  war  were  commonly  put  to  death  before  the 
eyes  of  their  parents,  who  were  then,  after  various  tortures,  pounded  to  death 
with  stones.^ 

When  they  bathed  in  the  sea,  no  clothing  at  all  was  worn.  Women  left  their 
pau  -  at  home,  and  passed  through  the  village  going  and  returning.  Even 
women  of  rank  have  thus  called  on  missionaries,  and  sent  their  servant  to  bring 
the  pau,  and  put  it  on  in  the  missionary's  presence.  In  one  of  the  early  years 
of  the  mission,  a  chief  of  Hawaii  was  reproved  for  his  nakedness  ;  next  time, 
he  walked  into  the  house  with  the  addition  of  a  pair  of  silk  stockings  and  a  hat.''^ 

They  had  no  written  language,  and  counted  up  to  forty,  as  we  do  to  one 
hundred,  and  then  went  back  and  counted  ten  forties  as  we  do  ten  hundreds. 

MICRONESIA  AND  MARQUESAS  ISLANDS. 

Besides  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  American  Board  has  also  occupied 
Micronesia,  comprising  the  Marshall  or  Mulgrave  Islands  and  the  Kingsmill  or 
Gilbert  Islands,  lying  in  the  direction  of  New  Guinea,  two  thousand  miles 
southwest  of  ^Honolulu. 

Ponape,  or  Ascension  Island,  the  largest  of  the  Caroline  Islands,  is  basaltic^ 
sixty  miles  in  circumference,  and  rises  in  terraces  from  the  mangrove-covered 
shore,  to  the  height  of  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  It  has  riv- 
ers and  waterfalls,  and  is  a  paradise,  with  a  delightful  climate,  the  thermometer 
varying  for  three  years  only  seventeen  degrees.  Among  its  productions  are  the 
bread-fruit,  banana,  cocoanut,  taro,  sugar  cane,  ava,  arrowroot,  sassafras,  sago, 
wild  orange,  and  mango,  with  many  timber  trees ;  while  lemons,  oranges,  pine- 
apples, coffee,  tamarinds,  and  other  fruits  thrive  as  exotics.  Twenty  varieties 
of  birds  fill  the  air  with  life,  and  a  population  of  five  thousand  are  hidden  away 
in  its  forests.     They  belong  to  the  Malay  stock. 

Kusaie,  or  Strong's  Island,  is  of  similar  formation,  and  produces  the  same 
growths.  It  is  thirty  miles  in  circumference,  and  rises,  covered  with  woods,  to 
the  height  of  two  thousand  feet.  The  people  belong  to  the  same  race ;  and,  for 
a  wonder,  polygamy  is  here  unknown,  and  labor  counted  honorable. 

Northeast  of  this  lie  the  Marshall   Islands,  divided  into  the   Radack^and 

*  Dibble,  pp.  86-137.  ^  Girdle.  3  Anderson's  Ha-waiian  Ishtniis,  pp.  93  and  297. 

4  Eastern. 


MICRONESIA.  21 

Ralick '  groups,  comprising  in  all  about  thirty  good-sized  coral  islands,  higher 
and  more  fertile  than  the  Gilbert  group  to  the  south.  The  population  is  about 
twelve  thousand,  and  were  so  noted  for  ferocity,  that  foreigners  rarely  venturecF: 
among  them.  Their  forms  are  spare  and  athletic.  The  women  wear  their  hair 
smoothly  parted,  and  sometimes  adorned  with  flowers.  Their  broidered  skirts 
reach  from  the  waist  to  the  feet.     The  men  also  are  very  skillful  and  ingenious. 

The  Gilbert  Islands  form  sixteen  groups  of  a  fair  size,  "with  many  islets,  and 
a  population  of  thirty  thousand.  The  cocoanut  tree  furnishes  the  natives 
almost  everything  they  eat,  drink,  wear,  or  live  in.  Hats,  clothes,  mats,  and 
cords  are  made  from  its  leaves  ;  houses  from  its  wood  ;  they  eat  the  fruit,  drink 
the  milk,  make  molasses  and  arrack  from  its  juice,  besides  immense  quantities 
of  oil.  The  people  practice  polygamy.  Children  go  naked  till  ten  years  old ; 
when  boys  put  on  a  girdle,  and  girls  a  broader  covering.  This  nudity  is  some- 
what relieved  by  profuse  tattooing.  The  language  resembles  Hawaii'an.  All 
these  islands  were  the  homes  of  sloth  and  sensuality,  of  theft  and  violence.  A 
race  of  tawny  savages  lived  almost  naked,  swam  like  fish  in  the  sea,  and 
basked  in  the  sun  on  shore,  depending  for  food  on  their  trees  and  plants,  and 
also  on  their  fish-hooks. 

The  Marquesas  Islands  are  six  in  number,  about  two  thousand  miles  east  of 
south  from  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  nearly  as  far  from  Micronesia.  They  are 
volcanic,  and  rise  to  the  height  of  four  thousand  feet,  with  grand  and  varied 
scenery.  The  climate  is  good ;  and  all  manner  of  tropical  fruits  abound. 
The  populntion,  of  about  eight  thousand,  is  Malayan,  and  the  language  like  the 
Hawaiian.  The  people  were  athletic,  but  lazy,  lawless,  and  ferocious.  Personal 
vengeance  and  tribal  wars  never  ceased.  The,  bodies  of  those  slain  in  battle 
were  distributed  in  morsels  among  the  clan,  and  even  children  loved  the  horrid 
food.  The  men  were  hideously  tattooed  in  the  forms  of  lizards,  snakes,  and 
other  animals,  and  the  women  smeared  with  oil  and  turmeric.  Besides  their 
cannibalism,  their  tabus  compelled  father,  mother,  and  grown-up  daughter, 
each  to  eat  apart :  and  this  was  the  missionary  field  to  which  Providence  called 
the  churches  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

Dr.  L.  H.  Gulick  furnishes  a  map  and  a  detailed  description  of  these 
islands,  and  the  dates  of  their  discovery,  in  the  Missionary  Herald?  The 
** Morning  Star"  has  since  discovered  one  new  island,  and  was  the  first  vessel 
to  enter  the  lagoon  of  another. 

Dr.  George  Pierson,  in  view  of  the  frequent  intercourse  between  the  islands 
—  two  hundred  boats  sometimes  coming  to  Ebon  in  a  day — and  the  fact  that 
one  man  from  that  island  was  once  driven  by  a  storm  more  than  sixteen 
hundred  miles,  has  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  original  settlement  of 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  or  even  of  the  American  continent. 

All  that  the  world  knows  of  Micronesia,  the  productions  of  its  soil,  the 
fishes  of  its  seas,  its  languages,  customs,  and  superstitions,  it  owes  to  our 
missionaries.  True,  ships  had  previously  touched  at  the  islands ;  but,  apart 
from  specimens  gathered  by  missionaries,  vocabularies  formed  by  them,  and 
personal  aid  as  interpreters,  even  government  exploring  expeditions  have  ac- 

'  Western.  -  1857,  pp.  41-48- 


22  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

complished  little.     Scholars  at  home  are  largely  dependent  on  the  materials 
thus  gathered  to  their  hands. 

Eight  educated  natives  of  the  Hawaiian  islands  cooperate  with  our  mission- 
aries in  lifting  the  people  of  Micronesia  up  to  the  plane  of  civilization  and 
intellectual  life.  '  Balbi  and  Ritter,  Drs.  John  Pickering  and  A.  P.  Peabody, 
Prof.  J.  D.  Dana,  and  Commodore  Wilkes  have  all  acknowledged  in  apprecia- 
tive words  the  debt  the  world  owes  to  them.  Had  it  been  foretold  forty  years 
ago  that  a  cultured,  Christian  native  of  the  Samoan  Islands  would  negotiate  a 
treaty  at  Washington  in  1877,  and  that  our  own  Secretary  of  State  would 
ascribe  all  that  distinguishes  him  and  his  people  from  their  former  condition 
to  missionaries,  it  would  have  seemed  an  idle  dream.  So,  a  prediction  forty 
years  ago  of  what  has  been  done  by  our  missionaries  in  the  Pacific,  for  science, 
would  have  provoked  a  sneer.  Even  a  single  person,  Joseph,  a  native  of  the 
Gilbert  Islands,  once  a  naked  savage,  but  now  speaking  both  English  and 
Hawaiian,  besides  his  native  tongue,  and  rendering  valuable  service  to  the 
mission,  both  as  a  linguist  and  proof-reader,  is  in  himself  a  living  example  of 
the  elevating  power  of  Christian  missions. 


11. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONTINUED. 


JAPAN. 

The  empire  of  Japan  consists  of  three  large  islands,  the  largest  containing 
one  hundred  thousand,  another  sixteen  thousand,  and  the  smallest  ten  thousand 
square  miles,  with  many  smaller  islands ;  making,  in  all,  probably  about  one 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  square  miles.  The  population  is  not  far  from 
thirty  millions.  Rev.  Dr.  Blodget  calls  it  a  land  of  hills  and  valleys  and  lofty 
mountains  ;  a  land  of  pure  air,  running  streams,  and  fountains ;  abounding  in 
trees  and  flowers,  and  producing  a  good  supply  of  food  for  man  and  beast. 
The  soil  almost  everywhere  is  well  cultivated.  Ten  million  six  hundred  and 
ninety-five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty  acres  were  cultivated  in  1S78; 
equal  to  one  half  the  improved  lands  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  A  British  minister 
at  Yedo  said  that  "  outside  of  England,  there  is  nothing  so  green,  so  garden- 
like, so  full  of  tranquil  beauty,"  Of  minerals,  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
mercury,  coal,  sulphur,  and  salt  are  found  there.  Japanese  civilization  has  a 
Chinese  root.  Chinese  is  their  learned  language.  Chinese  classics  have  been 
their  school-books,  and  many  Chinese  words  are  in  common  use.  The  ancient 
faith  of  the  land  was  Shintooism  ;  but  this,  too  bare  and  cold  a  system  to  be 
popular,  has  been  supplanted  by  Buddhism  among  the  people.  The  educated 
classes  have  long  been  Confucianists.  The  government  has  recently  tried  to 
revive  Shintooism,  but  not  very  successfully.  There  is  a  historical  sketch  of 
Japan  in  the  Missionary  Herald  for  1864,  pp.  35-38,  and  of  Protestant  mis- 
sions in  that  country,  pp.  65-70.  See,  also,  jf apart  as  a  Mission  Field,  by  Rev, 
I.  R.  Worcester,  D.  D. 

The  people  are  of  middling  size  ;  with  a  swarthy  complexion,  and  black  hair. 
They  are  active,  exceedingly  polite,  and  quicker  of  apprehension  than  other 
Asiatics,  The  poorest  are  taught  to  read  and  write,  and  their  literature  is 
somewhat  extensive.  Many  mechanical  arts  are  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection,  and  commerce  flourishes. 

This  people  were  first  made  known  to  Europe  by  Marco  Polo,  in  1295,  In 
1543,  Pinto,  a  Portuguese  adventurer,  was  driven  to  Japan  by  a  storm,  and  a 
Portuguese  settlement  was  the  result.  Francis  Xavier  and  others  went  there 
in  1549,  were  well  received,  and  baptized  many.  In  1582,  Japanese  Christians 
sent  an  embassy  to  the  Pope,  and  in  1591-92  twelve  thousand  were  baptized; 
but  some  were  put  to   death  before  the  close  of  the  century.     The  Dutch 

(23) 


24  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

reached  Japan  in  1600;  and,  when  the  government  became  hostile  to  the  Por- 
tuguese, sought  to  turn  that  to  their  own  advantage.  The  Papists,  having 
destroyed  some  idols  and  their  temples,  were  persecuted,  and  in  1622  many- 
were  massacred.  In  1629,  they  numbered  one  hundred  thousand  ;  but,  about 
the  year  1637,  having  conspired  with  the  Portuguese  against  the  government, 
they  were  extirpated.  The  castle  of  Simabara,  where  thirty-seven  thousand 
had  taken  refuge,  was  destroyed  with  the  help  of  Dutch  cannon,  and  all  were 
slain.  In  1641,  the  Dutch  were  shut  up  in  the  small  island  of  Desina,  near 
Nagasaki,  and  till  1873  the  edict  against  Christianity  remained  in  force. 

In  1846,  Commodore  Biddle,  of  the  United  States  navy,  failed  in  his 
endeavor  to  open  friendly  negotiations  with  Japan.  In  1849,  the  United 
States  ship  "Preble,"  Capt.  Glynn,  was  allowed  to  carry  away  some  ship- 
wrecked sailors,  but  nothing  more.  March  31,  1854,  Commodore  Perr}%  at 
the  head  of  .nine  ships  of  war,  succeeded  in  making  a  treaty,  having  visited  the 
bay  of  Yedo  the  year  before.  Two  ports  were  opened  to  American  ships  for 
supplies.  In  June,  1857,  Mr.  Harris,  the  United  States  consul-general,  began 
negotiations,  and  July  29,  1858,  a  treaty  was  signed,  allowing  Americans  to 
reside  at  Simoda  and  Hakodadi,  opening  Kanagawa,  Nagasaki,  and  Hakodadi 
to  general  trade,  and  securing  religious  toleration  for  Americans,  with  the  right 
to  build  churches.  In  i860  Hiogo,  or  Kobe,  for  the  place  is  known  by  both 
names,  was  also  opened,  and  an  American  ambassador  received  in  Yedo.  The 
city  of  Kobe  contains  sixty-five  thousand  inhabitants. 

Between  July  and  October  9,  1858,  treaties  were  made  between  Japan  and 
the  Netherlands,  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  France,  on  the  basis  of  Mr.  Har- 
ris' negotiations. 

In  May,  1859,  two  Episcopal  missionaries  arrived  at  Nagasaki,  but  were  so 
hampered  in  their  labors  that,  in  1868,  Bishop  Boone  reported  that  he  had  no 
missionary  in  Japan.  Other  churches  followed ;  among  them  the  English 
Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  missionary  boards  of  the  Presbyterian  and 
(Dutch)  Reformed  churches  in  the  United  States ;  in  November,  1869,  the 
American  Board  began  a  mission,  selecting  Kobe  for  a  station. 

Till  recently,  the  Mikado,  or  Emperor,  while  nominally  reigning,  was  really 
set  aside,  while  the  Siogoon,  or  Tycoon,  administered  the  government,  and  a 
Daimio  ruled  each  of  the  sixty-eight  provinces  of  the  empire.  In  1868  a  revo- 
lution changed  all  this.  The  ofifice  of  Tycoon  was  abolished  —  the  word  itself 
has  become  obsolete  —  and  the  Mikado,  whose  dynasty  dates  back  to  600 
B.  C,  again  exercised  his  prerogatives.  Beginning  to  reign  in  1867,  at  seven- 
teen years  of  age,  at  eighteen  he  wielded  all  the  power  which  his  predecessors 
had  lost  since  1142,  at  which  time  a  general,  successful  in  putting  down  a 
rebellion,  assumed  the  exercise  of  temporal  power,  leaving  the  emperor  only  a 
nominal  supremacy.  Now  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-second  of  a  long  line 
of  kings  resumed  his  ancient  rights ;  and  the  Samurai,  military  retainers  of  the 
Daimios,  fell  back  among  the  people. 

Their  police  system  is  almost  perfect,  including  the  danjodai,  a  secret 
imperial  police,  independent  of  the  local  constabulary,  and  often  acting  with- 
out its  knowledge.     Dr.  Wallace  Taylor  was  allowed  to  go,  in  1875,  to  Okayama, 


JAPAN.  25 

in  Bizen,  a  province  one  hundred  miles  west  of  Kobe,  on  the  inland  sea,  in  a 
beautiful  and  populous  valley.  Rev.  J.  L.  Atkinson  went  in  1876  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  from  Kioto  to  the  island  of  Shikoku.  Rev.  J.  D.  Davis  and  Dr. 
Gulick  made  a  tour  in  the  basin  of  Lake  Biwa.  Dr.  J.  C.  Berry  has  also  had 
large  liberty  of  travel,  on  account  of  his  medical  skill.  Preaching  tours  have 
also  yielded  geographical  information.  Rev.  Jos.  H.  Neesima,  a  native,  not 
being  subject  to  the  same  restrictions  as  foreigners,  learns  much  concerning  all 
parts  of  the  empire.  Dr.  A.  O.  Treat's  letter  in  the  Missionary  Herald  for  April, 
1875,  is  full  of  condensed  information  concerning  the  four  large  islands  of  Ni- 
phon,  Yesso,  Shikoku,  and  Kiusiu,  and  the  smaller  ones,  all  divided  into  eighty- 
four  provinces  and  seven  hundred  and  seventeen  counties.  It  speaks  of  the 
Inland  Sea,  four  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  of  the  general  surface  of  the 
country  ;  describes  many  of  the  hills  as  terraced  to  the  top.  As  rice  is  the  great 
staple,  rice  lands  are  worth  five  times  as  much  as  others.  It  treats  also  of  the 
government  before  and  since  the  revolution,  of  the  people  and  their  industries. 

Thousands  of  English  text-books  are  now  for  sale  in  the  bookstores  of 
Japan,  and  many  of  them  have  been  translated  into  Japanese,  including  works 
on  geography,  arithmetic,  philosophy,  and  the  higher  mathematics.  January 
I,  1873,  beheld  Japan  wheeling  into  line  with  Christendom  in  the  adoption 
of  the  Christian  calendar.  At  the  present  date,  there  are  oije  hundred  and 
six  Protestant  missionaries  there,  with  forty-four  churches,  nine  ordained  native 
preachers,  and  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  members.^  Sixteen  -  of 
these  churches  are  in  connection  with  the  Board,  with  five  hundred  and  four- 
teen members.  Eight  of  them  have  native  pastors,  and  another  ordained 
native  preacher,  Mr.  Neesima,  was  educated  in  the  United  States. 

Newspapers  in  Japan  date  only  from  1870  ;  now  there  are  more  than  a  hun- 
dred, and  the  highest  literary  talent  is  employed  on  them.  Subjects  of  public 
and  international  interest  are  discussed  in  them  with  a  force  and  intelligence 
that  will  bear  comparison  with  the  best  journalism  of  the  times. 

The  ancient  literature  of  Japan  consisted  chiefly  of  history  and  philosophy, 
with  poetry  and  fiction  ;  the  last  was  read  by  all  classes,  and  especially  by  the 
women  ;  but  now  the  strong  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  foreign  countries 
compels  the  creation  of  a  literature  that  goes  to  satisfy  this  craving. 

A  theological  school  for  training  preachers  had,  in  1879,  more  than  one 
hundred  and  twenty-seven  pupils.  A  girls'  school  at  Kobe  had  as  many  as  fifty- 
four  different  pupils  in  1S78  ;  the  Kioto  Home,  cm:  girls'  seminary,  twenty-five, 
and  another  at  Osaka  had  thirty.' 

These  general  statements,  gleaned  from  missionary  communications,  will 
now  be  followed  by  a  resume  of  two  papers  by  S.  Wells  Williams,  LL.D.,  pub- 
lished in  the  Missionary  Herald.  The  first,  on  Lewchew,  appeared  in  1854, 
pp.  178-184,  and  the  other  on  Hakodadi,  in  1855,  pp.  86-88. 

1  Dr.  Clark  at  Syracuse. 

-Report,  1S79-80.  Contributions  were  reported  equivalent  to  an  average  of  $20  in  this  country  for  each  mem- 
ber.    Missionary  Herald,  i?>?,o,  pp.  433-434. 

3 In  1879  the  schools  for  girls,  at  Kobe,  Kioto,  and  Osaka,  had  over  one  hundred  and  twenty  pupils;  and  the 
course  of  study  includes  many  branches  taught  in  our  high  schools. 


26  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


LEWCHEIV. 


Dr.  Williams  went  as  interpreter  to  Commodore  Perry,  in  his  expedition  to  Japan,  in 
1853.  The  squadron  touched  at  Napa,  a  port  in  the  Lewchevv  Islands.  The  natives  call  them 
Doo  Choo,  and  the  Japanese  Riu  Kiu;  and  the  following  statements  show  how  faithfully  he 
improved  his  opportunities,  both  then  and  in  1837,  in  the  ship  "Morrison." 

The  island  of  Lewchevv  is  about  sixty  miles  long,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  in  width,  and 
is  the  principal  one  of  a  group  nearly  equidistant  from  China  and  Japan.  Including  the 
Madjicosimah  group  to  the  southwest,  the  largest  of  which  are  Typing  San,  and  Pa-chung  San, 
the  whole  number  of  islands  is  thirty-six.  On  the  map  some  of  them  have  English  names 
given  them  by  their  foreign  discoverers  —  as  Montgomery,  Sandy,  Crown,  and  Breaker  Islands; 
and  others  have  native  names,  as  Tu  Sima,  Tunachi,  Kukien,  and  Kumi  San. 

The  outline  of  Lewchew  presents  no  prominent  elevation  to  one  approaching  from  the  sea, 
though  it  rises  by  gentle  acclivities  to  the  height  of  one  thousand  feet ;  but,  viewed  close  by, 
the  landscape  is  varied  and  agreeable.  In  the  southern  part  the  prevailing  rock  is  limestone, 
overlying  friable  granite,  which  appears  alone  in  the  northern  division.  Coral  reefs  line  the 
shores,  in  some  places  raised  up,  so  as  to  form  ledges  along  the  beach. 

The  climate  is  one  of  the  most  healthy  and  delightful  in  this  part  of  the  world ;  seldom  cold 
enough  for  fires,  and  with  summer  cooled  by  easterly  and  southwesterly  winds.  Vegetation  is 
more  tropical  than  in  China,  yet  its  grasses  belong  more  to  the  temperate  zone.  Its  produc- 
tions are  less  varied  than  either  those  of  China  or  Japan.  Among  them  are  egg  plants, 
cucumbers,  squashes,  melons,  sweet  potatoes,  rice,  tobacco,  wheat,  maize,  two  kinds  of  millet, 
and  sugar  cane.  Fruits  are  not  abundant,  though  the  banana,  peach,  orange,  lime,  and  guava 
are  known. 

Timber  and  fuel  are  brought  from  the  northern  forests,  where  the  camphor  and  tallow  trees 
are  found.  The  bastard  banyan  is  common.  Its  flexible  branches  are  often  trained  along  the 
tops  of  walls,  contrasting  finely  with  the  stones.  Near  the  towns,  copses  of  pine  —  some 
trees  towering  above  the  rest,  with  a  large  flat  top  — adorn  the  declivities  of  the  hills. 

Most  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  the  fields  give  evidence 
of  great  labor,  in  which  woman  takes  a  large  share.  The  rice  is  transplanted,  as  in  China, 
and  taro  plants  are  scattered  among  it.  Rice-fields  and  patches  of  vegetables,  contrasted  with 
growing  wheat,  diversify  the  landscape,  rendered  still  more  beautiful  by  the  groves  on  the  hill- 
tops, and  plats  of  green  sward. 

The  people  are  not  tall,  but  compactly  built,  and  well  proportioned.  A  boat's  crew  of  a 
dozen  averaged  five  feet  and  an  inch  in  height;  and  the  gentry,  who  are  taller  than  the  rest, 
would  not  exceed  five  feet  four  inches.  The  women  measure  less  than  five  feet.  In  general, 
the  people  are  healthy,  though  their  faces  bear  the  impress  of  unceasing  toil.  This  sad  aspect 
strikes  a  visitor  as  soon  as  he  lands.  The  wrinkled,  grimy,  and  care-worn  features  of  the 
women  seen  on  the  streets  indicate  their  low  position  in  society.  They  do  most  of  the  market- 
ing, and  five  or  six  hundred  may  be  seen  at  once,  each  attending  to  her  basket  or  stall,  in  the 
market  of  Napa.  Ladies  seldom  go  afoot,  and  when  abroad  wear  a  cloak  over  their  dress, 
fastened  only  at  the  neck.  The  color  of  the  people  is  a  reddish  olive  tint,  darker  in  general 
than  the  Chinese,  but  not  with  such  oblique  eyes  or  high  cheek  bones;  indicating  a  different 
and  southern  origin.  Among  the  aged  were  some  who  would  not  be  distinguished  from 
Malays.  The  population  of  the  island  is  said  to  be  more  than  one  hundred  thousand; 
nearly  one  half  of  it  in  Napa  and  Shui. 

Napa,  or  Nafa,  is  the  seaport,  stretching  a  mile  into  the  interior,  with  most  of  the  houses  in 
sight  from  the  harbor.  Shui,  or  Shudi,  is  the  capital,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  about  three 
miles  from  Napa,  and  connected  by  a  broad,  paved  road,  in  places  raised  above  the  marsh 
with  great  labor.  It  is  well  built,  and  a  stream,  collected  here  and  there  into  tanks  as  it 
descends  the  hill,  and  crossed  now  and  then  by  massive  stone  bridges,  adds  greatly  to  its 
beauty.  The  palace  is  a  collection  of  large  buildings,  enclosed  by  a  solid  stone  wall,  so  situated 
as  to  serve  for  a  fortress  in  case  of  need.  The  structures  themselves  are  poor;  but  the  stone 
steps,  ornamented  triple  gate-ways,  and  paved  courts,  with  detached  trees  and  arbors,  display 
some  skill.     The  three  largest  buildings  face  one  court,  but  are  now  sadly  neglected.     The 


LEWCHEW.  27 

roofs  are  of  tiles  laid  in  ridges,  and  adorned  with  finials.  The  houses  of  Shui  are  scattered 
among  trees  and  rocky  ledges  in  a  very  picturesque  way.  The  streets  of  both  cities  are  partly 
macadamized,  with  open  gutters  at  the  sides ;  some  of  them  wide  enough  for  carriages,  though 
none  of  these  are  used.  The  common  roads  seem  as  rough  as  if  they  had  never  known 
repairs.  The  markets  are  held  in  the  squares  and  street  corners,  and  furnish  only  the  com- 
monest necessaries  of  life. 

Though  the  villages  are  often  prettily  situated,  all  bear  witness  to  the  poverty  and  oppres- 
sion of  the  people.  Widumai  is  so  hidden  in  a  grove  as  to  be  nearly  invisible.  The  streets 
are  lined  with  bamboo  hedges  that  meet  and  form  an  arch  overhead.  The  houses  are  also 
enclosed  with  them,  so  that  each  seems  sheltered  in  a  bamboo  grove.  In  some  villages  these 
hedges  are  clipped  down  to  the  same  size  as  the  stone  walls,  with  which  they  alternate  very 
pleasantly.  Most  of  the  houses  are  thatched  huts,  and  their  whole  aspect  betokens  poverty 
and  untidiness.  Some  are  not  so  good  as  sheep-cotes  in  Europe,  and  many  not  over  ten  feet 
square,  having  their  sides  thatched  with  straw,  often  without  fire-place  or  window,  or  even  any- 
thing to  close  the  doorway. 

The  arrangement  of  their  houses  is  very  simple,  and  fitted  only  for  a  warm  climate.  Each 
man  studies  to  prevent  others  from  looking  into  his  premises,  either  by  a  dead  wall  in  front  of 
the  gate,  or  by  placing  the  gate  at  right  angles  with  the  street.  The  roof  rests  on  a  double 
row  of  posts,  about  four  feet  apart,  the  space  between  the  rows  forming  a  sheltered  porch. 
The  beams  connecting  the  posts  have  grooves,  in  which  panels  slide,  like  the  doors  of  some  of 
our  barns,  and  form  the  sides  of  the  house ;  and  others  in  like  manner,  crossing  the  house, 
divide  it  into  rooms.  The  floor  is  two  feet  above  the  ground,  and  usually  covered  with  thick 
mats,  on  which  felt  carpets  are  sometimes  spread.  In  cold,  rainy  weather  —  frost  is  unknown 
—  sashes  covered  with  oiled  paper  imperfectly  supply  the  place  of  glass,  and  braziers  of  char- 
coal furnish  warmth.  The  whole  structure,  porch  and  all,  can  be  thrown  into  one  room.  No 
chairs  or  tables  are  seen.  They  sit  and  sleep  on  the  mats ;  low  stands  are  used  for  writing 
desks,  and  a  raised  divan,  in  a  few  houses,  furnishes  a  place  for  articles  of  value.  Mats  and 
carpets  are  alive  with  fleas,  and  mosquitoes  are  not  wanting.  The  panels  in  the  better  houses 
are  frequently  ornamented  with  scrolls  and  pictures.  The  walls  about  their  houses  are  often 
built  of  unhewn  stone,  fitted  together  in  Cyclopean  style,  and  the  surface  picked  smooth  with  a 
hammer.  Some  of  these  are  two  centuries  old.  There  are  no  walls  of  squared  stone.  To 
us  a  Lewchew  house  seems  naked  and  cheerless,  but  its  inmates,  who  know  nothing  better,  are 
content. 

Their  dress  is  a  loose  robe,  lapping  over  in  front,  and  secured  by  a  girdle.  Its  capacious 
bosom  is  usually  well  filled  with  books  or  other  things.  Their  grass  sandals  are  held  by  a 
strap  passing  round  the  great  toe.  On  occasions  of  ceremony  a  sock  is  worn,  with  a  thumb- 
like appendage  to  accommodate  the  strap.  Rich  people  vary  the  number  of  their  robes  with 
the  weather.  The  poor  have  only  one,  and  thousands  of  laborers  only  a  waistcloth.  The 
women  are  always  modestly  dressed.  The  men  secure  their  hair  with  two  large  metal  pins. 
It  is  done  up  in  a  coil  on  top  of  the  head,  surmounted  by  a  bow,  through  which  a  large  pin  is 
passed.  Much  time  is  spent  in  arranging  and  oiling  it.  One  pin  with  an  ornamental  head 
shaped  like  a  flower  is  always  in  front.  Women  wear  their  hair  in  a  knot  on  the  side  of  the 
head.  The  ends  soon  become  disheveled  and  do  not  look  neat.  Married  women  tattoo  the 
back  of  their  hands  blue  to  the  fingers'  ends —  a  custom  said  to  have  originated  with  a  faithful 
wife,  who,  when  tried,  thus  destroyed  her  beauty  to  preserve  her  honor.  Neither  sex  cover 
the  head,  but  official  rank  is  denoted  by  an  oblong  flat-topped  silk  cap,  of  different  color,  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  of  the  wearer.  In  cold  weather  an  overcoat  of  thick  cotton  is  worn  by  the 
gentry. 

Animal  food  in  Lewchew  is  chiefly  fish,  pork,  and  poultry.  Goat's  flesh  is  used,  but  beef 
rarely.  Sheep  are  said  to  be  unknown.  Cattle  are  small,  and  are  used  for  ploughing.  Horses 
are  small,  but  terribly  underfed  and  overworked.  The  bare  ribs  of  their  saddles  are  not  invit- 
ing to  strangers.  No  buffaloes  are  seen,  and  scarcely  a  dog  or  cat.  Small,  uncomfortable 
sedans  are  used  for  carriages. 

Their  boats  are  either  open  scows,  paddled  by  men  seated  on  the  gunwale,  or  canoes  that 
can  scarcely  hold  two  men,  and  without  outriggers.  Their  junks  copy  Chinese  models,  though 
much  better  ones  from  Japan  are  always  in  their  harbors. 


28  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Their  workshops  are  open  to  the  street,  so  that  all  done  inside  can  be  seen.  Their  tools 
and  manipulations  resemble  those  of  China.  Some  carpenters  and  blacksmiths  were  noticed, 
and  two  or  three  silversmiths  making  hair-pins.  Women  use  rude  looms  and  bamboo  spin- 
ning wheels.  Cotton  is  bleached,  and  woven  in  checked  patterns  with  dyed  thread.  Some- 
times, however,  the  cloth  is  stamped  with  a  small  block  of  wood  and  a  hammer.  No  statistics 
of  commerce  were  attainable. 

Their  language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Japanese,  yet  so  different  that  the  two  nations  cannot  con- 
verse together.  Chinese  literature  is  much  prized.  The  writings  of  Confucius  and  Mencius 
are  studied,  the  people  learning  the  Chinese  characters  through  the  Japanese,  with  their  own 
pronunciation  —  a  most  circuitous  road  to  knowledge.  .Scholars  speak  Chinese  with  the 
J 'eking  pronunciation.  The  masses  are  untaught,  and  no  books  are  seen  for  sale,  or  placards, 
or  advertisements  on  the  walls,  as  in  China.  The  people  clip  their  words  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  get  the  true  pronunciation. 

Temples  are  numerous,  in  which  ancestral  worship  is  performed  and  both  Buddha  and 
Confucius  adored.  They  are  among  the  best  buildings,  affording  lodgings  for  travelers  and 
dwellings  for  priests.  Most  of  them  are  protected  by  gigantic  stone  idols  on  each  side  of  the 
entrance.  Though  the  priests  have  little  political  influence,  they  receive  a  good  support.  The 
people  worship  stones  to  propitiate  the  gods  of  grain,  and  the  bastard  banyan  to  obtain  long 
life.  These  trees,  carefully  guarded  by  stone  walls,  suggest  to  the  Bible  student  the  groves  of 
the  Canaanites. 

The  tombs  seem  more  costly  than  the  houses.  Some  of  them  are  excavated  in  rocks  and 
hills,  and  some  built  of  stones.  They  are  shaped  like  a  horse-shoe,  and  are  kept  very  neat, 
but  contain  no  inscriptions.  A  stone  is  removed  from  the  back  of  those  standing  apart,  and 
through  the  opening  thus  made  the  body  is  put  in,  and  then  the  stone  carefully  replaced. 
Many  of  them  seem  to  have  been  empty  for  ages.  They  occur  everywhere,  but  chiefly  in 
places  where  they  think  the  spirits  can  have  a  good  view  of  the  water.  Even  over  the  bodies 
of  foreigners  the  government  has  erected  tombs,  without  waiting  for  orders  or  remuneration. 
In  funerals,  the  mourners  are  attended  by  friends  of  both  sexes,  clad  in  dirty  white  cloth ;  boys 
with  banners  lead  the  procession,  followed  by  men  two  and  two.  The  mourners  follow,  wail- 
ing aloud,  and  needing  to  be  supported  by  domestics,  in  the  abandon  of  their  grief.  The  coffin 
is  carried  by  four  men,  in  a  red  lacquered  bier,  others  holding  banners  aloft  on  either  side. 
The  children  in  front,  and  the  women  behind,  join  the  men  in  wailing,  which  is  audible  at  a 
great  distance.  The  disheveled  appearance  of  the  women  adds  to  the  gloom  of  the  cortege. 
No  priests  are  in  the  procession,  but  the  number  of  friends  is  a  pleasant  feature  where  so 
much  is  depressing. 

The  government  is  a  hereditary  monarchy.  The  jaolitical  institutions  are  based  on  the 
writings  of  Confucius.  The  islands  have  been  under  the  control  of  Satsuma  for  more  than  two 
centuries.  Old  usages  are  maintained.  The  present  sovereign  '  is  only  thirteen  years  of  age, 
and  the  administration  is  nominally  in  the  hands  of  a  general  superintendent,  or  regent,  assisted 
by  three  treasurers,  one  for  each  prefecture  of  the  island.  Local  magistrates,  assisted  by  many 
police,  are  found  in  every  place.  At  present  the  queen  dowager  has  some  voice  in  state 
affairs,  but  in  fact,  the  agents  of  the  ruler  of  Satsuma  have  supreme  control,  and  though  they 
keep  out  of  sight,  yet  all  classes  live  in  constant  fear  of  them.  Strangers  cannot  understand 
this.  Neither  soldiers  nor  arms  are  to  be  seen,  yet  the  whole  people  seem  cowed  and  terror- 
stricken.  The  explanation  is  a  wide-spread  system  of  espionage,  that  makes  every  man  a  spy 
on  every  other,  and  compels  all  to  live  in  constant  fear.  They  fear  to  be  seen  with  foreigners 
or  to  receive  anything  from  them.  When  they  bring  a  stranger  to  his  ship,  from  the  shore, 
they  refuse  remuneration;  and  if  the  money  is  thrown  into  their  boat,  they  bring  it  back,  for 
every  man  fears  to  be  betrayed  by  the  rest. 

Situated  between  the  powerful  cm])ires  of  C:hina  and  Japan,  the  Lewchewans  have  sought  to 
keep  themselves  secluded  from  both,  and  have  shown  kindness  to  all,  as  the  only  means  of  safety. 
In  1609,  the  Prince  of  Satsuma  took  their  king  to  his  capital,  Kagosima,  and  compelled  them 
to  pay  him  tribute.  No  other  Japanese  are  allowed  to  trade  with  them,  nor  can  they  go  any- 
where  else  in  Japan.     An  annual    tribute   is   sent   to    Fuhchau,  and  the  vessel   brings  back 

>  x8s3. 


LEWCHEW HAKODADI, 


29 


Chinese  books  and  merchandise.  The  gentry  send  their  sons  to  learn  Chinese  literature,  and 
speak  of  that  empire  with  respect,  but  seldom  refer  to  Japan,  professing  ignorance  of  Tuchara, 
as  they  call  it ;  they  never  admit  that  they  are  under  its  control. 

The  position  of  the  islands  was  not  learned  till  the  present  century.  The  agreeable 
accounts  of  Capt.  Basil  Hall '  have  been  somewhat  modified,  for  he  never  even  suspected  the 
espionage  that  was  the  real  cause  of  much  that  he  took  for  kindness.  The  same  system  of  free 
supplies  has  been  continued  since,  but  the  reason  for  it  has  only  recently  come  to  light,  in  the 
fear  with  which  the  people  were  inspired  by  those  in  authority,  so  as  to  maintain  the  non-inter- 
course in  which  they  felt  lay  their  only  safety. 

In  Lewchew  we  see  the  effects  of  a  well-organized  government,  supported  by  a  system  of 
law  and  education,  in  preserving  nationality,  securing  the  respect  of  other  nations,  and  a  fair 
degree  of  comfort  at  home.  Less  energetic  than  Africans  or  New  Zealanders,  none  of  their 
institutions  rest  on  brute  force.'  Confucius,  not  the  war  club,  is  the  standard  of  right.  Instead 
of  tabu,  cannibalism,  and  atrocity,  are  schools  and  regular  officers  of  government.  The 
benefits  of  a  written  language  are  also  conspicuous,  and  show  its  value  for  the  perpetuation  of 
national  existence.  We  must  respect  such  a  people,  and  a  more  full  examination  of  their  his- 
tory and  policy  will  be  of  interest  to  the  ethnologist.  For  their  mildness  and  kindness  they 
deserve  our  esteem,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  Europe  and  America  will  Christianize  the 
nationality  that  China  and  Japan  have  so  long  treated  with  respect.^ 


HAKODADI. 

Situation  of  Hakodadi.  The  town  of  Hakodadi  lies  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island  of 
Yesso,  in  latitude  41°  49'  22"  north,  and  longitude  140°  47'  45"  east,  on  the  western  shores  of 
a  small  peninsula,  which  forms  one  side  of  the  secure  harbor  before  the  town,  and  in  full  view 
of  the  Straits  of  Sangar.  It  belongs  to  the  imperial  fief  of  Matsmai,  and  is  situated  near  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  country  of  the  Ainos,  or  aborigines  of  Yesso.  There  are  few  or  none 
of  these  people  now  within  this  principality,  and  none  are  to  be  seen  in  the  town.  Hakodadi 
is  a  place  of  considerable  native  commerce,  a  large  part  of  the  supplies  for  the  Ainos  and  the 
Japanese  being  stored  here,  as  well  as  great  quantities  of  produce  brought  in  to  exchange  for 
these  importations  from  the  south.  It  lies  about  thirty  miles  eastward  from  Matsmai,  the  chief 
town  in  the  principality,  and  is  the  second  in  importance  on  the  island;  the  two  are  connected 
by  a  well-made  road,  running  along  near  the  coast,  and  both  carry  on  a  large  trade  with  several 
small  towns  on  the  south  side  of  the  Straits  of  Sangar  (more  properly  Tsugaru),  and  other  ports 
farther  south  in  Nippon. 

The  word  "  Hakodadi "  means  "  box  shop,"  applied  to  the  town  because  it  is  little  else  than 
a  warehouse  for  the  goods  imported  from  Nippon  and  elsewhere ;  the  spelling  "  Chakodade," 
used  in  Golownin's  Recollections,  is  incorrect.  The  town  contains  about  eight  thousand  inhabit- 
ants, living  in  about  a  thousand  houses,  mostly  stretched  along  for  three  miles  in  one  main 
thoroughfare  near  the  sea-side  ;  the  remainder  form  two  or  three  parallel  streets  further  up  the 
hill.  The  shape  of  the  peninsula  bears  a  slight  resemblance  to  that  of  Macao;  but  the  whole 
town  being  seen  at  once,  added  to  the  greater  height  of  the  hills  behind  it,  renders  the  view 
much  more  imposing  from  the  sea.  The  highest  peak,  just  behind  the  town,  is  about  one 
thousand  feet ;  the  other  three  are  upwards  of  six  hundred  ;  all  of  them,  bare  upon  the  summits, 
have  their  slopes  covered  with  a  low  growth  of  shrubs  and  a  few  patches  of  pine  trees.  The 
groves  of  pines,  maples,  and  fruit  trees  behind  the  town  add  much  to  its  picturesque  appear- 
ance, and,  with  its  large  buildings,  give  the  impression  of  a  place  of  wealth  and  taste. 

The  buildings  are  of  one  story,  with  an  attic,  occasionally  making  a  commodious  upper 
chamber,  but  usually  only  a  dark  cock-loft,  where  goods  are  stored  or  servants  lodged.  The 
height  of  the  roof  is  seldom  over  twenty-five  feet  from  the  ground;  the  gently  sloping  sides  are 
covered  with  pine  shingles,  not  much  larger  than  one's  hand,  which  are  kept  in  place  by  bam- 
boo nails  and  long  slips  of  board,  and  over  these  are  laid  rows  of  cobble-stones,  sometimes  so 
thickly  as  to  cover  the  entire  surface.     One  object  in  using  these  stones  is  to  hasten  the  melt- 

I1S.7. 

2  A  few  sentences  have  been  added  from  a  journal  of  Dr.  P.  Parker,  Missionary  Herald,  1838,  p.  204. 


30  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

ing  of  the  snow  from  the  roofs.  This  heavy  covering  is  supported  by  a  framework  of  joists 
and  tie-beams.  The  singular  appearance  which  this  gives  the  houses  is  increased  by  the  tub 
of  water  placed  on  the  gable,  which,  rising  above  the  porch,  fronts  the  street  in  Dutch  style. 
The  tub  contains  a  broom  or  two  with  which  to  wet  the  house  in  case  of  fire.  In  the  street, 
the  many  rows  of  buckets  and  tubs  filled  with  water,  with  a  small  fire-engine  and  hose  here 
and  there,  show  the  dread  of  fires,  and  the  precautions  taken  against  them.  Fire-alarms  are 
made  of  a  thick  piece  of  plank  hung  under  a  little  roof,  to  be  struck  by  watchmen  in  case  of 
fire ;  while  the  charred  timbers  still  lying  about  where  a  hundred  houses  had  stood  only  a  few 
months  ago,  prove  the  need  of  all  these  precautions. 

A  few  of  the  better  houses  and  the  temples  are  neatly  roofed  with  brown  wedge-shaped 
tiles,  laid  in  gutters  like  the  Chinese ;  while  the  poor  are  content  to  shelter  themselves  in 
thatched  hovels.  The  thatch,  in  many  cases,  is  covered  with  a  crop  of  grass,  growing  from 
seeds  planted  by  birds,  and  presenting  sad  evidence  of  the  poverty  or  unthriftiness  of  the 
inmates.  The  abundance  of  crows  flying  about  the  town  reminds  one  of  Bombay  and  other 
places  in  Southern  India.  Other  birds,  both  land  and  sea  fowl,  were  seen  in  great  variety,  but 
not  in  large  numbers,  except  gulls  and  sparrows. 

The  raised  floor  is  covered  with  stuffed  mats,  and  can  be  partitioned  off  into  two  or  more 
rooms,  by  sliding  panels  and  folding  screens.  In  the  center  is  a  brick  fire-place,  about  three 
feet  square,  tiled  around  the  edge  and  filled  with  ashes ;  the  charcoal  and  wood  are  commonly 
brought  in  thoroughly  ignited,  and  then  burned  on  a  brazier  or  handiron  in  the  center.  There 
is  not  much  smoke  when  it  is  burned  in  this  way ;  but  in  the  cottages  the  annoyance  from 
smoke  is  almost  intolerable.  In  a  few  houses,  a  hole  in  the  roof  or  side  allows  the  escape  of 
some  of  it ;  and  then  cooking  is  carried  on  in  the  same  place.  It  may  easily  be  imagined  what 
gloomy  abodes  these  are  in  rainy,  wintry  weather,  with  no  glass  windows  to  admit  light,  or  chim- 
neys to  carry  off  the  smoke,  and  the  wind  whistling  through  every  crevice  upon  the  shivering  in- 
mates. The  poor  spend  much  of  their  time  in  winter  cuddling  around  the  fire-place,  while  the 
rich  load  themselves  with  clothes  to  protect  their  bodies  from  the  cold.  In  the  largest  estab- 
lishments, there  are  small  open  courts  between  the  rooms,  sheltered  from  the  wind,  by  which  a 
dim  light  can  be  admitted  through  the  windov/s ;  but  the  best  houses  in  this  town  are  cheerless 
abodes  compared  with  even  the  glazed  cottage  of  an  English  peasant;  and  one  is  surprised  to 
see,  among  a  people  who  have  carried  many  arts  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  so  little 
progress  in  the  art  of  living  comfortably.  Connected  with  most  of  the  dwelling-houses  is  a 
yard,  and  in  many  of  them  is  a  kitchen  or  stable,  also  used  for  storing  wood  ;  the  yard  is  some- 
times used  for  rearing  vegetables  or  cultivating  a  few  flowers  ;  sometimes  a  kitchen  garden, 
with  fruit  and  shade  trees,  indicates  the  greater  taste  as  well  as  wealth  of  the  occupant.  In 
the  house  of  the  officers,  there  was  an  arbor  or  fancy  rock-work  garden  at  the  entrance, 
which  showed  invitingly  from  the  street,  and  did  credit  to  the  tenant. 

Shops.  The  shops  along  the  main  street  are  often  connected  with  the  family  residence  in 
the  rear,  but  quite  as  frequently  with  a  mechanic's  room.  The  goods  in  shops  are  packed  in 
boxes  or  drawers  as  much  as  possible,  only  the  coarsest  pottery,  grains,  sandals,  and  common 
articles  being  exposed.  The  ceiling  is  about  seven  feet  high,  and  the  beams  are  hung  with 
these  articles.  Besides  the  shops  are  numerous  warehouses,  built  higher  and  with  more  care, 
and  made  as  nearly  fire-proof  as  possible.  Their  walls  are  two  feet  thick,  faced  with  stone, 
and  made  of  mud  or  rubble-stone,  securely  tiled  on  tojD,  and  entered  by  two  or  three  large  doors. 
Some  of  them  have  a  loft ;  the  window-shutters  arc  of  plank  covered  with  iron.  Some  of  the 
houses  are  entirely  covered  with  fine  plaster  on  the  outside ;  and  their  substantial  appearance 
stands  in  strong  contrast  to  the  unpainted,  pine-board  dwellings  near  them. 

The  shops  in  Hakodadi  arc  stored  with  goods  such  as  a  poor  people  require.  Coarse, 
thick  cottons,  common  earthen  and  china  ware,  lacquered  bowls,  cups,  and  stands,  durable  silks, 
cutlery,  and  ready-made  clothes  constitute  the  greatest  portion  of  the  stocks.  Furs,  leather, 
felted  cloths,  glass-ware,  or  copper  articles  are  rarely  seen ;  nor  are  books  and  stationery  very 
common.  The  provision  stores  contained  rice,  wheat,  barley,  pulse,  dried  and  fresh  fish,  sea- 
weed, salt,  sugar,  saki,  soy,  charcoal,  sweet  potatoes,  and  flour,  with  other  less  necessary 
articles,  and  to  all  appearance  in  ample  quantities.     There  is  no  public  market,  as  neither 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO   GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  3 1 

beef,  pork,  nor  mutton  is  eaten,  and  not  many  fowls,  geese  or  ducks ;  vegetables  are  occa- 
sionally hawked  about.  The  artisans  are  chiefly  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  barbers,  shipwrights, 
lacquered  ware  makers,  potters,  and  stone-cutters.  The  signs  of  the  shops  are  written  on  the 
paper  windows  or  doors  in  various  devices  and  cyphers;  some  in  Chinese  characters,  and 
others  in  Japanese,  or  a  combination  of  the  two. 

Streets.  The  streets  are  about  thirty  feet  wide ;  and  wooden  fences  cross  them  at  intervals 
with  gateways.  No  wheeled  carriages  are  seen,  and  they  are  kept  commendably  clean, 
sprinkled  and  swept  frequently.  The  yards  are  surrounded  with  board  fences,  built  close  and 
high  to  conceal  the  interior  ;  hedges  and  stone  walls  are  occasionally  substituted.  The  streets 
present  a  remarkable  contrast  to  those  in  China,  indicating  less  energy  and  traffic.  No 
vociferous  coolies  or  stalwart  chair-bearers  here  thrust  the  idler  aside;  no  clamorous  dealers 
claim  preference  for  their  wares  and  viands ;  no  industrious  craftsmen  work  their  trade  along 
the  side  of  the  way;  but  quiet  reigns  in  the  streets,  broken  now  and  then  by  a  stout  horse-boy 
hallooing  to  his  unruly  beasts,  an  official  attendant  bidding  the  people  prostrate  themselves  to 
the  great  man  coming,  or  the  clang  of  a  busy  forgeman  in  a  neighboring  shop.  Yet  the  gen- 
eral impression  is  made  that  Hakodadi  is  a  town  of  considerable  wealth  and  trade ;  and  the 
droves  of  pack-horses  passing  through  the  streets,  the  hundred  junks  at  anchor  off  the  town, 
their  boats  and  fishing  smacks  passing  from  ship  to  shore  and  about  the  harbor,  the  tidy 
streets,  and  gentlemen  with  two  swords  riding  through  them  on  horseback,  all  strengthen  this 
impression. 

Environs.  The  environs  of  Hakodadi  present  little  to  attract.  Beyond  the  town,  eastward, 
are  two  forts,  dug  out  of  the  ground,  to  guard  the  entrance  to  the  harbor.  Stakes  are  driven 
along  the  cuttings  to  retain  the  earth,  and  two  wooden  buildings,  apparently  connected  with 
magazines  underground,  stand  in  the  excavated  area,  which  is  paved  with  stones.  Embrasures 
for  only  two  guns  are  opened  seaward,  and  these  are  each  nearly  four  feet  wide.  There  is  a 
building  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  main  street  on  the  beach,  which  seems  intended  for  a  fort; 
but  it  may  be  a  parade-ground. 

Clhnaie.  The  climate  of  Hakodadi  is  probably  not  subject  to  the  same  extremes  as  the 
coast  of  Manchuria,  in  the  same  latitude ;  though  the  snow,  lingering  on  the  western  hills  on 
the  first  of  June,  showed  that  it  is  colder  than  New  Bedford  or  Boston,  about  as  far  north,  and 
with  a  similar  exposure.  At  this  date  peach  an^l  apple  trees  were  in  full  bloom,  the  wake-robin, 
sassafras,  maple,  willow,  and  snow-ball  in  blossom,  and  some  of  the  trees  around  the  town  not 
yet  fully  leaved  out. 

Food.  The  animal  food  of  the  inhabitants  chiefly  consists  of  fish,  clams,  crabs,  shell-fish,  and 
other  -marine  productions.  Salmon  are  caught  in  the  harbor  in  June,  of  a  delicious  flavor,  be- 
sides herring,  perch,  plaice,  shad,  and  eels.  Poultry,  eggs,  and  ducks,  and  perhaps  a  little 
rabbit  or  venison,  afford  additional  variety ;  dogs,  cats,  and  crows  are  numerous,  but  none  of 
them  are  eaten.  The  dog  is  like  the  common  Chinese  variety,  and  iLs  very  common.  The 
horses  are  small-limbed,  and  some  of  those  belonging  to  the  officers  resembled  barbs;  but 
most  of  the  pack-horses  appeared  half-fed  and  overworked.  The  price  of  the  latter  is  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  dollars,  while  a  fine  riding  horse  was  rated  over  two  hundred  dollars. 
No  wagons  or  carts  were  seen ;  and  all  the  internal  freight  is  carried  on  horses,  of  which  nearly 
a  thousand  were  seen  in  the  streets  on  one  occasion. 

Wheat,  rice,  pulse  of  various  kinds,  greens,  and  barley,  with  a  great  assortment  of  sea- 
weed, principally  a  species  of  Lammaria,  form  the  staples  of  vegetable  diet.  No  fruits  or  fresh 
vegetables  were  in  season  when  the  American  squadron  was  in  port.  Fully  one  half  of  the 
food  of  the  people  comes  from  the  sea,  and  the  rank  odor  of  drying  fish, and  sea-weed  meets  one 
on  the  shore.  The  hamlet  of  Shirasawabi,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  was  insuffer- 
able from  stinking  fish;  and  its  inhabitants  presented  a  squalid  appearance,  which  may 
probably  be  taken  as  the  average  condition  of  the  people  of  Yesso,  rather  than  that  of  the  well- 
fed  and'clean  townsfolk  in  Hakodadi.  It  should  also  be  mentioned,  that  not  a  beggar  was 
seen  amon;;  them. 


32  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Trade.  The  people  are  stout,  Ihick-set,  more  sturdy  than  those  of  Simoda,  and  not  va 
fawning  or  immoral.  Their  average  height  is  about  five  feet  three  inches;  heavy  beards  are 
common,  but  none  are  worn  uncut.  They  are  mostly  engaged  in  trade  and  shipping,  depend- 
ing on  their  importations  for  their  breadstuffs.  Junks  come  from  the  south  side  of  the  Straits 
of  Sangar,  from  Sado  Island,  lying  south  of  Matsmai,  Yedo,  Yechigo,  Noto,  Nagasaki,  towards 
the  western  end  of  Niphon,  and  even  Osaka  and  Owari  on  the  south.  The  harbor  con- 
tained more  than  a  hundred  junks,  though  it  was  the  dull  season,  as  the  south  wind  had 
not  yet  begun  to  bring  up  vessels ;  and  the  authorities  regretted  they  could  not  supply  our 
wants.  They  declined  to  sell  any  rice  or  wheat  or  flour,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
arrival  of  fresh  stocks.  Rice,  sugar,  spirits,  cotton  cloth,  silk,  iron,  porcelain,  and  hewn  stone 
are  imported,  for  which  they  exchange  dried  and  salted  fish,  sea-weed,  charcoal,  wheat,  barley, 
deer's  horns,  timber,  and  other  produce  of  Yesso.  There  is  not  much  likelihood  of  the  port 
soon  becoming  a  place  of  much  trade  with  American  ships,  but  it  can  easily  furnish  supplies 
of  wood,  water,  fish,  especially  fresh  or  dried  salmon  and  perch,  sugar,  boards,  eggs,  poultry, 
and  other  articles,  the  variety  of  which  will  doubtless  increase  with  the  demand.  As  a  place 
for  a  retreat  from  the  heats  of  Shanghai  and  Canton,  Hakodadi  may  by-and-by  attract  visitors, 
who  will  by  that  time  doubtless  be  allowed  to  investigate  the  resources  and  topography  of  the 
whole  island. 

CHINA    AND    VICINITY. 

In  regard  to  the  geography  of  China,  it  is  hardly  needful  to  do  more  than  to 
refer  the  reader  to  the  full  and  accurate  pages  of  Dr.  S.  W.  Williams.  On  this 
and  every  other  topic  relating  to  China,  his  Middle  Kingdom  is  an  unfailing  in- 
structor and  most  reliable  authority.  Dr.  H.  Blodget  calls  it  the  ripe  fruit  of 
his  life-long  studies,  and  a  treasury  of  knowledge  concerning  Chinese  affairs, 
which  no  student  of  the  language  can  afford  to  be  without.  It  is  used  as  a 
text-book  by  the  students  of  the  British  Legation  in  China.  Though  originally 
published  in  1847,  nothing  has  since  appeared  that  supersedes  it.  It  remains 
the  most  copious  and  trustworthy  source  of  information  on  all  that  pertains  to 
China.^  Volume  I  (pp.  1-42)  describes  the  general  outlines  of  the  empire  ; 
(pp_  43-120)  the  eastern  provinces,  their  climate,  coasts,  chief  cities,  rivers,  and 
islands  ;  (pp.  1 21-150)  the  western  provinces  and  their  capitals.  Then  follows 
(pp.  151-205)  a  like  account  of  Manchuria.  Mongolia,  Kokonor,  Hi  and 
Khoten,  Tibet  and  Ladak  ;  (pp.  206-239)  with  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  the 
population  2  and  statistics  of  tiie  empire.  The  laws  and  plan  of  government 
(pp.  296-420),  with  its  practical  administration,  are  all  set  forth  with  a  fullness 
of  detail  that  leaves  the  scholar  nothing  to  desire,  save  to  master  a  work  that 
gives  him  the  key  to  everything  Chinese. 

There  is  an  outline  map  of  China  in  the  Missionary  Herald  for  1869, 
accompanied  by  valuable  notes  on  a  variety  of  subjects  (pp.  1-5). 

Rev.  Daniel  Vrooman  prepared  a  map  of  Canton  and  its  suburbs,  by  which 
the  British  fleet  was  guided  in  its  bombardment  of  the  city  in  1856.  It  was 
subsequently  printed  in  i860. 

The  Chinese  Repository  has  many  valuable  articles  on  the  geography  of  that 
-country,  as,  e.  g.,  the  valuable  comments  of  Mr.  J.  R.  Morrison  on  a  native  map 
of  tlie  empire  (Vol.  I,  pp.  33-42,  113-121,  and  170-179)  i  Gutzlaff's  voyages 
forming  the  staple  of  Vols.  I  and  II.     There  is  a  description  of  Canton,  with  a 

1  Report  has  it  that  the  author  is  preparing  a  new  edition ;  if  so,  he  who  has  it  will  need  little  else  on  China. 
2  See  also  Missionary  Herald,  i87<),  PP-  5o-5'- 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE. 


3S 


map  (Vol.  II,  pp.  145-160,  192-211,  241-264,  and  289-308)  :  a  review  of  the 
article  "  Canton  "  in  the  Ejicydopcedia  Americana  (Vol.  I,  pp.  161-169)  ;  an 
excellent  critique  on  two  Swedish  voyages  to  China  in  1750  and  175 1,  by- 
Peter  Osbeck  and  Olaf  Toreen,  and  on  an  account  of  Chinese  farming  by 
Capt.  Eckeberg,  London,  2  vols.,  1771  (Vol.  I,  pp.  209-224)  ;  another  on  M'-. 
Tomlin's  Journals  fr07n  Singapore  to  Siam  a?id  Malacca,  by  the  editor.  Rev.  E. 
C.  Bridgman  (Vol.  I,  pp.  224-234)  ;  a  review  of  Lewis  LeComte's  Memoirs  and 
Remarks  on  China  during  ten  years'  travel,  commencing  in  1688  (Vol.  I,  pp.  248- 
26S)  ;  national  character  of  the  Chinese  (Vol.  I,  pp.  326-330) ;  population  of 
the  empire  (Vol.  I,  pp.  345-363,  385-397,  and  Vol.  II,  p.  32)  ;  climate  of  Can- 
ton and  Macao,  with  meteorological  tables  (Vol.  I,  pp.  488-491) ;  account  of  the 
island  of  Formosa,  with  a  map  (Vol.  II,  pp.  408-420)  ;  Chinese  navy  (Vol. 
II,  p.  421)  ;  description  of  Peking,  with  a  map  (Vol.  II,  pp.  432-443,  480- 
500)  ;  imports  and  exports  of  Canton  (Vol.  II,  pp.  447-472). 

It  would  weary  the  reader  to  enumerate  further,  especially  as  the  most  val- 
uable facts  are  embodied  by  Dr.  Williams  in  The  Middle  Kingdom  ;  yet,  if  any 
man  thinks  missionaries  are  men  of  only  one  idea,  and  make  no  additions  to 
the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  let  him  read  over  only  the  titles  of  other  leading 
articles  in  these  two  volumes,  and  also  in  those  that  appeared  after  the  publi- 
cation of  the  two  valuable  volumes  of  Dr.  Williams. 

Volume  I.  A  critique  on  an  ancient  account  of  India  and  China,  by  two  Moslem  travelers 
of  the  ninth  century  (pp.  6-15,42-45).  A  review  of  a  native  work  on  Chinese  biography 
(pp.  107-108).  The  Language  of  Corea  (pp.  276-279).  Catechism  of  the  Shamans,  or  laws 
of  the  Buddhist  priesthood  in  China  (pp.  2S5-289).  The  sacred  edict,  containing  sixteen 
maxims  of  the  emperor  Kanghe,  amplified  by  his  son,  the  emperor  Yungching,  with  para- 
phrase on  both,  by  a  mandarin  (pp.  297-315).  Intercourse  of  China  with  foreigners  (pp. 
364-376).  Historical  sketch  of  Portuguese  settlements  in  China,  more  especially  of  Macao, 
of  Portuguese  envoys  to  China,  of  Papal  missionaries  in  China,  and  of  Papal  legates  to  that 
empire  (pp.  39S-40S,  425-446),  which  is  an  unvarnished  tale  of  the  lawless  methods  by  which 
Portugal,  against  the  unavailing  protest  of  the  Chinese,  acquired  her  foothold  on  their  territory. 
Early  introduction  of  Christianity  into  China  (pp.  447-452).  Father  Alvarez  Semedo's  History 
of  China,  translated,  London,  1665  (pp.  473-4SS).  Worshiio  at  the  Tombs  of  Ancestors  (pp. 
499-503).  Then,  in  every  number  of  every  volume  was  a  monthly  record  of  current  events, 
filled  with  accounts  of  piracies,  inundations,  famines,  misdoings  of  the  authorities,  and  many 
other  things,  giving  a  good  insight  into  every-day  life  in  China. 

Volume  II  discusses  the  Chinese  penal  code  (pp.  10-19,61-73,  97-1 11) ;  the  Introduction  of 
Vaccination  (pp.  35-41) ;  History  and  Chronology  of  China  (pp.  74-85, 11  i-i  28) ;  The  Bugis 
Language,  with  an  alphabet  (pp.  85-90);  Malays  (pp.  93-95);  Idolatry  (pp.  166-176);  Cop- 
perplate Syllabary  of  the  Corean  Language  (pp.  135-138);  Buddhism  (pp.  214-225);  Chinese 
Botany  (pp.  225-230) ;  Systems  of  Buddha  and  Confucius,  compared  by  a  Chinese  writer  in 
1 520  (pp.  265-270) ;  Ophthalmic  Hospital  at  Macao  (pp.  270-276) ;  Canton  Dispensary  (pp. 
276-277);  Disposition  of  Chinese  toward  Foreigners  (pp.  277-281) ;  Titles  of  Chinese  Em- 
perors (p.  309);  Chinese  Theology  (p.  311);  Proportion  of  Mantchus  and  Chinese  in 
Office  (p.  312);  Condition  of  Females '(p.  313);  Navigation  of  the  Yangtse  Kiang  (p.  316); 
Worship  in  Japan  (pp.  318-324) ;  Staunton's  Embassy  of  Lord  Macartney  in  1793  (PP-  ZZ1~ 
350) ;  Spanish  Relations  with  the  Chinese  (pp.  350-355) ;  Free  Trade  with  China  (pp.  355- 
374,  473-477) ;  Crawford's  History  of  Indian  Archipelago,  Edinburgh,  1820  (pp.  385-40S) ; 
Seamen  in  Canton  (pp.  4---425) ;  Burmah  (pp.  500-506,  554-563)- 

As  The  Middle  Kingdom  was  published  about  the  close  of  1847,  it  may  be  of  service  to 
scholars  to  mention  some  of  the  titles  in  the  closing  volumes  of  the  work. 

3 


34 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


In  1S47,  we  have  a  list  of  Foreign  Residents  in  China  (pp.  3,  346,  412);  Protestant  Mis- 
sionaries there  (pp.  12,  147);  a  notice  of  Rev.  W.  C.  Mihie's  seven  months'  residence  in 
Ningpo  (pp.  14-30,  56-72,  104-121);  On  the  Chinese  words  for  God  (pp.  30-39,  99-121,  351); 
The  Opium  Trade  (pp.  39-46,97-179) ;  The  Cotton  Trade  (pp.  47-50,  134) ;  Mons.  Hedde's  Ex- 
cursion to  Changchau  (pp.  75-84) ;  New  Charts  of  the  Coast;  Rules  of  the  Canton  Chamber  of 
Commerce  (pp.  87-92);  Asiatic  Society  of  China — Its  Beginr.ir.gs  (pp.  92-96);  Peter  Os- 
beck's  Canton  and  Whampoa  in  1752  (pp.  136-141) ;  A  Trip  to  Fuhshan  (pp.  142-147); 
Thos.  Yeates's  First  Christian  Missions  in  China  (pp.  152-168) ;  Biographies  and  Obituaries  of 
Missionary  Ladies  in  China  (pp.  16S-179) ;  A  Demonstration  under  Major-General  Aquilar 
(pp.  182-202,  252-265) ;  The  Religion  of  the  Chinese  (pp.  203-207) ;  Chinese  Grass-cloth  (p. 
209);  Thomas  Allom's  Chinese  Manufacture  of  Silk  (pp.  223-236);  Robert  Thorn's  Chinese 
Speaker,  with  notice  of  author  (pp.  236-245) ;  Manifesto  from  Chinese  Merchants  to  English 
Merchants  (pp.  247-251);  Premare's  Notitia  LingUcC  Sinica:  (p.  266);  Chinese  Currency  and 
Revenue  (pp.  273-297) ;  Obituaries  of  Mrs.  Marshman  and  Mrs.  Morrison  (p.  297) ;  Protest 
from  Honan  to  the  British  Consul  at  Canton  (pp.  300-363) ;  Visit  of  the  French  to  Cochin 
China  (p.  310) ;  Shipping  at  Canton,  1846  (p.  314) ;  Shipping  at  Shanghai  (p.  356) ;  Peet's 
Plea  for  China  (p.  321);  Chinese  Fire  Regulations  (p.  331) ;  Letter  of  Mons.  Grandjean  (p. 
335) ;  List  of  Missionary  Books  published  east  of  the  Ganges  (p.  369) ;  Riot  at  Canton  in  1846 
(pp.  382,  425-465) ;  Voyage  from  Canton  to  Shanghai  (p.  39S)  ;  Bibliotheca  Sinica  by  Dr. 
Milne  (pp.  406,  448,  500) ;  Commissioner  Lin's  Ocean  Kingdom,  with  maps  (p.  417) ;  Read- 
ings in  Chinese  Poetry  (p.  454);  Fuhchau  Fu,  by  S.  Johnson  (pp.  4S3,  513);  Proclamation  of 
Bishop  Ludovic,  of  Shanghai  (pp.  246,  506) ;  Shanghai  (p.  529) ;  Fortune's  Wanderings  in 
China  (p.  569) ;  Bishop  Le  Fevre's  Cochin  China  (p.  5S4). 

In  1848:  English  and  Chinese  Calendar  (pp.  i,  419);  Infanticide,  by  a  native  writer  (p. 
11);  Chinese  Terms  for  God,  by  Bishop  Boone  (pp.  17,  57);  by  W.  li.  Medhurst  (pp.  105, 
161,  265,  321,  414,  489,  545,  600);  Revision  of  Chinese  New  Testament  (p.  53);  Meadows' 
China  (p.  90);  Chinese  Sacrifices  (p.  97);  List  of  Protestant  Missionaries  (p.  loi);  Report 
of  Ophthalmic  Hospital,  Canton,  for  1847  (p.  133) ;  Attack  on  English  Missionaries  at  Tsing- 
pu  (pp.  151,  401) ;  Medical  Missions  in  China  (pp.  188,  242)  ;  Address  to  Foreigners  by  Chinese 
against  eating  beef  (pp.  260,  459) ;  Colonial  Surgeon's  Report  for  1847  (p.  313) ;  Shangti 
not  Jehovah  (p.  357) ;  Chinese  Form  of  Prayer  in  Fulfillment  of  Vows  (p.  365) ;  Capt.  Howe's 
Captivity  in  Cochin  China  (p.  366) ;  Memoirs  of  Father  Ripa  (p.  376) ;  Hedde's  Description 
of  the  Silk  Region  of  Shunteh  (p.  423) ;  Chinese  Lexicography  (p.  433) ;  Cities  of  Kiating 
and  Nantsiang  (p.  462);  Shanghai  (pp.468,  530);  Proclamation  allowing  Papal  Missionaries 
at  Sukia  Hwui  (p.  477) ;  Murder  of  a  Grandmother  and  Lynching  of  the  Murderer  (p.  480) ; 
Shower  of  dust  at  Shanghai  (p.  521) ;  Chinese  map  of  military  stations  of  Kiang  Su  (p.  536) ; 
Four  Years'  Thermometer  at  Shanghai  (p.  527) ;  Reminiscences  of  Shanghai,  by  J.  R.  Morri- 
son (p.  528);  Illustrations  of  Scripture  from  Chinese  Customs  (p.  537);  Chinese  accounts  of 
the  regions  west  and  north  of  China  between  the  fifth  and  eighteenth  centuries  (p.  575) ;  Illus- 
trations of  Men  and  Things  in  China  (p.  591);  Chinese  Moral  Anecdotes  (p.  646);  Chinese 
Works  of  American  Tract  Society  (p.  649). 

In  1S49:  Eras  in  use  in  Eastern  Asia;  Calendar;  List  of  Foreign  Residents,  Government 
officials  (pp.  i-i 2) ;  Chinese  Writers  on  Tea  Plant  (p.  13);  Historical  Sketch  of  Shanghai 
(pp.  18,384,  515,  574);  Bibliographical  Notices  of  English  and  French  Works  on  Siam  (p. 
23) ;  Report  of  Morrison  Education  Society  for  1848  (p.  33) ;  Chinese  Philosophy  (p.  43) ; 
Protestant  Missions  in  China  (p.  48) ;  Biot's  History  of  Public  Instruction  in  China  (p.  57); 
Bowring's  Hot  Springs  of  Yungmak  (p.  86) ;  Shin  and  Shangti  (pp.  100,  102) ;  by  Dr.  Bowring 
(p.  600) ;  by  Sir  G.  T.  Staunton  (p.  604) ;  Prices  current  in  Shanghai  (p.  109) ;  Bazin's  Chinese 
Theatre,  with  Drama  in  Four  Acts  (pp.  113-155)  ;  Native  Preacher  on  the  Sabbath  (p.  156); 
Chinese  Moral  Anecdotes  (p.  159);  A  Chinese  Dictionary  of  the  Twelfth  Century  (p.  170); 
Memoir  of  the  Philosopher  Chu  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  by  Kau  Yu  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury (p.  187) ;  Sale  of  Official  Rank  (p.  207) ;  Hemp  and  Grass-cloth  (p.  209) ;  Capt.  Ross's 
Land  Trip  from  Hainan  to  Canton,  in  1819;  Annals  and  Genealogy  of  Confucius  (pp. 
254,  337,  393)  ;  Memoir  of  Abeel  (p.  250) ;  Oath  of  the  Triad  Society  (p.  281) ;  Foreign  Trade 
with  China  in  1847  and  1848  (p.  295) ;  Mulberry  and  Silkworms  (p.  303) ;  Cruise  of  the  United 
States  Slnnp  "  Preble  "  to  Napa  and  Nagasaki  (p.  315);  Chinese  Cosmogony  (p.  342);  Biot 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE.  35 

on  the  Condition  of  Slaves  and  Servants  in  China  (p.  347);  Worship  of  Ancestors  (p.  363); 
List  of  English  and  French  Works  on  China  (pp.  402,  657)  ;  Chinese  Directions  for  Cotton 
Cultivation  (p.  449);  Philology  of  word  Fung  or  Wind  (p.  470);  Ancient  Intercourse  with 
China  through  Central  Asia  opens  a  Way  for  the  Knowledge  of  Christianity  (p.  485);  Mission- 
ary Hospitals  in  China  (p.  505);  Topography  of  Kweichau  (p.  525);  Assassination  of  Gov- 
ernor of  Macao  (p.  532) ;  Indian  Notices  of  Grass-cloth  (p.  554) ;  Meadows  on  Tenure  of  Real 
Estate  in  China;  Topography  of  Yunnan  (p.  5S8) ;  Goddard's  Vocabulary,  and  Meadows' 
Translations  from  the  Manchu  (pp.  604-642) ;  Romish  Missions  in  Mongolia,  by  Rev.  E. 
Hue  (p.  617). 

In  1850:  Calendar,  etc.  (p.  i);  Labors  of  Dr.  Bettelheim  in  Lewchew  (pp.  17,  57);  Chinese 
Terms  for  God  (pp.  90,  185,  280,  345,  409,  445,  465,  478,  486,  524,  569,  625);  Topography  of 
Hupeh  (p.  97);  of  Hunan  (p.  156);  of  Shensi  (p.  220);  Island  of  Tarakai  (p.  289);  of 
Sz'chuen  (pp.  317,  394) ;  Shanghai  (pp.  105,  227,  330,  390);  Famine  in  Shanghai  (p.  in); 
Paul  Su's  Apology  for  the  Jesuit  Missionaries  in  1617  (p.  118) ;  Chinese  account  of  Japan 
(pp.  135,  206) ;  Etymologicon  of  Hiishin  (p.  169) ;  Military  Achievements  of  the  Kings  of  the 
Great  Pure  Dynasty  (p.  241);  Russian  Ode  to  the  Deity  (p.  245);  Movable  Chinese  Types 
(p.  247) ;  Medical  Missions  (p.  300);  Ophthalmic  Hospital  at  Canton,  1848  and  1849  (P-  -53); 
Account  of  Some  Chinese  Deities  (p.  312);  Showers  of  Sand  in  the  Chinese  Plain  (p.  328); 
Dr.  Macgowan  on  Coal  in  China  (p.  345);  Rev.  W.  M.  Lowrie  (p.  491);  Yellow  River  (p. 
499) ;  Foreign  Trade  with  China  for  1849  (p.  513) ;  Two  Mongolian  Letters  to  Philip  the  Fair, 
in  1305  (p.  526) ;  Pagodas  in  and  near  Canton  (p.  535) ;  Versions  of  the  Bible  in  Chinese  (p. 
544) ;  Buddhist  Tenets  in  Siam  (p.  548)  ;  Monument  (Nestorian)  at  Singan  Fu  (p.  552) ;  To- 
pography of  Kansuh  (p.  554)  ;  Hue's  Tartary,  Tibet,  and  China  (p.  650). 

There  were  twenty  volumes  of  the  Chinese  Repository.  The  Chinese  Recorder  and  Missionary 
Journal  commenced  at  Fuhghau  iu  May,  iS6j,  under  the  editorial  care  of  Rev.  S.  L.  Baldwin. 

Though  the  empire  was  long  inaccessible,  it  has  now  been  traversed  exten- 
sively by  our  missionaries.  Mr.  Aitchison  lived  near  Shanghai,  and  in 
one  of  his  tours  he  was  arrested  and  politely  sent  back.  Dr.  H.  Blodget  was 
the  first  Protestant  missionary  to  enter  Peking.  In  1862  he  ascended  the 
grand  canal  to  Tehchow.  He  also  went  to  Pan  mountain  on  the  north,  to 
Shensi,  and  to  Lama  Mian,  five  hundred  miles  north  of  Tientsin,  a  great  cattle 
mart  in  Mongolia,  He  says  the  mountains  of  Shensi  and  Mongolia  are  in- 
teresting fields  of  labor.  The  colloquial  Mandarin  prevails  in  all  the  provinces 
north  of  the  Yangtse  Kiang,  in  Yunnan,  Kweichow,  and  in  parts  of  Hunan 
and  Kwangsi.  In  iSyr  he  traveled  two  hundred  miles  southwest  from  Peking 
to  Chingting  fu.  A  Buddhist  temple  there  contains  an  idol  nearly  one 
hundred  feet  high,  and  a  Papal  cathedral  stands  within  a  stone's  throw. 
Opium  was  everywhere,  and  for  two  thirds  of  the  time  he  was  never  out  of 
sight  of  growing  poppies.^ 

Peking  is  situated  on  a  great  plain,  in  39'  55'  north  latitude,  and  116'  28' 
east  longitude.  It  is  enclosed  by  distant  hills  on  all  sides  but  the  south.  It 
was  made  the  capital  of  China  first  for  a  few  years  in  A.  D.  937.  Kublai 
Khan  again  transferred  the  capital  here  in  1280.  Having  been  removed  to 
Nanking  in  1369,  it  was  brought  back  by  Yungloh  in  1411,  and  has  remained 
here  ever  since.  Peking  consists  of  two  unequal  portions;  the  inner,  or  Tartar, 
and  the  outer,  or  Chinese  city.  A  wall  thirty-five  feet  high  and  twenty-five  feet 
in  breadth  encloses  the  whole,  and  another  wall  four  miles  long  divides  the  two, 
with  three  gates,  always  closed  at  night.     The  Tartar  city  includes  (i)  "  the 

'^Missionary  Herald,  1S71,  p.  354. 


36 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


forbidden  city,"  half  a  mile  long  and  two  thirds  of  a  mile  broad.  Here  are  the 
palaces  of  the  emperor.  Outside  of  its  high  wall  is  a  moat  full  of  water,  forty 
feet  in  width  ;  also  (2)  the  imperial  city,  six  miles  in  circumference,  occupied 
by  the  nobility,  soldiers,  and  numerous  public  buildings  ;  and  lastly  (3)  the  city 
proper,  with  a  circumference  of  fourteen  miles.  The  principal  avenues  are 
eighty  feet  wide,  and  on  these  are  the  shops  and  warehouses,  like  the  one 
here  represented.  The  side  streets  and  lanes,  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in 
width,  contain  the  houses  and  smaller  shops. 


r.IliRCANTII.K    WAREHOUSE,    PEKING. 


The  large  engraving  gives  a  view  near  one  of  the  principal  gates,  and  pre- 
sents a  very  lively  scene.  The  numerous  carts  are  waiting  to  be  hired.  The 
bridge  seen  here  crosses  a  canal,  and  is  so  noted  for  their  numbers  in  its 
vicinity  that  it  is  called  the  "  Beggars'  Bridge."  Here  is  a  specimen,  also,  of  a 
Chinese  memorial  gate,  erected  to  commemorate  victories,  or  in  honor  of  some 
great  man.  Not  far  from  this  bridge  are  the  markets,  theaters,  and  several 
large  temples  ;  also  the  inns  for  the  accommodation  of  the  thousands  who  visit 
Peking  for  business,  or  to  attend  the  literary  examinations  which  are  the  measure 
of  political  preferment. 

The  summer  here  is  lonjrer  and  more  debilitating  than  in  New  England. 


EAST    INDIES. 


37 


The  mean  annual  temperature  is  53''  ;  in  winter  26  ,  and  in  summer  80  \  It 
is  very  dry  in  winter.  No  rain  fell  from  October  17,  1873,  till  April  21,  1874^ 
and  the  next  shower  was  on  May  loth  ;  but  in  summer  the  rains  are  abundant. 
In  the  summer  of  1874  there  were  thirty-two  rainy  days,  and  the  rainfall 
was  eighteen  inches.^ 

In  1875,  Messrs.  C.  Goodrich,  C.  Holcombe,  and  A.  H.  Smith  went  to 
Singan  fu,  one  thousand  miles  southwest  from  Peking,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
empire,  where  Nestorians  planted  churches  long  before  Luther.  On  the  way, 
two  days  of  painful  climbing  up  and  down  steep  and  rocky  mountains,  on  an 
execrable  road,  brought  them  to  a  city  in  a  region  of  coal  and  iron.  Three 
days  more  brought  them  to  the  lovely  central  plain  of  Shansi,  and  its  capi- 
tal, Tai-yuan  fu.  Many  of  the  houses  at  a  distance  resembled  turreted  castles. 
Two  more  hard  days  brought  them  to  the  southern  plain  of  Shansi,  extending 
to  the  Yellow  River.  Crossing  into  Shensi,  they  reached  Singan  fu,  where  high 
ministers  of  state  became  Christians,  and  the  Nestorian  monument  still  bears 
its  silent  witness  to  the  truth.  It  was  erected  eleven  hundred  years  ago,  and 
is  waiting  for  tihe  return  of  the  whole  region  to  Christ.  Mr.  Holcombe's  jour- 
nal is  full  of  geographical  information.^  He  estimates  the  population  of  Shansi 
at  fourteen  millions,  and  of  Shensi  at  ten  million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand, 
with  a  climate  as  healthy  as  New  England.  Rev.  J.  T.  Gulick  writes  of  the 
region  round  Kalgan.  He  describes  the  Mongols  as  far  behind  the  Chinese 
in  civilization,  yet  in  eastern  Mongolia  as  well  off;  their  houses  built  of  mud, 
with  paper  windows ;  most  of  them  shepherds,  carrying  their  frozen  meat  to 
Peking  in  winter,  the  whole  family  going  mounted  on  horses  and  camels :  yet 
they  are  not  nomads,  remaining  year  after  year  in  the  same  place.  It  is 
significant  of  the  scholarship  and  standing  of  our  missionaries  in  China,  that 
Dr.  P.  Parker,  Dr.  S.  W.  Williams,  and  Rev.  C.  Holcombe  have  been  appointed 
secretaries  of  legation  to  our  government  in  that  empire. 


EAST  INDIES. 

In  a  volume  intended  to  set  forth  the  tangible  results  of  foreign  missions,  it 
would  be  unpardonable  to  overlook  the  deeds  of  some  who,  though  not  formally 
ordained  to  the  work  by  man,  were  nevertheless  truly  called  to  it  of  God,  and, 
in  what  some  speak  of  as  their  secular  callings,  were  as  truly  consecrated  to 
the  work  as  any  ordained  missionaries.  The  mercantile  firm  of  Olyphant  & 
Co.,  in  Canton,  may  be  taken  as  a  worthy  representative  of  this  class.  It  was 
composed  of  D.  W.  C.  Olyphant,  Chas.  N.  Talbot,  Chas.  W.  King,  and  W.  H. 
Morss.  It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  transcribe  their  names,  for  if  the  Lord 
preserves  even  the  insects  of  previous  eras  in  the  amber  of  this,  surely  it  is 
pleasing  to  him  to  preserve  the  memory  of  good  men.  They  went  to  China, 
not  to  make  money,  but  as  servants  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  improve  every 
opportunity  for  the  advancement  of  his  kingdom.  They  felt  it  as  much  a  duty 
to  serve  Christ  in  their  business  as  the  missionary  in  his  preaching.     According 

iDr.  A.  O.  Treat  in  Missionary  Herald,  1875,  pp.  257-260. 

^Missionary  Herald,  1S75,  p.  199;    Transactions  of  No.  China  Branch  of  R.  A.  Society,  Vol.  X,  pp.  55-70- 


38  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

to  the  testimony  of  one  who  knows/  American  missions  to  China  were  begun 
in  1829,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Olyphant.  He  supported  them  when  their 
expenses  were  startUng  and  the  prospect  of  success  very  remote.  The  firm 
furnished  a  house  in  Canton  rent  free  to  the  mission  for  thirteen  years.  The 
church  to  which  he  belonged  in  New  York  sent  out,  at  his  suggestion,  in  1832, 
a  complete  printing  office,  called  the  "  Bruen  Press,"  in  memory  of  their  late 
pastor.  When  the  Chinese  Repository  commenced,  that  year,  he  guaranteed  the 
American  Board  against  loss  in  the  undertaking.  He  built  the  office  it  occu- 
pied in  Canton  for  a  number  of  years.  The  ships  of  the  firm  gave  fifty-on*'  free 
passages  to  missionaries  and  their  families.  But  the  special  service  which  we 
wish  to  record  was  rendered  in  1837.  At  that  time  the  outlook  for  missions  in 
eastern  Asia  was  most  discouraging.  Excepting  Singapore  and  Pinang,  almost 
the  entire  Indian  Archipelago  was  under  the  control  of  the  Spanish  or  the 
Dutch.  The  former  prohibited  Protestant  missions  entirely,  and  the  latter 
followed  ver)'  far  in  the  same  direction.  Even  in  Bangkok,  Canton,  and  Macao, 
where  Protestant  missionaries  were  allowed  to  live,  their  work  was  underground 
rather  than  in  open  day.  They  lived  in  hope  of  the  opening  of  their  prison 
doors. 

At  such  a  time  this  firm  purchased  the  brig  "  Himmaleh,"  and  fitted  her  out 
from  New  York,  at  a  cost  of  $20,000,  to  explore  the  coasts  of  eastern  Asia,  in 
the  interest  of  science,  commerce,  and  missions.  The  missionary  Gutzlaff  was 
expected  to  go  on  the  tour,  but,  as  he  was  hindered,  Rev.  E.  Stevens,  of  the 
American  Board,  and  G.  T.  Lay,  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
were  sent  in  his  place.  Capt.  Eraser  was  liberally  supplied  with  presents,  to 
open  the  way  for  the  missionaries,  but,  both  from  the  cargo  and  the  presents, 
opium  and  fire-arms  were  rigidly  excluded ;  for  even  at  that  early  day  it  was 
well  known  that  Olyphant  &  Co.  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  opium  trade. 

The  "  Himmaleh  "  left  Macao  December  3,  1836,  and  arrived  at  Singapore  on 
the  15th,  where  Mr.  Stevens  died,  and  Rev.  J.  T.  Dickinson,  of  the  American 
mission,  and  Rev.  S.  Wolfe,  of  the  English,  were  taken  in  his  place;  but  neither 
of  them  was  proficient  in  the  Chinese  or  Malay  languages.  Mr.  Wolfe  died  at 
Zamboangan,  in  Mindanao,  where,  of  course,  his  body  was  refused  interment  in 
the  Papal  Spanish  cemetery.  Mr.  Lay  felt,  however,  that  the  religious  activity 
of  the  Spaniards  was  preferable  to  the  apathy  of  the  Dutch,  for  religion,  though 
presented  to  the  people  under  its  most  disadvantageous  form,  had  yet  done 
much  to  soften  the  hearts  and  enlighten  the  minds  of  the  natives.  The  govern- 
ment paid  a  sincere  respect  to  the  priest,  who  was  allowed  to  labor  free  from 
those  restrictions  and  that  constant  interference  which  hampered  the  labors  of 
the  Dutch  pastor.  The  brig  returned  to  Singapore  in  August,  and  the  effort 
was  attended  with  so  little  success  that  she  was  sent  back  to  New  York.  We 
give  a  few  brief  statements  condensed  from  the  journal  of  Mr.  Dickinson. 

He  left  Singapore  February  i,  1837,  and  reached  Makassar  on  the  loth. 
The  shore  was  lined  with  cocoa  trees,  and  behind  these  appeared  small  patches 
of  sugar  cane  and  paddy  fields.  The  situation  ot  the  town  is  flat,  and  rendered 
unhealthy  by  the  rice  fields.     It  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  one  third  of  a  mile  long, 

'Dr.  S.  W.  Williams,  Chinese  Recorder,  Vol.  VII,  p.  397. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO   GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE. 


39 


on  each  of  the  four  sides.  The  houses  were  of  brick,  covered  with  stucco,  and 
roofed  with  tiles.  They  stood  in  clusters,  with  cows  and  horses  grazing  near 
them.  High  mountains  formed  the  background  of  the  picture.  In  pott  were 
thirty  Bugis  prows,  two  Dutch  men-of-war,  and  a  merchantman.  The  natives 
reside  outside  the  wall,  and  its  gates  are  closed  at  night.  The  Bugis  live  to 
the  north,  and  the  Makassars  to  the  south,  with  the  town  between.  The  palace 
of  the  Bugis  rajah  was  built  of  bamboo,  with  some  European  furniture.  The 
district  extends  three  miles  along  the  shore,  and  half  a  mile  into  the  interior  of 
the  island.  Its  population  is  twenty  thousand  :  eight  thousand  Makassars 
(pronounced  Mangkarsar),  five  thousand  Bugis,  three  thousand  Malays,  one 
thousand  Chinese,  five  hundred  Dutch,  and  some  from  other  islands.  The 
Dutch  school  numbered  fifty-three  half-caste  boys  and  thirty-eight  girls.  The 
principal  had  three  assistant  teachers.  A  Chinese  school  of  sixteen  boys  con- 
tained thirty-three  the  year  before. 

The  Boni  tribe  here  had  been  expelled  by  the  English  during  their  domina- 
tion, and  Mr.  Dickinson  visited  the  tombs  of  their  rajahs,  a  mile  back  from  the 
town. 

The  southern  part  of  the  island,  between  the  Bay  of  Boni  on  the  east  and 
the  Straits  of  Makassar  on  the  west,  is  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  long  by 
sixty  in  breadth,  and  is  the  most  important  part  of  Celebes.  Here  are  all  the 
Makassars,^  and  nearly  all  the  Bugis.-  Beginning  at  the  northwest  and  follow- 
ing round  the  coast,  are  the  districts  of  Sidenring,  Barru,  Sopeng,  Panjana, 
Tanete,  Marus,  Tello,  Makassar,  Goa,  Topo,  Java,  Turataya,  Bontain, 
Bulukumba,  Boni,  Waju,  and  Luhu.  Each  of  these  is  described  in  detail ;  so 
is  the  lake  Lubaya,  twenty  miles  long,  and  one  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  mountains  rise  between  five  and  six  thousand  feet.  Many  small  rivers 
descend  from  them  on  both  sides. 

The  languages  spoken  are  the  Makassar  and  Bugis,  both  of  which  use  the 
same  alphabet;  the  Bugis  adding  a  few  letters.  The  classification  of  the  let- 
ters follows  the  Sanskrit,  and,  though  the  proportion  of  readers  is  small  among 
both,  it  is  largest  among  the  Bugis.  The  Portuguese  arrived  here  in  1512  ;  the 
Dutch  followed  in  1660,  and  in  1669  took  Sambaopo,  the  last  stronghold  of 
the  Makassars.  The  rajah  is  elected  by  the  nobles,  and  women  are  eligible  to 
the  throne. 

In  15 1 2  Mohammedanism  was  scarcely  known  ;  now  it  is  the  religion  of  this 
part  of  Celebes,  having  been  forcibly  introduced  by  the  Malays.  The  Alfoors 
in  the  central  and  northern  part  of  Celebes  are  heathen,  resembling  the  Dayaks 
in  their  customs.  The  character  of  the  natives  is  even  worse  than  that  of  the 
Malays ;  though  energetic,  they  are  proud,  avaricious,  and  treacherous  to  an 
extreme. 

At  Bontain,  Mr.  Dickinson  landed  under  a  mountain,  whose  top  was  hid  in 
clouds,  and  its  sides  adorned  with  fields  and  forests.  Here,  in  company  with 
his  Dutch  hosts,  he  rode  on  horseback  a  mile  along  the  beach,  then  climbed  up 
by  a  winding  path,  through  the  richest  vegetation,  passing  now  fields  of  maize, 
now  through  fields  of  grass,  and  again  under  the  shade  of  tall  trees,  whence  he 

'•ioo.ocio.  -600,000. 


4° 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


looked  down  on  the  bay  and  the  i  le  of  Salayer,  fifty  miles  away.  Nearer, 
cocoanut  groves  dotted  the  beach,  and  tala  palms  grew  in  the  ravines  ;  paddy 
fields,  and  here  and  there  little  cottages  on  the  sides  of  the  hills.  The  eye  passed 
on  from  field  to  field,  from  smiling  valleys  to  lofty  cliffs,  and  from  peak  to  peak 
up  to  the  summit,  turbaned  with  its  wreath  of  clouds.  At  the  end  of  the  ride, 
they  left  ponies,  shoes  and  stockings,  and,  clambering  along  the  slippery  rocks, 
reached  a  waterfall  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  It  resembled  Mont- 
morenci,  only  with  scenery  far  superior.     The  rock  of  the  mountain  is  trap. 

The  population  of  Bontain  is  about  fifteen  thousand  ;  some  are  gardeners, 
and  some  traders.  There  are  only  eight  Chinese,  all  of  whom  deal  in  opium. 
About  fifty  call  themselves  Christians,  and  the  rest  are  Moslems,  but  there  are 
no  Arabs.  Their  Imams,  who  teach  to  read  the  Koran,  are  supported  by  the 
offerings  of  the  people. 

The  island  of  Salayer  has  perhaps  sixty  thousand  inhabitants,  all  Moslems. 
Their  language  differs  from  the  Bugis  and  Makassar,  yet  they  use  the  same 
alphabet.     Rice  does  not  grow  there,  and  maize  is  the  principal  grain. 

Passing  the  island  of  Butung,  or  Boutong,  over  one  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  in  height,  he  saw  a  campong  up  two  thirds  of  the  ascent.  There  are  four 
of  the  Xulla  or  Zula  Islands  :  Tulyubo,  Mungala,  Bessy,  and  Lissamatula  ;  the 
two  former,  each  fifty  miles  in  length.  On  Ternati  and  Tidore  he  found  land- 
scapes resembling  those  of  Bontain.  The  conical  peak  of  Tidore  rose  five  thou- 
sand feet,  guarded  by  five  smaller  cones.  The  shores  of  Gillolo  (Halmaihera) 
were  high  and  covered  with  verdure.  The  bazar  at  Ternati  was  well  supplied 
with  fruits,  among  them  the  durian  and  mangosteen.  It  is  the  land  of  fruits. 
Here  he  found  a  Dutch  congregation  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  assembled  for 
worship  on  the  Sabbath.  The  streets  and  houses  are  neater  and  more  comfort- 
able than  in  other  islands.  The  fences  are  made  of  bamboo.  Slats  of  the  same 
form  the  sides  of  the  houses,  which  are  thatched  with  palm  leaves.  Shrubbery 
of  all  sorts  abounds,  from  the  coffee  shrub  to  the  tree  of  the  forest.  The  roads 
are  broad  and  smooth  enough  for  carriages,  and  grand  scenery  appears  among 
the  hills.  Here  Mr.  Dickinson  ascended  a  volcano,  breakfasted  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  was  much  interested  in  the  marvels  of 
the  botany  of  the  region.  The  rock  here,  too,  was  trap.  The  top  of  the  crater 
is  five  thousand  and  sixty  feet  above  the  sea.  The  ascent  occupied  six  hours 
and  a  half,  and  the  descent  three.  Tne  ascent  of  Table  Mountain,  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  was  little  more  than  half  as  laborious.  At  one  place  the 
stream  of  lava  is  half  a  mile  wide,  and  can  be  traced  by  the  eye  from  the  sea 
to  the  crater. 

He  visited  the  sultan  of  Ternati,  passing  from  the  gate  of  the  palace  between 
ranks  of  soldiers,  some  of  them  wearing  the  Dutch  uniform.  A  few  had  hel- 
mets, shields,  and  breastplates,  all  of  brass.  A  band  of  music  played,  and  the 
room,  sixty  feet  by  forty,  was  furnished  in  European  style,  with  sofas, 
chandeliers,  and  pictures.  Conversation  was  carried  on  in  Malay,  Ternati, 
Dutch,  and  English. 

The  sultan  rules  Motir,  Makian,  the  Zula  Islands,  the  northern  part  of 
Celebes,  and  the  northern  portion  of  Gillolo,  which  is  only  the  name  of  a  small 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO   GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  41 

town  on  the  island,  originally  mistaken  for  the  name  of  the  island,  which  the 
natives  call  Halmaihera.^  It  is  more  than  two  hundred  miles  in  length,  but  has 
only  three  thousand  inhabitants.  Halmaihera  has  six  or  seven  different  lan- 
guages. The  southern  portion  is  Moslem,  and  the  northern  heathen.  The  peo- 
ple whom  Mr.  Dickinson  saw  from  there  were  nearly  naked.  The  sultans  of 
Ternati  and  Tidore  have  each  fourteen  thousand  rupees  annually  from  the 
Dutch,  on  condition  that  they  destroy  all  the  spices  ;  and  they  comply  with  the 
demand.  The  Moluccas,  /.  ^.,  Ternati,  Tidore,  Motir,  Makian,  and  Batchian, 
produce  cloves  and  nutmegs,  and  could  easily  supply  the  world.  Milton  speaks 
of 

.  .  .  Teinate  and  Tidore  whence  merchants  bring 
Their  spicy  drugs. 

But  the  natives  make  these  names  each  trisyllables. 

Ternati  has  about  five  thousand  inhabitants,  and  Tidore  six  thousand.  The 
sultan  of  this  last  rules  the  southern  part  of  Halmaihera,  and  a  few  small  islets 
besides,  his  own  island  having  not  over  twenty  thousand  subjects  in  all.  The 
other  sultan  has  at  least  four  times  as  many. 

In  Ternati  there  is  a  Dutch  school  of  forty-five  pupils,  whose  teacher  re- 
ceives $700  annually,  part  from  the  government  and  part  from  his  pupils. 

The  population  of  the  Moluccas  does  not  exceed  two  hundred  thousand,  and 
the  number  of  their  languages  is  twelve.  ^ 

One  of  our  missionaries  at  Singapore  made  a  collection  of  Malay  and  Bugis 
manuscripts,  relating  to  the  history,  customs,  and  mythologies  of  native  tribes 
little  known.  It  is  the  best  collection  extant,  and  was  brought  to  this  country 
by  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition. 

As  the  "  Himmaleh"  had  not  returned  to  Canton,  and  there  were  seven 
Japanese  shipwrecked  sailors,  the  returning  of  whom  to  their  homes  Messrs. 
Olyphant  &  Co.  hoped  might  prove  the  means  of  opening  up  the  empire  of 
Japan,  they  resolved  to  make  the  experiment  at  their  own  cost,  and  so  sent 
thither  the  good  ship  "  Morrison,"  Capt.  David  Ingersoll ;  with  him  went  Dr. 
Peter  Parker,  well  supplied  with  medicines,  vaccine  virus,  and  anatomical  and 
surgical  plates,  such  as  were  fitted  to  interest  intelligent  natives;  also  Dr.  S. 
W.  Williams,  as  naturalist.  Presents  were  sent  with  them,  such  as  a  pair  of 
globes,  a  telescope,  barometer,  American  coins,  books,  paintings,  among  them 
a  portrait  of  Washington  ;  also  documents  in  Chinese,  such  as  Pearson's 
Treatise  on  Vaccinatiofi ;  one  gave  an  account  of  the  shipwrecked  men  whom 
they  sought  to  return.  (Three  of  them  were  the  sole  survivors  of  a  crew  of  four- 
teen ;  their  junk  sailed  from  Toba  in  November,  183 1,  and,  after  being  driven 
about  for  fourteen  months  in  the  Pacific,  was  cast  ashore  in  Oregon.  The 
Indians  plundered  them  and  made  them  prisoners,  but  they  were  rescued  by  a 
factor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  sent  to  England,  whence  they  had 
been  forwarded  to  China.)  Another  document  had  for  its  subject  the  United 
States,  its  history  and  commercial  policy  ;  and  others  made  various  friendly 
oifers  of  medical  help  and  instruction.  The  ship  proceeded  to  the  Lewchew 
islands,   and  waited  there  a  few  days  for  the  Rev.  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  who  was  to 

1  Great  land.  '^  Missionary  Herald,  1S3S,  pp.  171-179,227-232. 


42 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


follow  in  the  British  sloop-of-war*"  Raleigh."  Dr.  Williams  made  the  most  of 
his  opportunities  here  to  learn  about  the  islands  and  their  inhabitants,  as  the 
reader  may  see  in  his  journal  published  in  the  Chinese  Repository  ;^  zxidLT>x. 
Parker  vaccinated  a  native  physician,  and  left  him  a  supply  of  virus,  with  Dr. 
Pearson's  treatise.  July  15th,  Mr.  Gutzlaff  arrived,  and  the  "  Morrison,"  as 
soon  as  he  came  on  board,  left  for  Japan.  The  voyage  is  described  at  length 
by  Dr.  Williams,"  but  we  can  only  say  here  that,  in  spite  of  repeated  attempts 
both  in  the  bay  of  Yedo  and  in  that  of  Kagosima,  they  were  driven  off  most 
inhospitably  at  the  cannon's  mouth,  one  ball  striking  the  bulwarks  and  plough- 
ing up  the  deck;  that,  too,  though  the  "Morrison  "  had  purposely  left  her 
armament  at  Macao,  and  Mr.  King  had  taken  Mrs.  King  with  him,  as  an  addi- 
tional token  of  friendly  feeling.  The  Japanese  knew  all  this,  and  those  who 
visited  the  ship  seemed  friendly  enough  till  compelled  by  superior  authority  to 
pursue  another  course. 

The  captain  did  his  part  well,  extricating  his  vessel  with  great  skill  and  cool- 
ness from  under  fire  on  both  occasions.  The  secret  of  this  appears  in  his 
words  when  the  first  balls  came  whizzing  over  him  :  "  Fire  away!  God  knows 
we  are  here  on  a  good  errand,  and  he  will  not  let  you  hurt  us."  Sixteen  years 
after.  Dr.  Williams  landed  with  Commodore  Perry  within  a  mile  of  the  spot 
where  the  guns  were  planted,  attended  by  an  escort  of  six  hundred  sailors  and 
marines,  to  carry  the  letter  of  President  Fillmore  to  the  Japanese  emperor,  and 
Commodore  Perry  named  the  steep  point  near  by,  Ingersoll  Bluff,  in  honor  of 
the  good  captain.  Though  those  seven  shipwrecked  Japanese  were  thus 
cruelly  forbidden  to  return  to  their  families,  two  of  them  were  the  first-fruits  of 
Japan  to  Christ,  and  also  rendered  assistance  in  translating  Genesis  and 
Matthew,  John's  Gospel  and  Epistles,  into  their  language.  Five  of  them  main- 
tained daily  j^rayer  in  Dr.  Williams'  house  for  two  years,  and  their  harsh 
repulse  was  one  of  the  pleas  they  urged  why  God  should  send  his  Gospel  to 
their  countrymen.  If  Mr.  King  had  lived  till  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of 
Kanagawa,  March  31,  1854,  he  would  have  found  all  the  objects  of  the  \'oyage 
attained  in  God's  own  good  time  and  way.^ 

Meanwhile,  by  this  voyage  and  his  subsequent  studies  in  Japanese,  God  was 
training  Dr.  Williams  for  the  post  that  he  filled  so  ably,  of  interpreter  to  the 
expedition  of  Commodore  Perry.  It  is  much  easier  to  find  officers  for  such 
expeditions  than  intelligent  and  trustworthy  interpreters. 


SUMATRA. 

Rev.  J.  Ennis  sailed  from  Batavia,  June  29th,  the  same  year,  in  a  vessel  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  tons,  which  carried,  in  all,  one  hundred  and  fifty  souls,  including  the  crew  and  a  company 
of  native  soldiers.  July  8th  he  landed  at  Bencoolen,  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Sumatra.  The 
territory  of  that  name  extends  from  twelve  to  fifteen  miles  inland,  and  thirty  miles  along  the 
coast ;  with  a  population  of  twenty-five  thousand  Malays.  The  Rejangs  live  still  further  in- 
land, with  a  language  and  alphabet  of  their  own.  Their  annals,  laws,  and  poetry  they  write  on 
plantain  leaves  and  bamboos.  Some  have  become  Moslems,  but,  though  they  swear  falsely  on 
the  Koran,  an  oath  by  the  graves  of  their  fathers  is  held  sacred.     Southeast  of  these  live  the 

1  Vol.  VI,  pp.  209-229.  -  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  353-3!^o- 

3  Chinese  Recorder,  Vol.  VII,  p.  3S7-39'^- 


SUMATRA,  43 

Lampongs,  who  also  write  an  alphabet  of  their  own.  The  Dutch  have  a  number  of  govern- 
ment officers  among  them.  I'rom  Bencoolen  he  sailed  to  Padang,  and  set  out  for  the  interior, 
July  31st,  along  a  plain  five  miles  in  breadth,  and  in  places  marshy.  This  extends  back  to 
mountains  that  rise  above  the  clouds,  which  were  then  drenching  them  with  showers.  Next 
day  he  crossed  a  river  on  a  Malay  ferry-boat,  made  of  two  canoes  joined  by  a  platform  of  plank, 
and  drawn  across  by  a  rattan  rope  hung  on  posts  across  the  river  in  reach  of  the  ferryman. 
The  road  was  good,  and  he  passed  eight  or  ten  Malay  villages  in  eighteen  miles.  The  houses 
arc  built  on  piles,  a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  and  in  fine  weather  the  sides  are  removed, 
leaving  only  the  roof  and  floor.  The  first  day  the  road  lay  through  forests,  entangled  with 
vines  and  large-leaved  plants ;  on  the  second  he  passed  through  fields  of  corn  and  rice. 
Priests  and  churches  were  scarce,  and  so  were  schools.  On  the  third  day  he  entered  the  rug- 
ged scenery  of  the  mountains,  the  solitude  enlivened  by  the  chatter  of  monkeys.  Cascades 
were  frequent  —  one  fell  over  a  rock  a  hundred  feet,  in  one  solid  sheet.  The  houses  were  now 
better  buiit,  and  both  the  dress  and  the  gardens  of  the  people  showed  a  higher  civilization. 
He  found  some  women  dressed  in  silk  of  home  manufacture.  The  mountains  were  now  eight 
thousand  feet  high,  and  not  more  than  twelve  miles  apart,  the  space  between  full  of  waving 
rice  fields.  A  garrison  of  two  hundred  soldiers  held  Fort  Dekock,  or,  as  the  natives  call  it, 
Bukit  Tinggi,  the  high  mountain.  On  market  days  thousands  of  people  throng  the  streets. 
Their  chief  amusements  are  cock-fighting  and  gambling.  One  third  of  the  people  he  met  carried 
fighting  cocks.  Even  coolies  had  their  favorite  bird,  and  a  kris  or  dagger  in  addition  to  their 
loads.  Mr.  Ennis  saw  about  sixty  game-cocks  in  the  market,  though  it  was  not  a  market  day, 
each  fastened  by  its  string  to  a  peg  in  the  ground  ;  two,  armed  with  iron  spurs,  were  fighting  on 
a  wooden  platform,  and  three  hundred  men  looked  on  with  breathless  interest,  till  one  of  the 
two  fell  dead.  August  7th,  Mr.  Ennis  left  for  Matua.  The  soil  where  he  passed  was  a  mixture 
of  clay  and  sand,  and  the  streams  had  worn  ravines  nearly  two  hundred  feet  in  depth.  The  road 
was  constantly  ascending  or  descending.  In  a  valley  filled  with  rice  fields,  a  lake  about  the  size 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  was  hemmed  in  by  mountains.  The  water  was  of  a  deep  blue,  and  three 
or  four  white  clouds  hovered  overhead  in  the  calm,  clear  sky.  Ten  villages,  with  a  population 
of  fourteen  thousand,  lay  around  the  lake..  In  each  was  a  mosque.  He  saw  a  war  canoe 
seventy-four  feet  long.  Bloody  battles  were  formerly  fought  on  the  lake,  between  two  hostile 
tribes.  Under  Dutch  teaching,  they  now  make  silver  spoons  equal  to  the  European  pattern 
given  them  to  copy.  Those  not  Moslems  pray  and  offer  sacrifice  to  Satan ;  and  if  a  house 
burns,  instead  of  water  they  bring  mirrors,  that  the  author  of  the  mischief,  seeing  his  ugly  face 
in  them,  may  flee  and  let  the  fire  go  out. 

Passing  through  Bambang,  at  Kumpulan  he  was  within  fifteen  hours  of  the  country  of  the 
Battas,  but  had  to  return  to  Matua  on  account  of  a  war  then  raging. 

On  the  17th,  he  was  at  Tandjang  Alam,  in  a  beautifully  cultivated  region,  the  rice  fields 
irrigated  by  wheels  turned  by  the  stream,  as  in  northern  Syria.  In  Lima  Puluh  he  found  the 
people  more  highly  civilized  than  elsewhere.  Good  roads  —  one  of  them  sixty  feet  wide  — 
were  generally  lined  with  hedges,  while  horses,  cattle,  goats,  and  poultry  indicated  wealth  and 
thrift.  To  the  northeast  lies  the  country  of  the  Siaks,  who  in  language  and  appearance  do  not 
differ  from  other  Malays.  Their  territory  is  populous  and  well  cultivated,  though  little  known. 
He  passed  through  a  district  where  one  hundred  thousand  people  are  said  to  live  within  a 
circle  of  ten  miles  in  diameter.  From  Alabang  he  went  to  Pogaruyong,  where  he  was  at  the 
center  of  the  Malayan  people.  They  have  a  literature,  though  the  proportion  of  readers  is 
small.  In  manufactures  they  show  excellent  capacity.  They  make  good  brass  cannon,  and 
the  work  of  their  goldsmiths  compares  well  with  that  of  the  same  craft  in  Europe.  They  intro- 
duce gold  threads  into  their  silks.  In  agriculture  they  use  the  plough,  hoe,  and  other  imple- 
ments of  their  own.  Their  principal  food  is  rice ;  but  they  have  also  potatoes,  yams,  sugar 
cane,  coffee,  and  many  fruits.  Mr.  Ennis  passed  through  a  rice  field  eight  miles  in  length  and 
four  in  width,  formed  into  successive  terraces  for  convenience  of  irrigation.  The  people  raise 
excellent  fish  in  artificial  ponds. 

Two  or  three  mountain  ranges  run  parallel  with  the  southwestern  coast  of  the  island,  some- 
times at  a  distance  of  fifty  miles,  and  sometimes  sending  out  spurs  to  the  shore.  Some  peaks 
are  from  ten  thousand  to  fourteen  thousand  feet  high.     In  the  forests,  the  elephant,  tiger,  deer, 


44  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

and  wild  hog  abound.  The  tropical  vegetation  keeps  the  earth  moist,  and  many  small  streams 
run  down  to  the  sea.  Beyond  the  first  range  lie  the  cultivated  regions  already  desciibed;  but 
further  to  the  northwest  lie  the  populous  Batta  countries  of  Mandeling,  Ankola,  and  Tobah, 
and  Mr.  Ennis  set  out  for  these  from  Natal,  on  foot,  September  iSth. 

The  first  day  he  passed  over  a  muddy  road,  and  got  drenched  in  a  shower.  Ne.xt  day  he 
followed  a  foot-path  through  the  grass,  and  now  and  then  had  to  wade  long  distances  up  the 
stream.  He  crossed  several  streams,  two  of  them  by  a  bridge  of  rattans,  so  narrow  that  one 
foot  could  not  rest  by  the  side  of  the  other ;  a  rattan  rope  was  provided  on  each  side,  for  a 
railing,  and  the  torrent,  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  wide,  raged  far  below.  Sometimes  he  had 
to  wade  up  to  his  waist,  and  in  the  morning  put  on  the  wet  clothes  he  laid  off  the  night  before. 
At  the  close  of  the  fifth  day  he  reached  a  small  Dutch  fort,  and  then  began  the  ascent  of  the  , 
last  range.  This  required  two  days  to  cross,  and  was  so  steep  in  places  that  only  the  roots 
of  trees  enabled  him  to  climb.  The  crest  of  the  mountain  was  extremely  narrow,  with  a  deep 
gulf  on  either  side.  On  it  he  passed  several  graves  of  men  who  had  died  on  the  journey.  At  the 
foot  of  the  range  he  found  the  first  village  in  Mandeling,  and  the  people  at  work  on  a  road 
that  was  to  pass  down  on  a  lower  level  to  Natal. 

Mandeling  was  overrun  in  1817  by  the  Moslem  Malays  of  Rau,  thirty  miles  to  the  south- 
east, and  ten  years  later  was  completely  subdued  and  converted  by  force  to  Mohammedanism. 
The  m^n  of  Rau  killed  their  pigs,  circumcised  their  men,  and  taught  their  young  chiefs  the 
Koran.  Three  years  later  the  Battas  invited  the  Dutch  to  help  them,  and  they  came  to  stay. 
Ankola  has  lately  sought  the  same  assistance,  and  Tobah  has  also  received  them.  The  present 
Dutch  Resident  represents  the  people  to  be  the  most  docile  in  the  world.  The  climate  of 
Saninggo,  where  he  resides,  is  temperate  and  healthy,  and  the  villages  are  very  numerous. 
Mandeling  and  Ankola  lie  between  two  of  the  ranges  of  mountains  that  run  along  the  center  of 
the  island;  on  the  east  lies  Tombusi,  a  fertile,  populous  district.  The  plain  of  Saninggo  is 
twenty-five  miles  long  by  ten  in  width,  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  and  in  four  of  its  vil- 
lages has  ten  thousand  people;  forty  smaller  villages  have  about  fourteen  thousand  more, 
making  twenty-four  thousand  in  all.  The  entire  Batta  people  are  estimated  loosely  at  a  million 
and  a  half. ' 

Mr.  Ennis  also  visited  the  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombok,  lying  between  Java  and  Sumbawa. 
during  August  and  October,  1S38.  The  first  contained  a  population  of  from  seven  hundred 
thousand  to  eight  hundred  thousand,  and  the  last  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand. 
For  many  interesting  particulars  about  the  country  and  people,  we  can  only  refer  the  reader  to 
the  Missionary  Heraldiox  1S39,  pp.  321-334. 

In  recording  the  contributions  of  missionaries  to  geography,  we  must  not 
overlook  those  made  by  our  martyred  missionaries  in  Sumatra,  on  their  last  fatal 
journey.  April  7,  1834,  Rev.  Samuel  Munson  and  Rev.  Henry  Lyman  em- 
barked at  Batavia,  in  the  Dutch  barque  "  Diedericka,"  for  Padang.  Their 
course  lay  round  the  western  end  of  Java,  through  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  and 
along  the  southwestern  shore  of  Sumatra,  as  far  as  Tappanooly  Bay.  We  read 
in  the  journal  of  Mr.  Lyman,  the  day  he  sailed,  these  words:  "I  thought  I 
could  say  with  all  my  heart,  if  I  must  be  sacrificed  to  the  untamed  passions  of 
cruel  men,  '  Even  so,  Father,  for  so  it  seemed  good  in  thy  sight.'  He  who 
could  stay  the  flames  of  the  fiery  furnace  can  now  do  the  same,  so  '  I  will  not 
fear  what  man  can  do  unto  me.'  '  If  God  be  for  me,  who  can  be  against 
me? '"2 

The  voyagers  give  occasional  glimpses  of  the  scenery  as  they  sail  along  the 
shores  of  Sumatra.     When  they  first  approach  the  island  they  speak  of  its  beauty. 

'^  Missio7iary  Herald,  1S38,  pp.  364-3721  4o'-4o8. 

-There are  two  published  records  of  this  voyage:  one  in  the  Memoir  of  Munson  and  Lyman,  by  Rev.  W. 
Thompson,  D.  D.,  New  York,  1839,  p.  196;  the  other,  Henry  Lyman,  the  Martyr  of  Sumatra,  New  York, 
1856,  pp.  43S  ;  a  ]oving  tribute  of  sisterly  affection. 


SUMATRA. 


45 


A  range  of  hills,  sometimes  rising  abruptly  from  the  sea,  and  again  having  a 
gentle  slope,  variegated  with  woods  and  fields,  is  overlooked  by  another  behind 
it,  rising  here  and  there  into  lofty  peaks.  Floating  along  their  sides,  or  crown- 
ing their  summits,  were  clouds,  sometimes  resembling  a  newly-fallen  bank  of 
snow.  In  the  morning  the  rays  of  the  sun,  pouring  through  a  rift  in  the  cloudy 
canopy,  made  the  water  like  a  sea  of  molten  silver.  Again,  the  coast  all  day 
was  exceedingly  romantic  ;  lofty  mountains,  covered  with  woods  and  broken 
into  ridges,  plunged  boldly  into  the  sea.  The  hilly  islands  near  the  shore  present 
many  small  bays  and  inlets,  with  vistas  ending  in  a  fisherman's  hut,  or  a  village 
in  a  level  nook,  hidden  among  cocoanut  trees.  The  shore  from  Ayer  Bangy  to 
Pulo  (island)  Tamong  is  wild,  mountainous,  and  deeply  indented  with  bays.  At 
Priaman  the  rolling  surface  of  the  hill  north  of  the  town  is  covered  with  green 
grass.  The  bay  is  made  up  of  several  small  bays  within  a  bay,  all  with  fine 
headlands  at  their  extremities,  and  gracefully  curving  inland,  while  behind  rise 
loftier  ranges,  with  Mount  Ophir  towering  above  them  all.  At  Mene,  in  Pulo 
Nyas,  Mr.  Lyman  writes :  "  Before  us  was  the  breaking  surf,  the  white  beach, 
and  an  intervale  beyond,  flecked  with  clumps  of  trees,  fields,  and  huts,  backed 
by  a  long  range  of  undulating  hills,  divided  between  the  wildness  of  nature 
and  the  improvements  of  man,  their  summits  crowned  with  cocoanut  groves  and 
villages.  The  coast  of  the  island  at  the  southeast  is  much  broken  into  bays, 
but  the  mountains  are  neither  high  nor  rugged.  Some  of  the  hills  are  cultivated 
to  their  tops,  with  fine  green  plains  at  their  base." 

They  speak  of  meadows  of  velvet  softness  at  Bencoolen,  the  grass  not  more 
than  three  inches  high,  twice  as  fine  and  four  times  as  thick  as  in  New  Eng- 
land, the  most  elastic  Turkey  carpet  not  softer  or  more  agreeable.  This  is 
surprising  in  the  tropics,  but  it  prepares  us  to  hear  that  the  climate  in  many 
places  is  unhealthy.  Most  of  the  islands  are  low  and  swampy,  the  vegetation 
rank,  and,  of  course,  decaying.  June  ist  the  wind  was  cold  and  damp,  and 
a  cloak  comfortable  on  deck  in  the  evening.  In  the  isle  of  Nyas  the  days 
are  warm,  but  a  heavy  dew  falls  at  night.  The  hills,  however,  are  healthy, 
and  these  constitute  most  of  the  surface,  varying  from  five  hundred  to  per- 
haps fifteen  hundred  feet  in  height.  In  one  place  they  walked  for  a  mile 
through  grass  higher  than  their  heads,  and  then  through  thick  forests.  The 
shores  are  lined  with  cocoanut  trees,  and  the  sites  of  the  villages  are  marked 
by  the  banyan  trees  that  shelter  their  boats.  Palm  trees  flourish,  and  the 
marshes  along  the  shore  are  covered  with  mangrove  trees,  that  seem  to  grow 
out  of  the  water.  The  cotton  tree  is  common,  and  a  coarse  cloth  is  made  from 
it.  The  soil  is  a  light  sand,  with  a  black  mould  formed  of  decomposed  vege- 
table matter. 

They  found  much  coral  along  the  shore.  Sometimes  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
seemed  covered  with  a  fleecy  cloud ;  again  it  was  white,  mottled  with  dark  spots. 
Here  were  snow-drifts,  there  trees  and  shrubbery,  and  again  pillars,  globes,  and 
vases  ;  a  rich  and  varied  furnishing.  Every  year  these  coral  banks  narrow  the 
limits  of  navigation,  forming  new  reefs  and  islands  or  uniting  old  ones. 

Bencoolen  lies  on  a  point  of  land  at  the  outer  entrance  to  Pulo  Bay.  The 
northern  portion  of  it  is  on  high  land,  but  a  sand  bank  and  coral  reefs  compel 


46  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

large  vessels  to  anchor  seven  miles  off.  It  has  about  five  thousand  inhabitants, 
of  whom  five  hundred  are  Chinese  and  a  few  Europeans ;  the  rest  Malays,  with 
some  Bugis  and  Nyas.  It  was  founded  by  the  English  in  1685,  and  exchanged 
for  Malacca  in  1824.  Fort  Marlborough  is  a  noble  monument  of  English  skill 
and  enterprise.  The  houses  are  built  of  bamboo,  with  floors  and  verandas  of 
the  same,  and  stand  on  posts  five  feet  high.  The  wheels  of  their  buffalo  carts  ^ 
are  solid,  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  body,  three  feet  by  five,  rests 
on  a  frame  one  foot  above  the  top  of  the  wheels,  with  a  roof  like  that  of  a 
Chinese  house,  higher  in  front  than  behind,  and  covered  with  mats.  There  is 
a  small  door  in  front. 

Padang  occupies  a  beautiful  situation  on  the  river  of  that  name,  one  hundred 
yards  wide.  On  the  land  side  it  is  hedged  in  by  mountains  from  two  thousand 
to  four  thousand  feet  high.  It  enjoys  a  fine  sea  breeze,  and  is  comparatively 
healthy.  Ships  anchor  under  the  lee  of  Pulo  Pesang.  On  the  plain  of  Padang 
are  about  forty  thousand  Malays,  two  thousand  soldiers,  two  thousand  slaves, 
seven  hundred  Chinese,  and  five  hundred  free  Nyas.  The  goldsmiths  produce 
excellent  work  with  very  few  and  simple  tools.  The  city  is  embowered  in 
cocoanut  trees.  Its  business  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  four-hundred  Europeans 
and  the  Chinese.  The  great  export  is  coffee.  The  Malay  bazar  extends 
along  both  sides  of  a  street  for  a  mile  and  a  half.  Houses  are  mostly  built  of 
wood,  on  account  of  frequent  earthquakes,  one  of  which,  not  long  before,  dried 
up  the  river  for  a  time,  and  then  stocked  it  with  fish  of  an  unknown  species. 

From  Padang  the  missionaries  took  a  Malay  prahu,  of  eight  tons  burden, 
with  one  mast  and  a  crew  of  seven  Malays.  The  hold  was  filled  with  stores, 
the  crew,  and  three  other  passengers,  and  six  feet  of  it  was  divided  off  by  mats 
for  the  missionaries,  where  they  sat  or  slept,  but  could  not  stand  upright  or 
have  a  table.     The  crew  were  indolent,  dilatory,  and  undisciplined. 

They  came  next  to  Pulo  Batu,^'  a  group  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  islets, 
taking  this  name  from  a  singularly  shaped  rock.  The  largest  of  them  is  called 
Tanah  Massa.  Nineteen  of  them  have  a  population  of  about  eight  thousand 
in  all.  The  chief  place  of  trade  is  Telo,  at  the  head  of  a  fine  bay  on  the  east 
side  of  Si  Boehari,  three  days  from  Padang,  and  half  way  between  Natal  and 
Ayer  Bangy.  It  has  six  hundred  Nyas,  one  hundred  and  fifty  Malays,  and 
thirty  Chinese.  The  population  was  reduced  one  half  by  small-pox  a  few  years 
before.  The  people  pay  no  tax,  and  use  sago  instead  of  rice.  The  dress  of 
the  men  is  a  strip  of  cloth  thr-ee  inches  wide,  passing  between  the  legs  and 
wound  a  few  turns  round  the  body,  and,  sometimes,  several  strips  of  different 
colors,  with  loose  ends  hanging  down  in  front.  The  women  are  more  modestly 
attired,  with  the  sarong  fastened  round  the  waist  and  hanging  down  to  the 
knees.  In  the  street  a  loose  cloth  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders.  On  coming 
of  age,  the  teeth  of  both  sexes  are  cut  down  close  to  the  gums  and  stained 
black.  The  villages  here  are  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall  like  that  of  a  New 
England  field.  Opposite  the  entrance  is  the  ametjoer's  ^  house.  The  other  three 
sides  are  occupied  by  wooden  houses,  all  fronting  toward  the  center,  where  an 
idol  of  wood  stands  under  a  bamboo  shed.     The  houses  rest  on  posts  seven 

iPadatis.  =  Rock  island.  2  Head  man's. 


SUMATRA.  Mj 

feet  high.  The  roof  is  thatched  at  a  very  steep  angle,  and  in  the  center  of  it 
is  a  scuttle  for  light  and  air.  The  floors  and  doors  display  much  skill.  Several 
families  occupy  one  house,  and  there  is  an  outside  door  to  only  one  in  two  or 
three  ;  the  others  are  connected  by  doors  in  the  partitions. 

They  witnessed  a  wedding  in  one  of  these  villages.  But  first  let  us  look  in 
on  a  Malay  wedding  in  Batavia.  There  all  the  friends  of  both  families  are  in- 
vited, and  to  one  is  assigned  the  furnishing  of  the  flowers,  to  another  the  pastr)-, 
and  so  on  throughout  the  list  of  articles  required  for  the  feast.  The  prepara- 
tion goes  on  at  the  bride's  house  three  or  four  days,  with  music  sometimes  all 
night  long.  After  a  prescribed  round  of  visiting,  occupying  several  weeks, 
comes  the  wedding  procession,  led  by  two  wicker-work  images  of  a  man  with 
black  face  and  tiger-like  teeth,  with  a  drawn  kris  in  his  hand,  and  a  woman  of 
the  same  color  and  construction,  with  a  baby  in  her  arms.  These  are  eio-ht 
feet  in  height  and  very  broad,  a  man  inside  of  each  furnishing  the  moving  power. 
Next  follows  a  band  of  native  music,  and  then  the  presents,  which  are  mostly 
artificial  flowers,  and  paper  cut  into  fanciful  shapes.  The  friends  of  the  bride- 
groom follow  on  horseback  ;  next  the  bridegroom  himself,  also  mounted,  load- 
ed with  jewels,  and  fanned  by  a  friend.  Others  on  horseback,  and  a  crowd  of 
men  and  boys  close  the  procession.  Arrived  at  the  house  of  the  bride,  gongs, 
cymbals,  drums,  fifes,  and  all  kinds  of  music  almost  drown  the  cheers  of  the 
crowd.  There  the  pair  are  seated  on  a  bamboo  platform,  nearly  stifled  by  the 
quantity  of  fancifully  cut  paper  around  them,  and  scarcely  able  to  hold  up  their 
heads  for  the  weight  of  jewelry.  The  guests  care  more  for  the  loaded  tables 
under  temporary  bamboo  sheds  outside  than  for  this  display  in-doors.  A  New 
England  Thanksgiving  dinner  is  nothing  compared  to  the  variety  and  quantity 
of  the  food  provided.     The  provincial  wedding  was  somewhat  different. 

In  Pulo  Batu  they  found  one  thousand  guests  assembled  at  the  marriage  of 
the  daughter  of  an  ametjoer.  Near  the  shrine  of  the  idol,  in  the  center  of  the 
village,  was  a  high  pole,  from  whose  top  floated  two  streamers  :  one  of  scarlet, 
for  the  bridegroom,  and  another  of  yellow,  for  the  bride.  On  either  side  were 
four  other  poles  and  streamers  of  different  colors.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
dancers  moved  Vv'ith  measured  step  around  the  center  pole,  each  sex  by  itself, 
and  all  ranged  according  to  age.  The  music,  such  as  it  was  —  for  the  Nyas  are 
not  given  much  to  that  art  —  was  entirely  vocal,  a  half-shouting,  half-singing. 
Then  half  drew  off,  and  half  closed  round  the  bride  and  her  companions. 
Meanwhile,  others  at  one  end  of  the  enclosure  were  slaughtering  a  score  of 
hogs,  and  boiling  meat,  intestines,  and  all,  in  thirty  huge  caldrons.  The  pork 
that  could  not  be  got  into  the  kettles  was  divided  among  the  seven  villages  that 
furnished  the  animals  ;  and  after  the  distribution  of  the  presents — one  shab- 
bily dressed  old  man  giving  gold  ornaments  worth  $200  —  all  sat  down  to  the 
feast  of  pork  and  rice,  and  a  part  was  brought  to  their  American  guests,  who 
performed  their  part  as  well  as  they  could.  Many  of  the  women  were  stylishly 
dressed.  The  hair  was  fastened  in  a  knot  behind  with  gold  ornaments.  A 
band  of  gold  passed  round  the  forehead.  They  wore  long  golden  ear-rings. 
A  scarlet  petticoat  was  fastened  round  the  waist ;  a  long  piece  of  calico  was 
wound  round  the  bust,  and  over  it  a  berthe  of  yellow  beads,  terminating  below 


48  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

in  a  fringe  of  little  bells  and  shells.  By  way  of  girdle  was  a  quantity  of  brass 
wire  chain.  Then  there  were  necklaces,  bracelets,  and  rings  of  gold  and  ivory, 
and  below  all,  their  bare  feet. 

The  Nyas  are  fairer  than  the  Malays,  and  their  type  of  features  superior  to 
the  rest  of  the  natives,  yet  they  are  said  to  be  very  treacherous.  Under  pre- 
tense of  looking  at  it,  they  shoot  a  man  with  his  own  gun,  and,  professing  to 
lead  him  to  a  fine  hunt,  they  decoy  him  into  an  ambuscade.  They  are  neat  in 
their  persons,  and  in  each  village  is  a  bathing  place  for  the  women,  walled  in 
with  stone. 

When  one  dies  he  is  put  in  a  coffin,  and  the  family  make  a  feast  as  at  a 
birth.  The  coffin  is  laid  on  a  platform  in  the  thickest  and  loneliest  part  of  the 
woods.  The  head  is  always  laid  in  a  plate,  and  the  mat,  clothes,  and  pillow  of 
the  deceased,  with  another  plate,  are  fastened  to  a  stake  near  by,  to  decay  with 
their  owner.  In  the  northern  part  of  Pulo  Nyas  the  dead  are  buried.  When 
a  month  old,  the  right  ear  of  every  boy  is  slit,  and  both  ears  of  every  girl,  and 
a  name  is  given  to  the  child.  Women  are  treated  with  a  great  deal  of  respect, 
and  associate  with  the  men.  There  is  more  regard  shown  to  the  wife  and 
mother  than  among  other  natives  of  the  Archipelago.  Monogamy,  of  course, 
prevails,  for  such  a  state  of  things  never  co-exists  with  polygamy.  On  the 
death  of  a  wife  the  husband  may  marry  again  after  a  few  days,  but  a  widow 
must  wait  as  many  months.  No  wife  can  be  divorced  whose  character  is  good  ; 
when  one  is  divorced,  the  husband  must  pay  her  $20.  Children  are  punished 
by  their  parents  for  lying,  and  when  older  liars  refuse  to  confess  and  show  pen- 
itence, they  are  fined  $20.  The  thief  who  does  not  confess  and  restore  the 
stolen  property  is  bound  hand  and  foot  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  Adulterers 
and  murderers  are  beheaded ;  but  these  crimes  are  so  rare  that  some  do  not 
remember  the  occurrence  of  one  of  them.  In  the  island  of  Nyas,  the  crime  of 
stealing  plantains  is  fined  $50  ;  stealing  goats  more  than  that ;  and  stealing  rice 
or  gold  involves  death ;  so  do  adultery,  murder,  and  fornication.  In  the  latter 
case,  both  man  and  woman  are  put  to  death.  Debts  unpaid  are  doubled 
after  one  year,  and  doubled  again  after  the  second  year,  and  the  same 
is  done  with  any  portion  that  remains  unpaid.  After  three  years,  by  paying  a 
bribe  to  the  rajah,  the  creditor  can  generally  get  leave  to  sell  the  debtor  and 
his  family  into  slavery.  So,  if  a  man  is  proved  to  have  poisoned  another,  he 
and  his  family  are  sold  as  slaves.  The  Dutch  call  these  debtors,  but  they  are 
slaves.  They  are  brought  to  the  shore  bound,  and  during  the  sale  are  tied  to 
a  post ;  then,  with  only  a  strip  of  bark  about  their  loins,  are  fettered  and  fastened 
on  board  the  vessel,  to  prevent  their  committing  suicide.  The  government 
buys  them  for  a  term  of  years,  giving  them  their  food,  clothing,  and  $1.20  per 
month,  but  none  are  ever  known  to  be  liberated  or  to  return  to  their  native 
iland.  Where  slavery  exists,  it  opens  the  door  to  all  villainy.  The  missionaries 
£aw  two  interesting  orphans,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who  had  been  sold  by  their 
uncle,  so  that  he  might  increase  his  own  property  bv  their  price.  In  the  soutli- 
east  districts  of  Pulo  Nyas,  whither  the  missionaries  went  next,  men  sometimes 
sell  their  neighbors,  and  a  few  dollars  paid  to  the  rajah  keeps  all  quiet.  Some- 
limes  parents  sell  their  own  children,  and  children  their  parents.      A  man  has 


NYAS. 


49 


been  known  to  sell  the  children  of  his  first  wife  to  obtain  the  price  of  a  second. 
Some  say  two  hundred  slaves  are  taken  annually  from  the  island,  and  others 
say  a  thousand  from  Simambawa  alone.  The  government  had  a  large  prahu 
on  the  coast  when  the  missionaries  were  there,  with  orders  to  get  two  hundred 
in  six  months.  They  pay  $20  per  head,  and  a  premium  of  $4  more.  Two 
years  before,  a  French  ship  had  taken  four  hundred  to  the  Isle  of  France.  We 
are  not  surprised  to  hear  that  in  this  island  one  may  have  as  many  wives  as  he 
can  support.     The  price  of  one  differs  with  the  rank  and  wealth  of  her  family. 

There  is  only  one  good  harbor  on  the  island,  and  the  population  is  about 
two  hundred  thousand.  One  village  they  found  with  eight  thousand  inhab- 
itants, and  another  with  six  thousand.  The  village  of  Mene  is  palisaded  by 
sharpened  bamboo  poles,  and  entered  through  gates  at  each  end  of  a  fortified 
passage  twenty  feet  in  length.  There  are  five  dialects  spoken  in  Nyas,  the 
court  language  being  more  soft  and  smooth  than  the  others,  but  scarcely 
understood  by  the  common  people.  Their  farming  tools  are  very  simple.  The 
men  are  well  formed  and  manly,  with  fine  foreheads,  but  no  beards.  Their 
hair  is  black  and  straight.  The  women  are  short,  thick,  and  awkward  in  their 
movements,  and  neither  so  neat  nor  so  intelligent  as  those  of  Pulo  Batu. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Nyas  the  villages  are  fortified,  the  houses  oval  or 
round,  but  small  and  badly  built.  The  people  have  more  enterprise  and 
independence,  but  not  the  gentleness  of  the  Batu  people.  The  island  is  di- 
vided into  districts.  Each  village  has  a  chief,  and  over  the  whole  district  is  a 
head  chief.  In  the  middle  and  northern  districts,  justice  is  administered  by  a 
council  of  chiefs.  The  greatness  of  a  man  is  measured  by  the  number  of  heads 
he  possesses,  and  the  more  civilized  the  race  that  furnishes  the  head,  the 
higher  the  rank  of  its  possessor.  The  heads  hang  in  a  wicker  frame  con- 
spicuously in  the  house.  Their  weapons  are  a  home-made  spear  and  two 
krises,  also  of  home  manufacture,  one  longer  than  the  other ;  the  smaller  one 
is  in  constant  use  for  all  manner  of  purposes.  Their  defensive  armor  is  a 
light,  oblong  wooden  shield,  a  wooden  breastplate,  a  jacket  ^  reaching  to  the  hips, 
or  several  of  them  worn  one  over  the  other,  made  either  of  cotton  or  the  bark 
of  trees.  The  jacket  and  shield  are  worth  less  than  a  dollar,  and  the  spear  and 
daggers  are  valued  sometimes  at  $4  each.  In  the  use  of  their  weapons  they  are 
very  expert,  dodging  with  great  agility,  and,  after  throwing  the  spear,  rushing  to 
close  quarters  with  the  kris. 

From  Nyas  the  missionaries  crossed  over  to  Tappanooly  Bay,  where  the 
captain  of  the  "  Diedericka  "  was  once  invited  by  a  chief  to  feast  on  a  boy 
seven  years  old.  Thirteen  years  before,  the  boy's  father  had  killed  the  chief's 
brother.  The  boy,  recently  arrived  in  the  place,  had  innocently  told  who  he 
was,  and  was  at  once  killed  and  eaten  for  the  sin  committed  six  years  before 
he  was  born.  Among  such  a  people  the  missionaries  now  went,  leaving  their 
vessel,  and  traveling  on  foot  through  dense  thickets  and  up  and  down  steep 
rocks,  only  to  meet  the  fate  of  that  little  boy,  on  the  fifth  day  of  their  journey, 
June  28,  1834,  at  the  village  of  Sacca.  We  have  a  brief  account  of  the  scene 
from  one  of  their  surviving  attendants,  and  also  learn  that  when  the  Battas 

'  Badjoe. 

4 


50      .  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

came  to  know  what  was  done,  they  leagued  together,  and,  in  an  hour  when  they 
looked  not  for  it,  burned  up  the  offending  village  and  slaughtered  its  inhabitants. 
Far  different  were  the  feelings  of  the  mother  of  the  martyred  Lyman.  Though 
even  twenty  years  after,  when  that  scene  was  alluded  to,  a  sleepless  night  and 
pallid  face  told  how  the  mother  suffered,  yet  when  the  sad  news  was  told  her 
by  Dr.  Humphrey,  then  president  of  Amherst  College,  the  first  words  that  she 
uttered  after  she  was  able  to  speak  were  :  "  I  bless  God,  who  gave  me  such  a  son 
to  go  to  the  heathen,  and  I  never  desired  so  much  as  now  that  some  other  of  my 
children  might  go  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  those  who  have  killed  my  Henry," 
Such  an  utterance  speaks  more  for  the  missionary  work  than  all  the  scientific 
results  it  ever  yielded.  Through  the  kind  exertions  of  the  military  command- 
ant at  Tappanooly,  their  heads  were  not  left  to  hang  in  the  bamboo  huts  of 
their  murderers,  but  were  reverently  returned  to  their  native  land. 

This  martyrdom  also  furnishes  a  contribution  to  psychology  which  claims  a 
passing  notice.  Mrs.  Lyman  was  remarkable  for  the  uniformity  of  her  cheer- 
fulness, and  her  constant  looking  on  the  bright  side  of  things ;  but  on  June  28, 
1834,  she  felt  unaccountably  oppressed.  A  heavy  burden  pressed  her  down 
all  day  long.  She  could  not  engage  in  her  usual  occupations.  Again  and 
again  she  said,  as  she  sank  into  a  chair :  "  I  cannot  throw  off  this  depression. 
Why  should  it  come  to-day?"  Next  day  she  heard  that  a  favorite  nephew  had 
died  on  the  27th,  and  she  said:  "Strange  that  I  should  have  felt  so  the  day 
after,"  Months  passed,  and  when  she  came  to  enter  Henry's  death  opposite 
the  date  in  her  Daily  Food,  to  her  surprise,  she  found  that  it  was  the  day  of 
her  strange  depression.  Such  facts  suggest  deep  thoughts  of  the  connection 
of  the  present  with  the  future  life,  and  the  connection  of  God  with  both. 

BORNEO. 

A  few  facts  respecting  the  island  of  Borneo  and  its  inhabitants  are  here  con- 
densed from  the  pages  of  the  Missionary  Herald,  1836,  pp.  433-439. 

If  we  call  Australia  a  continent,  Borneo  is  the  largest  island  in  the  world. 
It  contains  over  three  hundred  thousand  square  miles  of  surface.  The  coast 
is  indented  by  many  bays.  The  rivers  Borneo,  Banjar,  Sukadana,  and  Pontia- 
nak  are  navigable  for  more  than  fifty  miles.  Near  the  coast  the  land  is  often 
marshy,  but  inland  there  is  great  diversity  of  surface,  and  most  beautiful  scen- 
ery. A  high  range  of  mountains  runs  from  northeast  to  southwest  through  the 
island,  with  a  branch  turning  off  to  its  southeast  corner.  The  island  was  dis- 
covered by  the  companions  of  Magellan,  in  1521.  The  Portuguese  attempted 
a  settlement  in  1625,  but  were  driven  off.  The  Dutch  erected  a  factory  at 
Pontianak  in  1643,  and  have  maintained  their  hold  ever  since.  The  English 
sought  to  secure  a  position  at  Banjar  Masin  in  1706,  and  again  at  Pasir  in 
1772,  but  failed  in  both  cases.  Borneo  proper  is  a  district  on  the  northwest 
coast,  seven  hundred  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  inland.  The  city  of  Borneo,  or  Bruni,  stands  on 
the  river  of  that  name,  ten  miles  from  its-  mouth,  built  on  posts  within  high- 
water  mark.  The  palace  of  the  sultan  alone  is  on  dry  land.  Its  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Malays,  and  of  uncertain  numbers  ;  some  say  about  twenty  thou- 


BORNEO. 


SI 


sand.  The  district  of  Sambas,  to  the  west  of  this,  has  been  notorious  for 
piracy ;  nor  is  it  alone  in  this.  The  southeastern  part  of  the  island,  near  Pulo 
Laut,  also  swarmed  with  pirates,  who  banded  together  a  number  of  prahus,  and 
lay  hid  among  the  small  islets,  ready  to  pounce  on  any  native  vessel  that  might 
come  within  their  reach.  They  were  not  so  ready  to  attack  European  vessels, 
though  that  also  has  been  done,  sometimes  with  success. 

The  Malays  furnish  the  pirates,  as  they  live  on  the  coast,  and  they  also 
oppress  the  native  tribes  in  the  interior  in  a  merciless  manner.  Crimes,  too,  go 
unpunished,  unless  where  personal  interest  secures  the  repression  of  evil-doers. 
It  needs  no  argument  to  show  how  such  a  state  of  things  subverts  moral  prin- 
ciple, and  keeps  the  people  in  continual  unrest,  if  not  in  hopeless  anarchy. 
There  are  some  Malays,  however,  who  do  not  fall  in  with  the  prevailing 
violence,  else  society  could  not  be  held  together.  The  Chinese  live  chiefly  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  island.  They  are  peaceful,  industrious,  frugal, 
and  given  to  trade.  They  have  been  in  Borneo  for  a  century,  but  have  not  for- 
gotten their  home  training,  and  make  good  citizens.  Most  of  them  live  under 
a  government  of  their  own,  which  punishes  crime  with  great  severity.  Others 
live  under  the  Malays  or  the  Dutch.  Many  of  them  are  agriculturists,  and  in 
some  places  they  dig  for  gold  and  diamonds.  They  number  probably  between 
two  hundred  thousand  and  three  hundred  thousand. 

The  Bugis  engage  mostly  in  trade  and  maritime  pursuits,  and  compete  in 
these  with  the  Chinese.  They  are  described  as  treacherous  and  hostile  to 
Europeans,  and,  when  they  can,  seek  to  get  political  power  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  Malays.  They  number  about  twenty-five  thousand.  In  religion  they  are 
Moslems,  like  the  Malays,  but  are  in  advance  of  them  in  many  things,  and 
among  those  on  the  coast  some  are  wealthy. 

A  few  inoffensive  and  industrious  Javanese  live  on  the  southern  coast,  but 
the  mass  of  the  interior  population  is  Dyak,  or  Dayak.  These  are  broken  up 
into  a  number  of  petty  tribes,  having  different  languages,  and  frequently  at  war 
with  each  other.  Seven  dialects  are  spoken  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
island.  They  have  very  crude  and  indefinite  ideas  of  religion.  In  person 
they  are  fairer  and  more  manly  than  the  Malays,  but  the  women,  as  among  the 
Patagonians,  are  not  so  well  formed  as  the  men.  Polygamy  is  almost  unknown 
among  them,  and  in  social  intercourse  they  are  kind  and  hospitable,  though 
the  missionaries  found  villages  which  formed  an  exception  in  this  respect. 
While  at  one  place,  the  people  wanted  to  carry  them  on  their  backs  through 
the  jungle  to  their  village ;  in  another,  a  young  man  would  not  bring  even  a 
drink  of  water,  but  set  it  down  several  feet  off ;  and  all  their  intercourse  par- 
took of  that  surly  character. 

The  Dyaks  love  the  high  lands,  and  are  sure  to  be  found  there,  and  along 
the  banks  of  the  streams  among  the  hills,  where  the  water  is  cool  and  clear, 
unlike  the  swampy  mangrove  region  along  the  shore.  Some  of  the  tribes  are 
in  the  lowest  barbarism,  and  know  neither  marriage  nor  dwellings,  but  rove 
like  wild  beasts,  and  at  night  sleep  under  a  tree,  with  a  fire  to  keep  off  beasts 
of  prey.  They  are  hunted  like  game  by  the  other  tribes,  who  kill  the  men  but 
spare   the  young  women.      The  children,  however  kindly  treated,  cannot  be 


52  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

tamed,  but  flee  to  the  woods  at  the  first  opportunity ;  so  that  their  feet  are 
sometimes  cut  off  to  retain  their  services  in  paddling  canoes.  The  Dyaks  gen- 
erally cultivate  the  soil,  but  in  a  very  bungling  way.  They  cut  down  the 
forests,  raise  one  or  two  crops  from  the  virgin  soil,  and  then  leave  it,  either  to 
grow  up  in  lalang —  a  kind  of  wild  grass  —  or  to  be  cultivated  by  the  industri- 
ous Chinese,  while  they  move  elsewhere,  to  repeat  the  same  process,  never 
staying  more  than  six  years  in  a  place.  At  first  their  numbers  were  estimated 
at  one  million  in  Borneo  proper,  and  two  millions  in  the  whole  island  ;  but 
more  intimate  acquaintance  with  them  has  led  to  greatly  reduced  estimates. 
The  largest  known  village  does  not  contain  more  than  four  hundred  and  fifty 
souls,  and  their  constant  wars,  and  especially  their  habit  of  cutting  off  each 
other's  heads  to  serve  as  household  ornaments,  in  some  places  threaten  their 
extinction.  The  missionaries  tell  of  one  expedition  for  heads  that  was  attacked 
by  a  Dutch  vessel,  which  they  incautiously  approached,  and  three  hundred 
Dyaks  were  either  killed  outright  or  sank  with  their  boats,  which  were  broken 
into  fragments  by  the  cannon  balls.  Wherever  the  missionaries  went  they  had 
to  sit  under  these  hideous  trophies  in  the  Dyak  houses,  sometimes  as  many  as 
twelve  or  twenty  adorning  a  single  dwelling.  The  skin  is  removed,  the  skull  is 
polished,  and  figures  carved  on  it,  while  a  bunch  of  rattan  leaves  is  attached  on 
either  side.  A  man's  standing  is  measured  by  the  number  of  heads  in  his  house ; 
and  though  it  is  not  true,  as  a  general  rule,  that  a  man  cannot  marry  till  he  has 
cut  off  a  head,  yet  sometimes  this  is  the  kind  of  dowry  demanded.  New  heads 
are  more  valued  than  old,  and  those  of  women  more  than  those  of  men.  They 
'are  prized  as  charms  that  avert  evil  from  the  house  where  they  are,  and  so  their 
owners  will  on  no  account  sell  them.  Like  the  vendetta  or  blood  revenge  of 
some  countries,  this  never  ends ;  for,  although  the  latest  head  may  have  been 
cut  off  in  revenge  for  a  previous  murder,  it  creates  a  demand  for  retaliation,  just 
as  though  it  were  the  first  in  the  series.  When  a  head  is  obtained,  the  whole 
village  comes  together  to  give  expression  to  its  joy.  The  head  is  boiled  till 
the  flesh  comes  off,  the  scalp  is  buried  with  a  rough  wooden  image  of  the  vic- 
tim, and  men,  women,  and  children  all  feast  together  on  swine's  flesh,  with 
music  and  dancing.  The  place  for  such  orgies  is  generally  under  some  trees, 
enclosed  by  a  fence,  with  a  platform  and  a  bamboo  pole  in  the  centre,  with  a 
basket  at  the  top,  for  offerings  of  fruit  presented  to  the  heads.  It  might  seem 
as  though  the  people  who  do  such  things  must  be  exceptionally  ferocious ;  but 
this  is  by  no  means  the  case.  They  are  not  savage,  but  mild  ;  and  in  many 
places  the  custom  is  abandoned  as  they  see  how  it  is  regarded  by  more  civilized 
people,  and  no  doubt  it  would  quickly  disappear  before  the  Gospel. 

One  tribe,  the  Jangkang,  are  cannibals,  and  so  is  another  on  the  eastern 
coast.  They  boast  of  it,  and  claim  that  it  makes  them  brave.  "  How  could  we 
be  so,"  they  say,  "if  we  never  tasted  of  human  flesh  ?  "  They  do  not  eat  the 
whole  body,  but  pick  out  as  tit-bits  the  tongue,  the  brain,  and  the  flesh  of  the 
legs.  The  men  of  this  tribe  file  their  teeth  to  a  point,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 
They  are  unusually  well-proportioned  and  muscular.  They  go  nearly  naked, 
wearing  only  a  narrow  strip  of  cloth  or  bark  about  the  loins.'     On  the  right 

'  Chowat. 


BORNEO. 


55. 


side  they  carry  a  small  ornamented  rattan  basket/  holding  the  apparatus^  of 
the  chewer  of  betel-nut ;  also  a  sheathed  knife  ^  with  long,  slender  blade,  used  for 
ordinary  purposes  and  trimming  off  the  ears  of  heads.  On  the  left  side  hangs 
the  heavy  sword*  that  can  cut  through  both  arm  and  neck  at  a  single  stroke. 
The  dress  of  the  Dyaks  is  similar.  Their  hair  is  black,  and,  worn  long  down  to 
their  shoulders,  gives  them  a  wild  look.  Some  wear  a  string  of  cowries  round 
their  heads.  The  women  wear  a  cloth  extending  from  the  loins  nearly  to  the 
knees,  and  a  cap  of  rattan.  Their  ears  are  usually  pierced  with  a  piece  of 
bamboo  nearly  an  inch  in  thickness.  In  southeastern  Borneo  the  lobe  is 
stretched  so  much  in  this  way,  over  wooden  rings  as  large  as  a  dollar,  that  it 
sometimes  breaks.  Quantities  of  beads  adorn  their  necks.  Many  rings  are 
on  their  arms,  mostly  of  brass,  but  some  of  jade-stone.  A  girdle  made  of  rings 
of  rattan  dyed  red  and  black  is  fastened  over  the  waist-cloth  by  a  clasp ;  some 
wear  one  six  or  eight  inches  wide,  adorned  with  many-colored  beads.  Their 
bust  and  arms  are  naked,  unless  when  a  loose  cloth  is  sometimes  thrown  over 
them.  Boys  are  naked,  and  girls  wear  a  strip  of  cloth  like  the  men.  The 
bark  cloth  they  use  is  sometimes  printed  in  colors  by  rude  blocks. 

The  Dyaks  have  no  alphabet,  but  they  have  a  sign-language  by  which  they 
communicate  a  summons  to  battle,  like  the  red  cross  of  the  Highlanders.  For 
this  they  use  small  wooden  weapons  such  as  they  use  in  their  blow-guns.^ 
The  two  opposite  points  represent  the  two  armies,  and  the  number  of  notches 
between,  the  number  of  days  before  the  battle.  A  larger  arrow  has  as  many 
notches  as  the  number  of  men  demanded  from  the  village.  Sometimes  one 
end  is  burned  and  the  other  painted  red  ;  this  means  that  the  village  of  the 
enemy  is  to  be  burned,  and  the  people  slain.  They  have  a  similar  sign- 
language  for  peace.  Near  the  path,  where  the  countries  of  two  tribes  joined, 
the  missionaries  once  found  a  water-jar  and  spear,  and  were  told  that  one  tribe 
had  placed  them  there  as  a  token  of  desire  for  peace,  and  as  long  as  they  were 
left  there  by  both  parties,  peace  would  continue.  But  what  if  some  malicious 
person  should  remove  them,  or  wild  beasts  displace  them  ?  In  counting,  in- 
stead of  advancing  from  ten  to  twenty,  and  so  on,  as  we  do,  they  stop  at 
ten  as  we  do  at  a  hundred,  and  then  say  so  many  tens. 

The  Dyaks  are  not  given  to  stealing  ;  articles  could  be  trusted  to  their  care 
with  safety,  though  they  do  not  shrink  from  begging  for  what  they  want.  They 
are  treated  with  great  severity  by  their  Malay  rulers,  who  take  most  of  the  har- 
vest for  taxes,  and  do  not  leave  enough  to  feed  them  till  another  harvest.  The 
missionaries  found  the  people  in  Karangan  living  on  roots  long  before  their 
crops  were  fit  to  eat,  and  when  they  ripened  the  tax-gatherer  took  the  greater 
portion.  So  the  people  lose  all  incentive  to  labor,  and  this  state  of  things 
between  them  and  their  rulers  is  a  serious  hindrance  to  missionary  effort. 
Their  houses  are  built  on  posts,  in  one  continuous  range,  and  divided  by  parti- 
tions according  to  the  number  of  families,  each  with  a  front  door.  In  front  of 
the  whole  is  a  veranda  about  ten  feet  wide,  on  which  they  dry  and  thresh  their 
rice.     One  door  in  the  outer  side  of  this  veranda  answers  for  several  houses; 

1  Tung  king.  =  Sirih.  ■' Sinda. 

*  Lansa.  ■'  Siimpitans. 


54 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


and  a  log  with  notches  cut  in  it,  or  two  poles  tied  together  with  rattan,  serves 
for  a  ladder  from  the  ground  outside.  The  roof  is  thatch/  and  the  sides  en- 
closed with  bark."  The  space  under  the  bamboo  floor  serves  for  a  hogpen,  so 
that  the  houses  are  not  very  savory  to  Europeans.  In  southwestern  Borneo 
large  earthern  jars  stand  in  rows  round  the  room,  and  indicate  the  wealth  of 
the  owner.  The  windows  are  in  the  roof,  and,  as  they  are  open,  serve  for  both 
window  and  chimney.  Their  roads  are  mere  trails,  sometimes  hardly  dis- 
cernible, and  lead  through  jungle,  up  and  down  rocks,  and  now  and  then 
through  swamps  with  water  all  the  way  from  the  knees  to  the  shoulders.  Some- 
times the  missionaries  had  to  stand  in  such  a  cold  bath  till  some  sort  of  a 
bridge  could  be  arranged  across  a  place  that  was  over  the  head.  Their  streams 
are  very  rarely  bridged ;  though  a  bridge  is  described  at  Majan,  made  of  poles 
and  withes,  in  the  form  of  an  arch,  about  seventeen  feet  high  in  the  middle, 
fastened  to  a  tree  at  one  end  and  stakes  at  the  other,  with  long  vines  fastening 
the  railing  to  the  limbs  of  trees. 

Pontianak  is  described  at  the  confluence  of  the  Landak  and  Kapwas,  four- 
teen miles  from  the  sea,  and  directly  under  the  equator.  The  river  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  four  hundred  tons,  but  a  bar  at  its  mouth  causes  difficulty  to  those 
over  half  that  size.  The  population  within  a  radius  of  six  miles  is  six  thousand 
Malays,  two  thousand  five  hundred  Bugis,  and  two  thousand  Chinese.  There 
are  no  Dyaks  in  the  place.  There  is  an  unusual  sound  like  the  music  of  an 
yEolian  harp,  caused  by  the  motion  of  boats  on  this  river  in  the  dry  season, 
dependent  on  some  -peculiar  connection  of  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  or  the 
height  of  the  water  with  the  conformation  of  the  shore.  The  Ladak  river  is  so 
narrow  in  places  that  the  missionaries  had  to  chop  through  trunks  of  trees  lying 
across  it,  before  their  boats  could  go  on. 

The  Dyaks  have  a  custom  which  they  call  sabat,  in  which  a  little  blood  is 
taken  from  the  shoulders  of  the  high  contracting  parties,  and,  after  being  mixed 
with  water,  is  drank  by  them  as  a  pledge  of  brotherhood.  This  gives  a  stranger 
the  freedom  of  the  country.  When  a  child  is  born,  the  father  lies  idle  for  a 
month,  under  the  belief  that,  if  he  does  not  do  so,  the  child  will  die.  They  be- 
lieve the  rainbow  is  the  reflection  from  the  crest  of  a  huge  serpent,  of  a  species 
called  nabo,  in  training  for  a  conflict  with  the  sea-serpent  ^  that  lives  in  a  whirl- 
pool in  the  center  of  the  ocean,  whom  he  will  attack  when  he  deems  himself 
ready  for  the  battle. 

The  Dyaks  wrap  their  dead  in  a  white  winding-sheet,  and  place  them  in  a 
rough  cofiin.  After  the  grave  is  dug  to  the  proper  depth,  they  excavate  a  cham- 
ber at  the  side  just  large  enough  to  hold  the  coffin,  and,  slipping  it  in,  fill  up 
the  grave.  They  make  a  great  wailing,  and  none  in  the  village  are  allowed  to 
work  for  three  days  after. 

They  have  great  faith  in  omens.  They  will  not  attack  the  enemy  till  birds 
are  heard  on  their  right ;  if  on  the  left,  it  is  a  bad  omen.  So  they  delay  some- 
times for  a  month  after  an  attack  is  resolved  on.  If  the  cry  is  on  both  sides 
at  once,  success  is  doubtful ;  but  if  that  on  the  right  is  the  stronger,  they  expect 
success  with  difficulty.     If  a  bird  swoops  down  flying  over  a  sick  man,  he  will 

lAtap.  'Kajan;::.  "  Nag.i. 


INDIA.  r  " 

•die  ;  if  it  flies  upward,  he  will  recover.  When  a  bird  flies  into  a  house,  thev 
think  an  enemy  is  coining,  and  if  certain  birds  are  heard  in  the  night,  they  rise 
and  go  out,  fearing  an  attack.  Some  of  the  tribes  on  the  Kapwas  believe  in 
transmigration.  After  death  they  expect,  like  their  ancestors,  to  become  deer 
and  orang-outangs  ;  hence  they  never  eat  the  flesh  of  the  deer. 

A  map  of  western  Borneo,  prepared  by  the  missionaries,  may  be  found  in 
the  Missionary  Herald  for  1844,  p.  314.  Further  west.  Dr.  D.  B.  Bradley, 
whose  medical  skill  enabled  him  to  go  everywhere,  explored  many  portions  of 
Siam,  and  described  intelligently  what  he  saw.     So  also  did  Rev.  S.  Johnson. 


Hindostan,  now  traversed  by  railroads  for  thousands  of  miles,  has  become  a 
well-known  land.  Missionaries  penetrate  all  parts  of  it,  and  their  journals  bring 
the  information  obtained  at  once  before  the  reading  public.  In  185 1  our  own 
missionaries  traveled  more  than  six  thousand  miles.  In  1864  Rev.  G.  T.  Wash- 
burn visited  fifty  villages  in  an  adjoining  district,  and  more  than  two  hundred 
in  his  own,  in  order  to  map  out  his  work  intelligently.  Obviously,  he  could  not 
help  obtaining  much  geographical  knowledge,  and  so  with  other  missionaries 
in  other  fields.  Missionaries  are  instructed  to  explore  regions  imperfectly 
known,  in  order  to  obtain  the  geographical  knowledge  essential  to  the  wise 
prosecution  of  their  work. 

The  name  India  is  derived  from  the  river  Indus,  and  was  given  to  that 
country  by  the  Persians,  and  so  passed  over  to  the  Greeks.  The  Sanskrit  name 
of  the  country  is  Bharat,  sometimes  called  Bharat  Khund  or  Jambhudvipa. 
The  name  Hindostan,  from  Hindu,  black,  and  stan,  country,  was  also  given  by 
the  Persians,  but  comprises  properly  only  the  region  north  of  the  Nerbudda, 
west  of  Bengal,  and  east  of  Gujerat.  The  extreme  length  of  India  is  more 
than  nineteen  hundred  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to 
the  Brahmaputra  exceeds  fifteen  hundred.  Its  area  is  one  million  two  hundred 
and  eighty  thousand  miles  ;  larger  than  that  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  as  large  as  all  Europe  south  of  Russia  and  the  Baltic.  The 
names  of  its  provinces  have  differed  at  different  times.  Their  limits  are  also 
indefinite,  though  they  have  not  changed  since  the  English  occupation  of  the 
country.  More  than  half  of  India  is  within  the  tropics.  Nine  tenths  of  it  is 
further  south  than  New  Orleans,  and  its  northern  limit  is  in  the  latitude  of 
South  Carolina.  Of  course  the  climate  is  hot,  but  along  the  coast  the  heat  is 
"moderated  by  the  sea  breezes,  though  south  of  Calcutta  ice  or  frost  is  seldom 
seen.  With  few  exceptions,  the  houses  have  no  chimneys  or  conveniences  for 
making  a  fire  at  any  season.  In  the  great  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  Indus  the 
heat  is  very  intense.     In  the  north,  snow  and  ice  are  frequent  in  winter. 

Cape  Comorin  is  the  southern  termination  of  the  Ghauts,  called  by  the  na- 
tives the  Syadree  mountains.  They  extend  north  nearly  a  thousand  miles,  at 
an  average  distance  of  forty  miles  from  the  coast.  They  vary  in  height  from 
two  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet,  and  at  a  few  points  are  nearly  five  thousand. 
They  rise  abruptly  on  the  west,  but  slope  gradually  on  the  eastern  side,  and 
are  generally  wooded.     The  Neilgherry  hills  lie  east  of  these,  between  latitude 


56  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

10^  and  11°,  separating  Mysore  from  Travancore.  These  rise  to  the  height  of 
seven  thousand  feet,  and  are  much  resorted  to  by  Europeans  as  a  sanitarium. 
Their  climate  is  delightfully  cool  and  bracing,  and  knows  little  variation  during 
the  year. 

The  river  Nerbudda,  seven  or  eight  hundred  miles  long,  separates  the 
Deckan  from  Hindostan.  South  of  it  lies  the  Sautpura  range,  and  north 
of  it  the  Vindhya.  The  Himalaya  separate  India  from  Thibet,  extending  more 
than  one  thousand  miles,  from  the  Brahmaputra  to  the  Indus.  As  is  well 
known,  they  are  the  highest  summits  on  the  globe,  Dhawalgiri  being  twenty- 
seven  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet,  and  Chimborazo,  the  highest 
of  the  Andes,  being  only  twenty-one  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-four.' 
Among  these  mountains  is  every  variety  of  climate,  from  the  torrid  to 
the  frigid  zone.  Their  scenery,  the  views  of  the  immense  plains  below,  the 
towering  peaks  above,  and  the  endlessly  varied  heights  and  valleys,  are  the  ad- 
miration of  all  who  have  been  so  favored  as  to  see  them.  Bishop  Heber 
speaks  of  range  behind  range,  each  more  rugged  and  bare  than  the  last,  termi- 
nating in  a  vast  battlement  of  ice,  shooting  ujd  white,  glittering  spears  from  east 
to  west  as  far  as  the  eye  could  follow ;  and  Raper  says  :  "  From  the  edge  of  the 
scarp  the  eye  took  in  seven  or  eight  distinct  ranges,  till  the  view  was  terminated 
by  the  highest  of  all.  The  depth  of  the  valley  below,  the  progressive  elevation 
of  the  intermediate  hills,  and  the  majestic  splendor  of  the  Himalaya  formed  a 
picture  that  inspired  awe  more  than  pleasure."  Elphinstone  also  speaks  of 
•  their  stupendous  height,  and  the  awful,  undisturbed  solitude  of  their  eternal 
snows  filling  the  mind  with  feelings  which  words  cannot  express. 

Simla,  seven  thousand  three  hundred  feet  high,  on  the  southwest  slope  of 
the  Himalaya,  Darjeeling  in  the  Sikkim  territory,  seven  thousand  four  hundred 
feet  high,  Abu  in  Gujerat,  Kandalla  and  Mahabuleshwur,  on  the  Ghauts,  east 
of  Bombay,  Ootacummund,  six  thousand  five  hundred  feet  high,  Khottagherry, 
and  other  places  on  the  Neilgherry  and  Pulney  hills,  are  resorted  to  as  health 
stations. 

Bengal,  in  some  places  along  the  Ganges,  is  perfectly  level  for  hundreds  of 
miles.  The  country,  to  one  going  up  the  river,  seems  one  boundless  prairie. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  lower  Indus,  and  between  that  and  Ajmere  is  a  sandy 
desert  for  several  hundred  miles.  Very  little  rain  falls  there,  and  the  adjoining 
districts  suffer  much  from  drought.  Gujerat  is  generally  level  and  fertile,  and 
so  are  some  parts  of  the  Deckan. 

The  Indus  rises  in  Thibet,  north  of  the  Himalaya,  runs  northwest  for  sev- 
eral hundred  miles,  and  then,  turning  southwest,  receives  the  Sutlej  and  Beas 
(which  together  form  the  Ghara),  the  Ravee,  the  Chenab,  and  the  Jhelum,  and 
empties  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  after  a  course  of  seventeen  hundred  miles. 
The  Ganges  rises  on  the  south  side  of  the  Himalaya,  and  flows  sixteen  hun- 
dred miles  through  the  most  populous  parts  of  India,  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
It  is  not  needful  to  mention  its  sacredness  or  its  sacred  places.     It  bears  on  its 

1  Since  then  Kaiichinjanga  —  as  A.  Wilson  spells  it  —  has  taken  the  lead,  at  the  height  of  twenty-eight  thou- 
sand one  hundred  and  fifty,  and  then  Gaurisankar  claimed  the  crown,  though  its  exact  height  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained. Now  Mount  Everest  reigns  supreme  at  a  height  of  29,000  feet.  The  next  news,  however,  may  be  that  a 
new  claimant  has  pushed  that  also  from  the  throne. 


INDIA.  57 

bosom  a  large  commerce,  though  sudden  changes  in  the  channel  often  make 
navigation  dangerous.  The  Godavery,  Krishna,  or  Kistna,  the  Pennaur,  and 
the  Cauvery,  of  which  the  Coleroon  is  the  largest  mouth,  all  flow  across  the 
peninsula  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  but  the  great  contrast  between  the  rapid  cur- 
rent of  the  rainy  season,  and  the  low  water  of  the  dry,  renders  them  unfit  for 
navigation.  Their  waters,  however,  carry  life  to  the  extensive  region  through 
which  they  flow,  by  furnishing  the  means  of  irrigation. 

These  few  hints  on  the  geography  of  India  are  from  the  pages  of  Dr.  Allen's 
work  on  India,  which  is  highly  commended  both  in  the  New  Englander^  and  in 
the  Lo7idoJi  AthencBiim. 

Rev.  F.  DeW.  Ward  also  devotes  twenty-six  pages  of  his  India  and  the 
Hindoos  to  the  geography  of  the  country.  In  these  he  describes  the  falls  of 
the  river  Shirawaty,  or  Carawooty,  that  rises  in  the  western  Ghauts  and  falls 
into  the  ocean  near  Bombay.  The  stream  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  across,  but,  as 
the  edge  of  the  falls  is  elliptical,  its  sweep  is  much  wider.^  The  water  rushes 
for  about  three  hundred  feet  at  an  angle  of  45'',  in  a  sheet  of  white  foam,  and 
then  plunges  down  eight  hundred  and  fifty  more,  with  a  noise  like  thunder, 
thus  quadrupling  the  heiglit  of  Niagara.  He  also  describes  that  of  Courtallum, 
a  hundred  miles  north  of  Cape  Comorin.'  He  mentions  hot  springs  near  the 
source  of  the  Jumna,  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  at  a  temperature  of 
1700  and  even  194^  ;  also  in  the  Godavery,  the  valley  of  the  Nerbudda,  in 
Gondwana,  Bundelcund,  a  village  near  Pooree,  Setacuno,  and  a  village  near 
Delhi.*      He  also  gives  a  brief  description  of  many  of  the  cities  of  India.^ 

The  population  of  India  was  probably  as  large  two  thousand  years  ago  as 
it  is  now.  Previous  to  the  annexation  of  Scinde  and  the  Punjaub  it  was  esti- 
mated—  for  no  census  of  the  whole  has  ever  been  taken  —  from  one  hundred 
and  thirty-one  million  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand"  to  one  hundred  and 
forty  million.^  Since  the  annexation  of  those  countries,  it  was  assumed  to  be  one 
hundred  and  fifty  million  in  the  debates  about  renewing  the  charter  of  the  East 
India  Company.  Later  accounts  give  it  an  area  of  one  million  four  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  thousand  five  hundred  and  forty-seven  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  one  hundred  and  seventy  million  eight  hundred  and  thirteen 
thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty-eight ;  but  what  the  latest  number  is,  in  these 
days  of  war  and  doubtful  annexations,  would  be  hard  to  say. 

'  February,  1S57. 

-  The  writer  sees  no  place  for  so  large  a  river  near  Bombay.  In  Black's  Atlas,  edition  of  1876,  the  Saraswatl 
empties  into  the  Runn  of  Cutch,  but  is  quite  a  small  river. 

=  pp.  S-9.  *p.  10.  5  pp.  20-26. 

6  McCulloch.  '  Elphinstone. 


III. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONTINUED. 

WESTERN  ASIA   AND   AFRICA. 

It  would  seem  as  though  this  ancient  region  needed  no  new  exploration,  but 
there  is  hardly  any  part  of  the  world  where  missionaries  have  done  more  for 
the  science  of  geography.  In  January,  1820,  Messrs.  Fisk  and  Parsons  arrived 
at  Smyrna,  and  as  that  port  was  the  first  visited  at  the  commencement  of  our 
missions  in  Turkey,  and  has  since  been  the  landing-place  of  all  our  missionaries, 
whether  intending  to  labor  in  Turkey,  Syria,  or  Persia,  it  seemed  fitting  that 
the  first  glimpse  of  the  Orient  to  so  many  should  form  the  frontispiece  of  a 
volume  designed  to  record  their  contributions  to  science,  itself  one  of  their 
gifts  to  the  science  of  geography,  for  it  first  appeared  in  the  Alissionary  Herald, 
July,  1872.  The  view  is  reproduced  from  a  photograph  taken  from  a  point 
:50mewhatto  the  south  of  the  usual  anchorage,  and  was  very  familiar  to  the 
writer  during  his  quarantine  on  returning  from  Syria. 

Beginning  at  the  right,  the  solitary  cypress  tree  below  the  castle  is  the 
traditional  site  of  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  a  personal  friend  and  disciple  of 
the  apostle  John,  and  the  pastor  of  the  church  in  Smyrna.  The  houses  of  the 
city  fill  the  center  of  the  engraving,  the  Turkish  barracks  forming  a  large  paral- 
lelogram open  to  the  bay.  Beyond  this  appear  the  shipping  and  the  mountains 
toward  Manisa.  This  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  Turkey,  and  is  connected 
with  the  interior  by  two  railroads,  one  running  eighty  miles  southeast  to  Aidin, 
and  another  sixty  miles  northeast  to  Casaba.  The  population  of  the  city  is 
one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  ;  made  up  of  Turks  eighty  thousand,  Greeks 
forty  thousand,  foreigners  thirty  thousand,  Armenians  seventeen  thousand,  and 
Jews  thirteen  thousand.  Its  exports  of  grain,  cotton,  fruit,  madder,  opium, 
wool,  and  valonia  amount  annually  to  $18,000,000,  and  the  imports  to  $14,000,- 
000.  Greek  is  the  language  of  commerce,  and  the  Greek  element  predominates 
in  society.^ 

In  the  same  year  that  Revs.  P.  Fisk  and  L.  Parsons  landed  at  Smyrna,  they 
made  a  tour  among  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  copying  inscriptions  and  re- 
cording facts  which  were  new  and  startling  then,  though  more  familiar  now. 
Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  and  Philadelphia  were  visited  in  November,  and 
Mr.  Fisk  went  to  Ephesus  in  April,  1821.  It  gives  some  idea  of  the  difficulties 
of  travel  in  that  day,  that,  though  Mr.  Parsons  left  Smyrna  December  5,  1S20, 

1  Rev.  J.  K.  Greene,  Missionary  Herald,  1.S72,  pp.  201-203. 
(58) 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE. 


59 


he  did  not  reach  Joppa  till  February  lo,  182 1  ;  but  then  he  visited  Rhodes  and 
Cyprus  on  the  way,  and  failed  not  to  improve  every  opportunity  for  observation 
of  the  country  and  the  people,  as  well  as  the  openings  for  his  work.  In  1822 
they  went  together  to  Egypt,  where  Mr.  Parsons  died,  February  10.  Next 
year  Mr.  Fisk  and  Rev.  Jonas  King  went  again  to  Egypt,  ascending  the  Nile 
as  far  as  Thebes,  and  both  spent  the  summer  in  Mount  Lebanon,  intelligent 
observers  of  men  and  things,  as  well  as  devoted  to  evangelical  labor.     In  1824 


REV.    RUFUS   ANDERSON,    D.  D. 


Rev.  I.  Bird  joined  Mr.  Fisk  at  Jerusalem,  and  Messrs.  Fisk  and  King  visited 
Damascus,  Antioch,  and  Aleppo.  In  1829  Mr.  Bird  visited  the  Barbary  states, 
and  gave  an  account  of  his  journey,  by  sea  and  land,  from  April  9  to  July  31.^ 
While  he  was  in  Africa,  Revs.  R.  Anderson  and  E.  Smith  were  in  Greece, 
making  a  thorough  exploration  of  the  Peloponnesus  and  the  islands  both  east 
and  west.  The  results  of  this  tour  we  have  in  a  volume  of  three  hundred  and 
thirty-four  pages,  published  by  Dr.  Anderson,  in  Boston,  1830. 

'  Missionary  Herald,  1830,  pp.  207-213,  242-247,  274-279,  305-309,  338-342. 


6o  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

It  gives  a  very  pleasant  description  of  the  scenery,  productions,  people,  and 
institutions  of  that  interesting  land.  It  takes  us  through  many  places  asso- 
ciated with  classic  antiquity,  paints  Arcadian  landscapes,  describes  Corinth, 
the  home  of  the  Lernean  Hydra,  the  scene  of  the  Nemean  games,  with 
ancient  Mycenai  and  its  gateway.  Laconia  and  its  capital,  Egina  and  Salamis, 
Corfu  and  Ithica,  modern  Navarino  and  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicarius,  all 
pass  before  us.  The  country  is  described  just  as  it  issued  from  the  terrible 
wars  of  the  Revolution.  Ibrahim  Pasha  had  left  it  only  the  year  before.  Dr. 
Howe  was  even  then  distributing  American  contributions  to  the  starving 
people,  and  one  night  was  spent  among  barrels  of  meal  from  the  United  States. 
In  Elis  no  place  was  undestroyed  ;  in  Achaia  only  one  or  two.  Only  Nauplion 
and  a  few  small  towns  in  Argolis  escaped  the  general  devastation.  In  Arcadia 
the  Egyptians  had  ravaged  every  valley  and  hill,  every  village  and  hamlet. 
Fire  and  sword  had  been  carried  through  Messenia,  and  in  the  upper  province 
of  that  name  half  a  million  olive  trees  had  been  destroyed.  In  Laconia  only 
the  district  of  Mane  escaped.  Yet  the  people  came  out  of  their  temporary 
shelters,  entered  with  zest  into  the  hilarity  of  their  feasts,  and  looked  forward  to 
the  future  with  bright  anticipation.  The  book  is  full  of  interesting  facts  about 
Greek  agriculture  and  commerce,  national  education  and  religion,  churches 
and  monasteries,  the  monks  and  the  clergy ;  the  goverment,  and  especially 
Capo  d'Istrias,  the  President  of  the  young  republic  ;  and,  though  not  popular 
in  the  modern  sense,  is  a  valuable  book  of  reference  for  the  knowledge  of 
Greece  as  she  was  in  1829. 

In  this  connection  we  will  add  that  Rev.  Drs.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  and  W.  G. 
Schauffler  added  to  our  knowledge  of  Macedonia,  in  their  account  of  a  journey 
in  that  province,  published  in  the  Missionary  Herald  for  1836,  pp.  245-249, 
284-288,  333-338,  369-372,  giving  an  account  of  Samothracia,  Salonica,  Serres, 
Philippi,  and  Adrianople.  Rev.  Mr.  Parsons  also  visited  Serres  ^  and  Bul- 
garia." Rev.  E.  M.  Dodd  visited  Berea  and  Larissa.^  He  gives  a  more  ex- 
tended account  of  this  journey  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  (1854,  pp.  830-836) ; 
criticizes  Butler's  map  of  the  region,  which  makes  the  Astra^us  flow  into  the 
Lydias,  and  makes  the  Haliacmon  empty  into  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  twenty-five 
miles  south  of  its  present  mouth,  which  would  involve  its  crossing  Mount 
Olympus.  Mr.  Dodd  gives  a  corrected  map  of  the  region  in  Newcomb's 
Cyclopedia  of  Missions  (New  York,  1854,  p.  750).  The  Lydias  now  ilows  into 
the  Axius.  Rev.  G.  W.  Leyburn  also  gives  a  view  of  the  scenery  of  Laconia, 
and  an  account  of  Sparta  (Missionary  Herald,  1839,  pp.  178-185). 

No  wonder  a  writer  in  the  British  Quarterly  (^Ta-WiZXY,  1878)  says:  "The 
missionaries  in  Western  Asia  found  the  soil  rich,  the  climate  delightful ;  the 
vine,  the  olive,  the  mulberry,  and  rich  fields  of  grain,  reminded  them  of  nature 
as  set  forth  in  classic  song.  Interesting  in  itself,  the  external  world  there  is 
more  interesting  from  the  events  of  which  it  has  been  the  theater.  There  is 
the  battle-field  of  Issus ;  there  Pliny  was  governor  of  Bithynia,  and  Cicero 
wrote  his  beautiful  letters  as  governor  of  Cilicia.      It  is  sacred  as  well  as  classic 

^  Missionary  Herald,  1S51,  pp.  25S-260.  -  Missionary  Herald,  1S52,  pp.  7S-S2. 

"'Missionary  Herald,  1S52,  pp.  235-23S. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  6l 

ground.  There  was  the  cradle  of  the  race ;  there  God  planted  the  o-arden 
eastward  in  Eden ;  there  Noah  preached ;  there  Abraham  lived,  and  Isaac  ; 
there  was  Babylon  and  Nineveh ;  there  reigned  Cyrus  and  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
there  Isaiah  and  Daniel  saw  the  visions  of  God ;  and  there  Esther  and  Morde- 
cai,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  did  the  work  assigned  them.  Our  missionaries  could 
not  help  exploring  such  a  region  with  the  greatest  interest,  and  we  have  the 
result  in  their  writings." 

Dr.  Anderson  returned  to  Malta  September  4th,  and  Rev.  Messrs.  E.  Smith 
and  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  left  there  March  17,  1830,  on  their  long  journey  through 
Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  Georgia  and  Northwestern  Persia,  from  which  they  did 
not  return  till  July  2,  183 1,  having  been  absent  fifteen  months  and  a  half. 
They  were  both  accurate  and  intelligent  observers.  Mr.  Smith  had  already 
had  much  experience  in  Oriental  travel,  and  the  rich  results  of  their  investiga- 
tions we  have  in  two  volumes,  pp.  328  and  348,  published  in  Boston  in  1833, 
and  republished  in  London  the  following  year.  These  volumes  contain  a  mass 
of  information  about  the  countries  passed  through  :  their  scenery,  soil,  climate, 
and  productions  ;  their  inhabitants,  their  agriculture,  buildings,  dress,  modes  of 
life,  manners  and  customs,  the  condition  of  woman,  the  modes  of  travel,  edu- 
cation, religion,  church  polity  and  doctrines,  ecclesiastical  affairs,  government, 
and  social  life.  Three  letters  are  devoted  to  Georgia.  German  colonies  and 
German  missions  in  that  region  are  described.  Two  letters  are  occupied  with 
Echmiadzin,  and  six  with  Persia;  about  half  of  these  are  filled  with  an  account 
of  the  Nestorians  of  Persia,  with  all  that  could  be  learned  about  those  in  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan.  This  was  the  first  reliable  information  that  Christen- 
dom had  about  their  present  condition,  and  it  awakened  intense  interest.  The 
mission  to  the  Nestorians  grew  out  of  the  information  obtained  on  this  jour- 
ney, and  the  facts  it  contains  about  the  Armenians  are  still  a  standard  source 
of  information  concerning  that  church  and  people. 

A  valuable  map  accompanies  the  volumes.  There  is  an  interesting  account 
of  the  under-ground  houses^  of  Armenia,  formed  by  digging  into  a  side-hill  so 
as  to  bury  three  of  the  walls  and  leave  only  room  for  a  door-way  in  front. 
The  walls  are  of  rough  round  stones,  and  the  roof  of  unhewn  logs,  blackened  by 
the  smoke  of  years,  with  earth  above,  so  as  to  restore  the  side-hill  almost  to  its 
original  shape.  It  contains,  sometimes,  only  one  room,  occupied  by  both  the 
household  and  the  cattle,  though  generally  there  are  other  rooms  behind,  for 
cattle  and  stores.  In  the  center  of  the  principal  room  a  round  hole  is  dug  for 
the  tandoor^'  three  feet  deep,  and  lined  with  clay.  When  bread  is  baked  it  is  in 
the  form  of  thin  sheets,  that  are  stuck  on  the  heated  inside,  and  drop  off  when 
baked  ;  and  for  purposes  of  warmth,  the  tandoor  is  covered  with  a  bed-spread, 
under  which  the  feet  and  legs  of  the  household  utilize  the  heat  to  the  utmost. 

As  for  the  need  of  heat  in  that  region,  our  travelers,  in  returning  as  late  as 
April  20,  found  the  pass  of  Dahar  so  full  of  the  winter's  snow,  now  soft,  that 
ravines  of  great  depth  were  transformed  into  plains.  The  track  led  over 
abysses  of  unknown  depth  ;  every  few  rods  a  horse  sank  in  the  soft  mass,  be- 
yond its  own  power  of  recovery,  and  had  to  be  unloaded  and  lifted  out.     One 

1  Vol.  I,  p.  1 16.  =  Oven. 


62  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

sank  into  a  hole  so  deep  that  only  its  narrowness  saved  him,  for  his  feet  rested 
on  nothing.  Soon  the  rain  became  snow.  Their  Tatar  disappeared  to  seek 
deliverance  for  himself.  The  day  was  near  its  close,  and  yet  they  had  not 
reached  the  highest  point.  The  path  was  now  hidden  by  the  falling  snow,  the 
wind  blew  a  hurricane,  and  drove  the  damp  snow  into  and  through  their 
clothes,  so  that  the  weight  impeded  their  progress ;  and  what  strength  was  left 
was  exhausted  in  the  constant  loading  and  unloading  of  the  animals.  Once  a 
blast  struck  them,  so  cold  it  chilled  their  very  bones  and  induced  a  sense  of 
faintness  and  bewilderment  ;  but  this  was  the  summit  of  the  pass,  and  their 
journey  was  easier  down  to  the  village,  which  they  reached  after  spendin;:;^ 
thirteen  hours  in  riding  a  distance  of  six,^  and  yet,  though  the  muleteer  and 
servant  came  in  at  nine  o'clock,  and  the  latter  fell  down  helpless  as  soon  as  lie 
was  inside  the  door,  their  Kiirdish  host  only  mocked  his  distress,  and  refused 
even  a  morsel  of  food  to  revive  him,  leaving  the  missionaries  to  restore  him  as 
best  they  could. 

Going  over  this  same  ground.  Dr.  J.  Perkins  was  able  to  give  much  more 
full  information  in  his  Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia  among  the  Nestorians^ 
for  his  was  not  a  journey  only,  but  a  prolonged  residence.  His  volume  abounds 
in  rare  and  interesting  facts,  but  unfortunately  is  not  arranged  topically. 
Everything — geography,  history,  archaeology,  natural  history,  personal  advent- 
ure or  missionary  narrative  —  is  all  thrown  together  en  masse  under  the  date 
when  the  .fact  was  ascertained  or  the  event  took  place  ;  hence  one  may  grope  in 
it  for  hours  and  not  find  the  information  he  seeks,  though  it  is  in  the  book,  and 
v>'ould  be  of  great  value  could  it  be  found.  As  a  specimen  of  the  work,  take  a 
brief  view  of  some  of  its  statements  concerning  the  different  races  of  that 
region.  An  expedition  of  the  Pasha  of  Erzrum  against  the  Jellalee  Kurds  com- 
pelled Dr.  Perkins  to  leave  the  direct  road  to  Tabriz,  in  Persia,  making  a  detour 
through  Georgia.  It  will  be  seen  that  he  was  only  passing  though  Russian 
territory,  not  intending  to  remain  in  it.  Moreover,  the  health  of  Mrs.  Perkins 
was  such  as  to  make  every  day's  delay  full  of  peril.  In  such  circumstances,  his 
treatment  by  Russian  officials,  if  it  cannot  excuse,  may  yet  serve  to  explain  the 
virulent  hatred  against  government  now  rife  in  that  empire.  After  their  names, 
object,  and  destination  were  taken  down,  they  were  permitted  to  cross  the 
Arpa  Chai  and  proceed  to  the  quarantine.  There  their  passports  were  de- 
manded, and  they  had  one  from  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Constantinople. 
Twice  after,  on  the  same  day,  the  same  demand  was  repeated  ;  every  servant 
and  muleteer  was  recorded,  numerous  questions  asked,  and  every  letter  in 
charge  for  Tabriz  taken  possession  of.  Like  our  prisoners  in  Andersonville, 
they  were  quartered  in  a  hollow  on  the  bank  of  a  muddy  brook.  The  sun  beat 
on  them  by  day,  and  the  stench  of  unburied  horses  close  by  was  intolerable. 
Scarce  a  day  passed  without  a  number  of  floggings  within  a  few  rods  of  their 
tent,  some  of  them  mercilessly  brutal.  Often  they  had  nothing  to  eat  till  after- 
noon, and  once  or  twice  not  a  morsel  all  day.  When  milk  came  it  was  sour, 
and  eggs  were  often  more  than  stale  ;  yet  their  interpreter,  within  sound  of  those 
cruel  blows,  feared  to  utter  a  word  of  remonstrance.     On  the  second  day,  their 

'  Distance  is  measured  by  hours,  miles  being  unknown.  -Andover,  1843,  8vo,  pp.  512. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  63 

boxes,  made  of  extra  strength  in  Constantinople,  whicli  had  passed  every 
Turkish  custom-house  unopened,  were  rudely  split  open  and  broken,  and  their 
contents  strewed  over  the  floor  of  the  smoke-house,  to  lie  there  for  fourteen 
days.  A  request  after  several  days  to  be  allowed  to  repack  and  repair,  so  as 
to  save  time,  called  forth  the  peremptory  reply  that  they  must  lie  there  during 
the  whole  quarantine,  then  be  closed,  and  again  reopened  at  the  custom-house. 
A  humble  petition  to  see  the  custom-house  officer  and  explain  their  circum- 
stances met  the  gruff  response  that  he  was  too  busy  to  see  them  ;  though  they 
afterwards  learned  that  he  walked  daily  near  their  tent.  After  the  tedious 
fortnight  was  over,  Dr.  Perkins  put  the  boxes  together  as  best  he  could,  and 
hired  a  cart  to  take  them  to  the  custom-house.  The  officer  received  him  rudely, 
and  first  demanded  a  list  in  Russian  of  all  the  books.  Dr.  Perkins  offered  one 
in  English,  but  that  would  not  do.  He  soon,  however,  abandoned  that  demand, 
as  he  could  not  understand  the  English  titles,  nor  Dr.  Perkins  translate  them. 
Then  he  attacked  the  medicine  chest ;  every  paper  and  vial  was  opened  and 
smelled  of,  and  their  names  taken  down ;  a  small  paper  of  tapioca  was  marked 
for  duty.  At  length  the  physician  was  sent  for,  and  everything  reopened.  A 
small  paper  of  oatmeal  was  pronounced  magnesia,  and  the  decision  was  that 
the  books  and  medicines,  as  European  goods  not  allowed  to  enter  Russia, 
must  go  back  to  Turkey.  Remonstrance  was  of  no  avail.  The  offer  to  have 
everything  sealed,  and  the  seals  inspected  on  leaving  the  country,  was  met  only 
by  the  reiteration  :  "  The  boxes  must  go  back."  We  pass  over  the  rude  inspec- 
tion of,  and  still  ruder  jokes  made  over,  the  trunks  of  Mrs.  Perkins.  Any  ex- 
postulation only  called  forth  the  curt  reply  :  "  I  know  my  own  business  ; "  and 
the  interpreter  dared  not  interpret,  for  fear  of  the  lash.  The  examination  was 
suspended  at  two  o'clock,  and  no  entreaty  could  induce  the  officer  to  resume  it 
till  just  before  evening.  After  passing  by  without  speaking,  he  sent  a  servant 
to  look  at  the  rest,  and  then  peremptorily  ordered  the  whole  back  to  Erzrum, 
except  their  wearing  apparel.  It  may  be  thought  that  money  was  the  object, 
and  that  had  Dr.  Perkins  offered  that,  he  had  been  spared  all  this.  Not  at  all. 
As  the  animals  had  been  hired  for  Tabriz,  and  the  muleteer  refused  to  abate 
one  para,  even  though  they  went  there  without  their  loads,  and  it  would  ha  very 
costly  to  hire  another  to  carry  them  back.  Dr.  Perkins  felt  justified  in  offering 
a  liberal  sum,  not  to  bribe  injustice,  but  to  purchase  most  undeniable  justice, 
to  say  nothing  of  mercy.  But  all  was  of  no  avail.  "  Your  boxes  must  go 
back,"  was  the  only  answer  the  Russian  officials  gave,  alike  to  entreaty,  expos- 
tulation, or  offers  of  money.  Even  so,  when  next  day,  at  ten  o'clock,  the  tent 
and  bedding,  with  what  clothing  they  were  allowed  to  carry,  was  presented  for 
inspection,  he  "was  not  ready  to  be  seen."  At  one  o'clock  he  examined  them, 
and,  after  keeping  Dr.  Perkins  waiting  an  hour  for  his  passport  to  be  returned, 
he  sent  him  off  without  it,  and  detained  his  interpreter  to  carry  it  to  him.  At 
first  the  medicines  were  permitted  to  go,  for  the  use  of  Mrs.  Perkins,  but  even 
that  permission  was  withdrawn.  The  interpreter  was  not  allowed  to  leave  till 
nine  o'clock  next  day,  after  paying  $5  for  a  certificate  that  the  things  taken 
with  them  had  been  examined.^     This  precious  morsel  of  knowledge  of  Russian 

'  '  Reside7ice  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia  atnong  the  Nestorians,  pp.  123-142. 


64  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

character  was  procured  at  the  cost  of  some  two  months'  sickness  of  Mrs.  Per- 
kins, who  at  first  was  unconscious  of  her  sufferings,  and  was  pronounced  by- 
several  physicians  beyond  the  hope  of  recovery. 

The  Kdrdish  character  is  well  described  on  another  page,^  where,  after  two 
hundred  horses  with  their  loads  were  taken  from  a  caravan,  and  a  number  of 
men  killed  on  both  sides,  the  loads  were  hardly  in  their  hands  before  the 
women  had  rolled  several  boxes  of  sugar  into  a  neighboring  brook,  and  were 
calling  on  their  husbands  and  children  to  come  and  drink  sweet  water. ^  It  is 
said  of  them  that,  if  they  should  remember  that  the  Koran  forbids  to  rob  a  liv- 
ing man,  they  would  first  kill  the  man  and  then  rob  him." 

Persian  politeness  is  graphically  sketched,'  and  Persian  duplicity  set  forth 
in  the  portrait  of  a  Moslem  servant,  who,  having  been  absent  on  business  some 
days  longer  than  was  needful,  was  found  in  a  Mohammedan  village,  passing 
himself  of?  as  the  Emir  e  Nizam,^  and  making  the  whole  village  serve  him  accord- 
ingly ;  and  when  Dr.  Perkins  detected  him  in  the  act,  he  told  the  villagers  that 
this  Englishman  was  his  friend,  who  had  ridden  forty  miles  in  the  rain  to  do 
him  honor.  At  Erzrum  the  same  person  was  beaten  by  a  Turkish  officer,  in  a 
quarrel ;  but,  though  an  entire  stranger,  Saudoc  announced  himself  as  the  con- 
voy of  an  English  nobleman,  and  demanded  satisfaction  with  such  an  air  that 
the  Pasha  bastinadoed  the  officer  at  once,  without  inquir}^'''  Even  Nestorians 
are  not  wholly  uninfected  by  the  prevailing  duplicity.  Moslem  oppression 
sometimes  awakens  very  bitter  feelings  in  the  oppressed,  and  some  villagers 
who  had  come  to  condole  with  the  family  of  their  deceased  Khan  loudly 
lamented  thus  in  their  own  language,  fortunately  unintelligible  to  their  Moslem 
hearers  :  "  The  wicked  old  oppressor  is  dead.  We  rejoice.  He  is  receiving 
the  reward  of  his  iniquity.     May  his  family  soon  follow  him." " 

The  size  of  Persia  and  its  physical  aspect  are  described,^  and  the  mechanical 
ingenuity  of  the  people.^  A  Persian  gunsmith  made  a  pistol  so  exactly 
resembling  one  shown  him  by  an  English  officer,  that  it  was  only  through  the 
inversion  of  one  of  the  letters  in  the  name  of  the  English  maker  that  he  could 
distinguish  the  imitation  from  the  original. 

He  mentions  a  pear  grown  in  Oroomiah,  twelve  inches  in  circumference, 
where  fruit  is  very  fine  and  abundant.  Cherries  ripen  early  in  June,  and,  after 
that,  apricots,  plums,  apples,  melons,  peaches,  quinces,  and  so  on,  succeed  each 
other  till  winter.  Grapes  are  preserved  tolerably  fresh  till  cherries  come 
again.  All  crops  must  be  irrigated,  as  rain  seldom  falls  in  summer.  Water  is 
taken  from  the  rivers  where  they  come  down  from  the  mountains,  and  conveyed 
by  canals  to  the  plain,  where  a  stream  is  taken  out  for  each  field  and  garden, 
and  opened  or  closed  with  a  spade,  or  even  by  the  foot.  The  division  of  this 
'water  is  often  the  source  of  fierce  contention.  Sometimes  underground  canals 
:are  dug  from  wells  to  distant  fields,  openings  coming  at  intervals  to  the  sur- 
face, both  to  facilitate  the  making,  and  then  the  keeping  them  in  repair. 
Their  agriculture,  the  care  of  their  vineyards,  and  their  custom  of  eating  fruit 
before  meals,  and  not  after,  as  with  us,  are  described.'" 

>Do.,p.  114.  ^Aveshereen.  'Do., p.  191.  *Do.,p.  167. 

oComraatider-in-chief  of  the  Persian  army.  "Do.,  p.  264.  '  Do.,  p.  284. 

"Do.,  pp.  I44-M5-  3Do.,  p.  149.  "Do.,  pp.  425-429. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  65 

Previous  to  this,  Dr.  A.  Grant,  the  associate  of  Dr.  Perkins,  had  pubHshed  The 
Nestorians,  or  the  Lost  Tribes,  New  York,  1841,  pp.  385,  which  was  repubUshed 
in  London  by  Murray.  This  book  made  quite  a  stir  at  the  time,  and,  though 
his  identification  of  the  Nestorians  with  Israel  was  not  generally  received,  he 
held  it  firmly  till  his  death.  It  was  a  source  of  inspiration  to  him  as  a  mission- 
ary, and  he  collected  written  specimens  of  the  language  of  the  Jews  in  Assyria 
to  fortify  his  position  by  the  similarity  of  that  to  the  Syriac  of  the  Nestorians. 

He  was  the  first  European  to  traverse  the  perilous  regions  of  central  Kur- 
distan ;  Mr.  Schultz,  the  only  one  who  attempted  it  before  him,  having  been 
killed  by  the  same  chief  whose  guest  Dr.  Grant  became  shortly  after  he  entered 
the  mountains.  No  other  before  him  had  dared  to  scale  the  lofty  barriers  that 
enclosed  the  mountain  Nestorians.  "To  the  borders  of  their  country,"  said 
the  energetic  Pasha  of  Mosul,  "  I  will  be  responsible  for  your  safety ;  put  gold 
on  your  head  and  fear  nothing ;  but  I  warn  you  that  I  can  protect  you  no 
further,  for  those  infidels  know  neither  pasha  nor  king."  So  his  cawass^  re- 
turned, but  he  went  alone  across  the  border ;  and  as,  from  the  rocks  above  him, 
they  demanded,  "Who  are  you?"  and  "  What  do  you  want?"  in  the  harsh  gut- 
turals of  the  Syriac,  he  was  startled,  indeed,  but  not  dismayed.  When  he 
replied  in  their  own  language,  their  jealousy  was  disarmed,  though  their  fierce 
attitude  and  tone  remained.  His  medical  services  also  secured  him  favor. 
He  had  been  advised  to  wait  for  an  escort  from  the  patriarch  before  venturing 
among  them,  but  he  hoped  to  win  their  confidence  by  showing  confidence  in 
them,  and  the  result  proved  that  he  did  not  miscalculate  the  moral  power  of 
such  courageous  trust.  So,  at  an  early  hour,  October  18,  1839,  he  left  the 
friendly  house  of  the  bishop  of  Duree,  and,  wearing  native  sandals,  so  as  to 
stand  where  he  could  neither  ride  nor  retain  his  footing  in  Turkish  boots,  he 
reached  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  the  country  of  the  people  he  had  so 
long  sought  lay  before  him.  Wild  precipices  alternated  with  deep  defiles,  and 
bleak  summits  looked  down  on  villages  at  the  bottom  of  narrow  glens,  half  hid 
among  trees.  Here  in  their  "  munitions  of  rocks  "  God  had  preserved  a  chosen 
remnant  from  persecution  and  from  war.  As  he  gazed  he  repeated,  with  a  full 
heart,  the  stanza  : 

On  the  mountain  top  appearing, 

Lo  I  the  sacred  herald  stands, 
Welcome  news  to  Zion  bearing, 

Zion,  long  in  hostile  lands. 
Mourning  captive, 

God  himself  shall  loose  thy  bands ; 

and  retired  to  a  sequestered  nook  to  pray. 

Take  another  scene  from  this  journey.  Dr.  Grant  has  visited  the  people  and 
their  patriarch,  and  now  passes  out  through  the  territory  of  Niirfilah  Bey,  the 
chief  who  had  welcomed  Schultz  to  his  hospitality,  and  then  sent  him  away 
with  a  guide  charged  to  murder  him  at  the  first  convenient  place.  The  castle 
of  the  chief  was  visible  long  before  he  reached  it,  but,  unexpectedly,  he  found 

'  Official  ijiiard. 


66  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

him  sick.  He  prescribed  for  him,  and  then  retired  to  his  quarters  at  the  foot 
of  the  castle  hill.  Evening  brought  a  message  that  his  patient  was  worse,  and 
wanted  him  at  once  ;  but  he  sent  back  word  to  wait  till  the  medicine  had  time 
to  produce  its  effect.  Midnight  came,  and  the  messenger  again  demanded  his 
immediate  attendance.  Promptly  he  climbs  the  zigzag  path  up  to  the  gate.\;^ 
The  sentinels  are  sounding  the  Kurdish  watch-cry  as  he  enters  through  the 
outer  door,  plated  with  iron.  A  second  iron  door  opens  into  a  long  passage 
leading  to  the  room  where  the  chief  lay  sick.  He  was  evidently  impatient,  and 
the  swords,  pistols,  guns,  and  daggers  round  the  walls  gave  his  guest  a  g^im 
welcome.  He  writes  :  "  I  was  entirely  at  his  mercy ;  but  I  was  also  in  the 
hands  of  One  who  has  the  hearts  of  kings  in  his  keeping.  With  a  silent  prayer, 
I  told  him  he  needed  more  powerful  medicine,  which  would  make  him  worse 
for  a  time.  I  could  use  palliatives,  but,  if  he  followed  my  counsel,  he  would 
choose  the  severer  course."  He  yielded,  and  took  an  emetic,  after  first  making 
some  of  his  attendants  taste  it.  The  doctor  stayed  with  him  the  rest  of  the 
night,  and  in  the  morning  he  was  better,  and  was  profuse  in  thanks.  His 
physician  must  sit  at  his  side,  dip  with  him  in  the  dish,  and  take  up  his  abode 
with  him  permanently. 

A  writer  in  the  British  Quarterly  Review  for  Januar}^,  1878,  says:  "The 
best  description  we  have  seen  of  the  life  and  character  of  the  Kurds  is  in  the 
journals  of  Dr.  Grant."  Nor  that  only;  but  he  settled  some  points  in  the 
geography  of  the  region  hitherto  unknown.  He  ascertained  that  the  Khabor 
rises  near  Julamerk,  and  flows  within  ten  hours  of  Amadia,  on  its  way  to  the 
Tigris,  and  is  not  the  Bitlis  Su,  as  McDonald  Kinneir  had  asserted.  While 
the  Zab,  also  visible  ten  hours  to  the  east,  was  the  same  as  the  Hakkary  river 
of  the  maps.  Even  Colonel  Chesney^  says  that  the  Ravanduz  tributary  had 
been  mistaken  for  the  great  Zab,  up  to  the  visit  of  Mr.  Ainsworth,  in  1841,  and 
that  mistake  still  found  a  place  in  Black's  General  Atlas,  Edinburgh,  185 1  ;  yet 
Dr.  Grant  discovered  the  true  position  of  the  Zab  in  1S39,  and  published  his 
discovery  both  in  England  and  America  one  year  before  Mr.  Ainsworth,  whose 
journals  were  not  published  till  1S42.  It  is  strange  that  Col.  Chesney  could 
make  such  a  statement,  when  he  refers  to  Dr.  Grant's  book  on  page  113  of  the 
same  volume.  Dr.  Grant  also  gave  the  Berdizawi  in  its  true  proportions  to 
the  Zab,  but  Mr.  Ainsworth  made  it  as  large  as  that  river.  Both  that  and  the 
Khabor  should  be  laid  down  as  in  the  map  of  Dr.  Grant.  From  the  top  of  the 
range  behind  Ashitha,  Dr.  Grant  took  the  bearings  of  Ashitha  and  Sinjar 
southwest  by  south  ;  Amadia  south ;  the  great  bend  of  the  Zab  east  southeast  ; 
Julamerk  and  Sillee  northeast ;  Leihun  north  northeast  ;  Chuniba  northeast  by 
east ;  Jelu  cast  by  north  ;  and  Zacho  west  southwest.  These  bearings  do  not 
agree  with  Mr.  Ainsworth's  map.  His  distance  of  Amadia  from  Ashitha  is  too 
little  by  half,  while  from  Van  it  is  far  too  great.  The  writer,  with  Dr.  A. 
Smith,  in  August,  1844,  was  thirty-four  hours  and  three  quarters  going  from 
Mosul  to  Ashitha  —  exclusive  of  stops  —  and  yet,  according  to  Mr.  Ainsworth, 
they  made  only  thirty-five  minutes  of  latitude.  Again  :  we  were  seven  hours 
from  a  point  north  of  Madinki   and  east  of  Kumri  Kala  to  Ashitha,  and  yet 

^  Jiu/i/trates  and  Tigris,  Vol.  I,  p.  24. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE.  67 

his  map  would  make  us  travel  only  three  or  four  miles.  At  Julamerk  we  were 
told  that  Van  was  three  days  over  the  mountains,  and  Mosul  five,  via  Jezira  • 
yet  Ainsworth's  map  would  rather  lead  one  to  think  of  going  to  Jezira  via 
Mosul,  so  great  is  its  inaccuracy.  At  Lezan  is  no  bridge  of  ropes,  such  as  Mr. 
Ainsworth  describes,  but  one  made  of  long  poplar  trees ;  so  that  Col.  Ches- 
ney,  who,  on  the  strength  of  this,  says  that  the  Zab  is  crossed  "  by  means  of 
rope  bridges,"  is  led  into  a  mistake.-^ 

Speaking  of  bridges  brings  to  mind  one  at  Dizzeh,  which  we  crossed  Sep- 
tember I,  1844.  The  long  poplar  trees  rested  on  rude  piers  on  either  side  of 
the  river,  and  bent  downwards  uncannily  over  the  middle  of  the  rushing  tor- 
rent. The  wicker  hurdles  that  served  for  a  floor  were  so  dilapidated  that  our 
mule  had  to  be  lifted  on  it  by  main  force  ;  nor  did  he  go  far  before  one  of  his 
fore  legs  broke  through,  and,  in  struggling  to  get  that  out,  the  opposite  hind 
foot  followed  after,  so  that  he  lay  flat  on  the  bridge.  By  dint  of  hard  lifting 
he  was  got  out,  but  the  only  way  we  could  get  him  across  was  to  lay  down  the 
rug  on  which  one  of  us  slept  at  night,  in  front  of  him ;  and  after  he  stepped  on 
that,  the  bed  of  the  other  traveler  was  in  like  manner  spread  before  him,  and  so 
alternately,  till  he  got  safe  across. 

It  had  been  intended  to  give  some  account  of  Turkish  oppression  here;  but 
an. article  prepared  some  years  ago,  viewing  that  oppression  in  connection  with 
one  of  the  parables  of  our  Saviour,  is  here  given  instead.  It  may  show  how  new 
aspects  of  the  things  contained  in  Holy  Scripture  are  continually  suggested  to 
the  thoughtful  dweller  in  Bible  lands. 

AN    ORIENTAL    VIEW    OF    THE    PARABLE    OF    THE    UNJUST    STEWARD. 

Commentators  pronounce  this  parable  one  of  the  most  difficult  things  of 
Scripture ;  not  through  obscurity  in  the  terms  employed,  or  in  the  grammatical 
structure,  but  because,  as  generally  interpreted,  Christ  is  made  to  hold  up  for 
imitation  an  act  of  downright  dishonesty ;  for  he  sets  before  us  the  conduct  of 
the  steward  as  an  instance  where  a  man  of  this  world  is  wiser  than  the  children 
of  light,  and,  therefore,  worthy  of  imitation;  while  the  common  interpretation 
makes  the  change  he  made  in  the  accounts  of  his  master's  debtors  a  dishonest 
act.  It  does  not  help  the  matter  much  to  say  that  Christ  would  have  us  imitate 
the  prudence  of  the  act,  and  not  its  moral  character,  for  he  was  not  shut  up  to 
select  an  act  wrong  in  itself  by  which  to  teach  us  prudence.  This  difficulty 
is  so  generally  felt  that  all  will  welcome  any  legitimate  relief. 

Let  us,  then,  inquire  whether  it  is  necessary  to  interpret  the  parable  so  as  to 
give  occasion  for  the  difficulty.  The  common  view  is,  that  the  steward  took 
bills  which  had  been  made  out  correctly,  and  altered  them  so  as  to  make  them 
incorrect,  and,  therefore,  unjust;  but  does  Christ  say  this?  Not  at  all.  He 
tells  us  that  the  steward  made  a  change  in  them,  but  does  not  say  whether  it 
was  from  wrong  to  right,  or  from  right  to  wrong.  In  either  case  the  steward 
was  unjust,  for  it  is  unjust  either  purposely  to  make  out  a  bill  wrong  at  first,  or 
to  change  it  afterwards  from  what  had  been  correct.  Now,  may  not  the  in- 
justice have  been  extortion  in  the  first  instance,  which  was  rectified  by  the 

'  F.xpediticiji  io  Euphrates,  etc.,  Vol.  I,  p.  122. 


68  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

subsequent  change  ?  and  in  that  case,  is  not  this  teaching  of  our  Saviour  reHeved 
from  all  suspicion  of  evil?  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  general  agreement 
of  commentators  shows  that  the  common  interpretation  suggests  itself  most 
readily  to  the  mind.  No  doubt  it  strikes  us  as  most  natural,  with  our  Occidental 
modes  of  doing  business;  but  would  it  strike  an  Oriental  in  the  same  way? 
The  writer  has  long  felt  that  Oriental  usages  point -to  the  opposite  view  as  the 
most  natural  interpretation,  but  has  hesitated  to  bring  it  forward,  because  the 
man  who  thinks  that  he  has  found  an  improved  mode  of  interpreting  any  passage 
in  a  book  that  has  engaged  the  best  intellects  for  centuries,  is  apt  either  to 
revive  an  old  blunder  or  to  add  another  to  the  crowded  list  of  misapprehensions 
of  Holy  Scripture.  But  as  a  recent  commentator  ^  gives  it  as  the  true  interpre- 
tation, the  writer  feels  emboldened  to  state  the  facts  which  have  led  him  to  the 
same  conclusion.  These  facts  were  observed  a  number  of  years  ago,  and  some 
changes  may  have  taken  place  since  then,  though  things  do  not  change  so 
rapidly  in  the  East  as  with  us.  They  are  not  selected  from  private  life — though 
many  might  have  been  drawn  from  that  source — because,  however  strong  any 
current  of  evil  may  be  in  society,  there  will  always  be  found  eddies  where  the 
stream  seems  to  flow  in  the  direction  of  right,  the  practices  of  a  few  contradict- 
ing those  of  the  many.  For  this  reason,  it  has  seemed  best  to  go  into  govern- 
ment buildings  rather  than  into  private  counting-rooms  for  our  illustrations, 
more  especially  as  we  know  that  the  present  system  of  farming  the  revenues  in 
Turkey  is  the  same  that  was  practiced,  under  the  Romans,  by  the  publicans  in 
the  days  of  our  Lord,  when  the  parable  was  spoken.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that, 
bad  as  things  were  then,  they  were  not  quite  so  bad  as  at  present  in  the  interior 
of  Turkey. 

The  pashas,  or  governors  of  provinces  in  the  Turkish  empire,  are  appointed 
by  the  central  government  at  Constantinople.  Generally  they  secure  their  ap- 
pointments by  purchase,  and,  where  there  are  several  applicants  for  the  same 
office,  it  is  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  Sometimes,  however,  even  before  the 
new  pasha  has  fairly  entered  on  his  pashalic,  it  is  sold  to  another,  who  either 
pays  a  larger  bonus  or  promises  a  larger  revenue ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  this 
spurs  each  one  to  reimburse  himself  for  the  purchase  money  in  haste,  lest  an- 
other get  his  place  before  that  is  done.  Such  is  the  way  in  which  the  pasha 
secures  his  olfice  ;  and  so  long  as  the  stipulated  payments  are  made  at  Constan- 
•tinople,  no  inquiry  is  ever  made  into  his  mode  of  assessing  or  collecting  taxes. 
The  bills  of  the  steward  are  never  called  for  by  his  lord  ;  he  may  assess  what 
he  will,  and  as  often  as  he  can,  without  any  fear  of  being  called  to  account. 
It  is  not  surprising,  then,  if  he  adds  to  the  amount  promised  to  the  central  gov- 
ernment, and  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  pashalic,  as  much  as  he  thinks  it 
safe  to  put  in  his  own  pocket.  Sometimes,  indeed,  when  a  pasha  is  known  to 
have  accumulated  wealth,  he  is  thrown  into  prison  and  made  to  disgorge  his 
ill-gotten  gain  ;  but  that  produces  no  relief  to  the  tax-payer ;  his  successor  is 
sent,  to  do  after  the  same  manner,  and  the  process  goes  on  as  before.  Mean- 
while, the  pasha  sub-lets  the  taxes  of  the  several  districts  of  his  pashalic  to  the 
highest  bidders,  and  these  in  their  turn  emulate  his  example  in  adding  to  their 

>  Van  Oosterzee,  in  Lungi s  Commetitary  on  Luke,  pp.  245-246.     American  edition. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE.  69 

budgets,  also ;  so  that  before  the  tax  reaches  the  tax-payers,  it  has  been  greatly 
increased.  Hence  it  comes  that  taxes  in  the  interior  of  Turkey  are  seldorrv 
collected  without  the  use  of  force ;  for  the  troops  of  the  pashalic  are  at  the  ser- 
vice of  the  collectors,  and  if  the  money  is  only  forthcoming,  no  questions  are 
asked  here,  either,  as  to  the  manner  of  the  collection. 

It  is  a  satisfaction  to  think  that  this  particular  field  of  observation  was  one 
of  exceptional  severity,  so  that  the  whole  country  may  not  have  suffered  to  the 
same  extent.  Nevertheless,  as  the  facts  there  observed  strikingly  illustrate  this 
view  of  the  parable,  they  are  stated  just  as  they  occurred.  When  the  writer 
first  went  to  Mosul,  Mohammed  Injeh  Bairakdar^  was  pasha  of  that  province, 
extending  from  Bagdad  to  Diarbekir,  and  from  the  desert  of  Mesopotamia 
through  Kurdistan  to  the  borders  of  Persia.  When  the  Kurds  rebelled 
against  his  extortions,  their  villages  were  laid  waste  ;  and  while  many  were  put 
to  death  in  different  ways,  some  of  them  were  impaled  alive  near  the  bridge 
that  crosses  the  Tigris  at  Mosul,  just  as  Assyrians  had  put  prisoners  to  death 
more  than  two  thousand  years  before ;  only,  while  they  inserted  the  stake  at 
the  breast  of  their  victims,  he  seated  his  on  its  sharp  point,  and  left  it  to  work 
gradually  upwards  in  their  writhings,  till  death  came  to  their  relief.  This  was 
before  the  sultan  had  taken  away  the  power  of  inflicting  capital  punishment 
from  his  subordinates,  and  shows  that  it  was  taken  away  none  too  soon.  In  pass- 
ing to  and  from  the  country  of  the  mountain  Nestorians,  the  writer  has  often 
passed  three  or  four  villages  in  succession  utterly  desolate,  and  others  were 
but  little  better  than  ruins.  The  fault  was  not  in  the  climate  or  the  soil  of 
these  fertile  valleys,  but  it  was  the  result  of  merciless  oppression.  According 
to  the  accounts  of  those  who  still  remained,  the  tax-gatherer  was  accustomed 
to  overestimate  the  crop,  and  demand  the  larger  part  of  it  for  taxes  ;  and  if  the 
owner  Avas  known  to  have  money,  he  had  to  redeem  it  at  double  the  market 
price.  Sometimes  whole  villages  fled  from  an  oppression  too  terrible  to  endure  ; 
and  it  shows  how  terrible  it  was,  that  when,  under  his  successor,  the  men  of 
one  village,  after  vainly  asking  some  alleviation  of  their  burdens,  left  their 
homes,  set  fire  to  their  ripening  grain,  and  fled  into  the  territory  of  Badir  Khan 
Bey,  saying  it  was  easier  to  do  that  than  to  reap  and  thresh  the  harvest  for  the 
Turks,  the  remark  in  Mosul  was  :  "  Under  his  predecessor  they  would  only 
have  dared  to  flee  singly  and  in  the  night-time."^ 

The  writer  was  sitting  with  the  late  Dr.  Azariah  Smith  in  the  divan  khaneh 
of  a  Turkish  officer,  in  Dawoodieh,  when  a  Nestorian  came  in  with  the  taxes  of 
his  mountain  hamlet.  The  sum  to  be  paid  was  three  hundred  tcherkies — a 
man  from  this  same  place  afterwards  told  me,  with  great  satisfaction,  that  he 
had  obtained  a  situation  near  Mosul,  where,  besides  his  food,  he  got  half  a 
piaster,  equal  to  one  tenth  of  a  tcherky,  a  day  —  and  a  bag  was  produced,  so 
covered  with  patches  one  could  hardly  tell  the  original  material,  and  the  tax- 
payer began  to  undo  the  fastenings.  The  Turk  snatched  it  from  his  hands, 
and  cut  it  open  with  his  dagger.  Among  the  pile  of  base  Turkish  money  that 
poured  from  it  were  some  ancient  Polish  and  Venetian  coins,  taken,  doubtless, 
from  the  head-dresses  of  the  women,  where  they  had  been  preserved  for  many 

»  Mohammed  the  Little  Ensign.  ^  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  pp.  207-209. 


70  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

generations  ;  a  small  gold  coin,  most  likely  from  the  same  source,  was  carefully 
wrapped  up  by  itself,  and  sewed  inside  one  corner  of  the  bag.  The  fact  that 
the  women  never  part  with  such  heir-looms  except  under  the  pressure  of  the 
■direst  necessity,  shows  the  extremity  of  these  poor  villagers.  But  the  Turk, 
counting  these  much  below  their  market  value,  pronounced  the  amount 
twenty-three  tcherkies  short,  and  bade  the  astonished  rayah  bring  the  deficient 
twenty-three,  with  fifty  more  to  pay  him  for  his  trouble,  within  two  days,  or  tell 
his  people  to  flee,  if  they  had  a  place  to  flee  to,  for  he  would  come  and  help 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  soldiers. 

It  may  give  a  further  insight  into  the  dealings  of  these  Oriental  stewards  to 
add  that  Mohammed  Pasha  wrought  a  sulphur  mine  near  Mosul,  and  made  his 
own  powder.  He  sent  the  surplus  sulphur  to  Bagdad  for  sale,  and,  when  that 
market  was  glutted,  divided  the  stock  on  hand  among  the  various  sects  of  the 
rayahs  in  Mosul ;  and,  willing  or  unwilling,  each  had  to  buy  so  much  sulphur 
at  double  the  market  price.  The  rural  districts  were  often  drained  of  money  ; 
then  their  taxes  were  received  in  kind ;  and  what  was  not  needed  for  the  com- 
missariat of  the  pasha  was  disposed  of  in  the  same  way.  If  an  animal  died  on 
the  road  or  was  eaten  by  his  soldiers,  its  ears  had  to  be  paid  for  as  though  it 
were  alive.  A  Mdslem  told  Dr.  Grant  that  he  had  to  pay  more  for  a  certain 
monopoly  than  the  amount  of  the  article  sold.  "  How,  then,  can  you  pay  it .' " 
"  Oh,  last  year  I  farmed  another  article  and  prospered.  The  pasha  heard  of  it, 
and  this  is  the  result."^  The  knoivii  amount  of  his  exactions  for  the  year  1841 
—  for  many  of  them  would  not  bear  to  be  published — was  three  million  one 
hundred  and  ninety-five  thousand  five  hundred  (3,195,500)  piasters.  The  ex- 
tent and  severity  of  his  oppression  is  recorded  only  too  legibly  in  the  decrease 
of  European  imports  from  nine  hundred  and  sixty-six  (966)  bales  in  1835  to 
ninety-four  (94)  in  1841.''' 

Now,  if  the  same  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  the  unjust  steward  were 
visited  on  one  of  these  collectors  of  Turkish  revenue,  would  he  change  his  tax- 
bills  from  right  to  wrong,  or  from  extortionate  excess  to  justice  ?  This  would 
make  the  tax  receipts  tally  with  the  amounts  paid  in  at  headquarters,  and 
legitimately  expended  in  the  pashalic ;  and  it  would  also  make  him  friends 
among  the  late  victims  of  his  rapacity,  especially  if,  as  an  Oriental  would  be 
sure  to  do,  he  represented  the  change  as  proceeding  from  himself,  contrary  to 
the  wishes  of  his  superior. 

Granting  that  these  facts  present  one  of  the  worst  phases  of  the  matter,  for 
Mosul  lies  far  in  the  interior,  out  of  the  reach  of  the  ameliorating  influences 
that  affect  the  sea-ports  of  the  empire,  and  Mohammed  Pasha  was  noted  for 
energy  and  severity,  yet  some  of  his  successors,  though  possessed  of  less  ad- 
ministrative ability,  abated  no  jot  or  tittle  of  his  rapacity.  It  was  the  old  story 
of  Solomon  and  Rehoboam  over  again ;  and  this  state  of  things  in  Bible  lands 
to-day  illustrates  this  parable  spoken  to  disciples,  some  of  whom  had  them- 
selves sat  at  the  receipt  of  custom,  and,  therefore,  belonged  to  a  class  odious 
then,  for  the  same  reason  that  it  is  to-day.     Those  Jews  who  were  willing  to 

iDo.,  p.  20S. 

^Do.,  pp.  207-211,  2S-30;  see  also  Col.  Chesney's  Eu/ihrates  Expedition,  Vol.  II,  Appendix  E. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE. 


71 


encounter  the  odium  of  being  publicans  incurred  it  for  a  consideration,  and  we 
find  Zaccheus  promising  at  liis  conversion  to  restore  the  proceeds  of  false 
charges  fourfold.  Why,  then,  go  out  of  the  way,  at  least  in  the  view  of  an 
Oriental,  to  make  our  Saviour  even  seem  to  present  acts  of  injustice  for  our 
imitation,  when  the  probability  is  that  they  were  rather  acts  of  righteous 
restitution  ? 

Perhaps  it  may  be  objected  that  the  steward  was  said  to  waste  his  master's 
goods  —  and  writing  fifty  wrongfully  for  a  hundred  looks  more  like  wasting 
than  to  write  it  so  when  truth  required  it.  The  objector,  however,  fails  to 
notice  that  this  wasting  was  done  previous  to  the  changing  of  the  bills,  and 
must,  therefore,  refer  to  something  that  had  already  taken  place ;  and  what  can 
that  be  but  this  extortion  so  common  in  Eastern  lands,  both  now  and  then? 
Besides,  is  not  anything  wasted  when  it  is  turned  aside  from  its  proper  use 
and  from  its  lawful  owner  ?  and  was  not  the  money  embezzled  by  this  unjust 
steward  literally  wasted  when  it  was  not  only  plundered  from  his  master,  but, 
like  most  ill-gotten  gains,  squandered  by  himself?  —  for,  with  all  his  stealing, 
he  had  laid  up  nothing,  and,  if  he  lost  his  place,  had  no  alternative  but  to  beg 
or  engage  in  the  lowest  manual  labor.  While  in  office,  his  superior  had  never 
looked  after  his  management  so  long  as  he  received  the  rent  agreed  on,  but, 
now  that  he  hears  the  steward  has  been  receiving  so  much  more  than  he  has 
paid  over,  he  demands  a  sight  of  the  accounts  ;  and  the  guilty  one  meets  the 
emergency,  not  by  honest  confession  of  his  wrong-doing,  but  by  such  a  covert 
manceuver  as  he  hopes  will  both  set  him  right  with  his  employer,  by  inducing 
him  to  think  that  the  receipts  of  the  tenants  have  corresponded  with  the  pay- 
ments to  him,  and  at  the  same  time  secure  the  good  will  of  the  whilom  victims 
of  his  own  injustice.  Is  it  said,  still,  even  so  there  is  deceit  and  wrong?  To 
this  we  make  two  replies.  First,  the  wrong  is  not  in  the  thing  done,  but  only 
in  the  motives  for  doing  it.  Even  though  it  may  be  done  from  a  wrong  motive, 
it  is  intrinsically  right  to  rectify  a  false  charge,  and  so  at  least  we  get  rid  of  the 
burden  of  supposing  that  Christ  commends  an  act  dishonest  in  itself  to  our 
imitation.  Second,  the  Lord  himself  is  careful  to  notify  us  that  the  transac- 
tion does  not  proceed  from  right  motives,  when  he  presents  it  to  us  as  the  act 
of  one  of  the  "children  of  this  world,"  seeking  mere  worldly  good,  from  worldly 
considerations,  and  so  actuated  wholly  by  worldly  motives. 

It  is  not  intended  to  give  a  detailed  exposition  of  the  parable,  but  only  to 
rid  it  of  what  so  many  feel  to  be  a  grievous  burden  in  the  current  exposition, 
and  to  do  this  on  grounds  entirely  Oriental,  in  distinction  from  philosophical 
or  even  grammatical.  No  violence  has  been  done  to  any  word,  phrase,  or  gram- 
matical construction  ;  and  if  it  were  necessary,  it  could  easily  be  shown  that 
the  moral  force  of  the  lesson  which  our  Saviour  intended  to  teach  is  in  no  way 
weakened  by  this  interpretation,  but  only  rid  of  a  grave  dilBculty  that  attaches 
to  the  prevailing  mode  of  exposition. 

An  incident  at  one  of  the  villages  deserves  mention  in  this  connection. 
After  passing  several  villages  totally  desolate,  on  our  way  to  Ashitha,  in  April, 
1843,  we  came  to  Bastawa,  the  home  of  the  chief  of  Mezfiry,  also  deserted. 
His  wife  was  there,  with  a  few  attendants,  securing  their  rice.     Entirely  differ- 


7  2  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

ent  from  those  about  her,  her  appearance  awakened  our  interest.  The  tassels 
of  a  silk  shawl  depended  gracefully  from  the  lower  part  of  her  turban.  A  green 
silk  saltah  or  jacket,  lined  with  fur,  but  now  much  the  worse  for  wear,  covered 
a  dress  of  coarse  blue  cotton,  suggesting  a  sad  contrast  between  former  wealth 
and  present  poverty.  Her  features,  once  beautiful,  now  showed  a  spirit  roused 
rather  than  broken  by  misfortune.  Dr.  Grant  asked  if  she  could  furnish  us 
lodgings  for  the  night.  At  the  word,  the  smouldering  fire  burst  forth.  Rising 
to  her  full  height,  she  threw  back  her  braided  hair  with  one  hand,  and,  pointing 
with  the  other  to  the  roofless  houses  and  her  ruined  home,  "  See  there  !  "  said 
she;  "you  have  stripped  us  of  all  ;  you  have  driven  us  forth  to  beg  ;  and  now 
do  you  ask  our  hospitality?  Go  to  those  with  whom  you  have  still  left  some- 
thing; and  may  God  be  judge  between  us."  She  said  much  more,  but  this  was 
the  substance  of  her  words,  translated  by  our  servant.  Gesture,  look,  and  tone 
could  not  have  been  improved,  and  yet  there  was  no  lack  of  self-control.  Her 
spirit  would  not  yield  to  the  violence  of  passion.  There  was  a  dignity  of  sor- 
row that  moved  us  even  more  than  her  words,  and  made  them  understood  even 
before  they  were  translated.  We  were  heartily  ashamed  of  our  Turkish  cos- 
tume, that  led  her  to  mistake  us  for  her  oppressors.  When  she  learned  who  we 
were,  she  at  once  offered  to  share  with  us  the  few  comforts  she  had  brought 
with  her  to  the  village  ;  but  as  there  was  nothing  for  our  horses,  we  had  to  go 
on,  thinking  more  of  the  heroine  of  Bastawa  than  of  our  own  discomfort.^ 

As  an  illustration  of  the  results  of  such  oppression  in  the  interior  of  Turkey, 
take  the  following  scenes  witnessed  in  Amadia  during  the  same  journey,  which, 
after  the  lapse  of  thirty-seven  years,  abide  in  the  memory  like  a  vision  of  the 
lost. 

In  the  court  of  a  synagogue  we  found  some  thick  masses  of  wet  leaves,  cov- 
ered with  mould  —  we  could  not  call  them  books.  They  were  volumes  of  the 
Talmud  laid  out  to  dry.  Inside,  the  rough  posts  that  sustained  the  roof  were 
rotten.  The  rain  had  worn  deep  holes  in  the  soft  clay  floor ;  we  could  scarce 
find  a  place  hard  enough  to  stand  on.  The  damp,  heavy  air  was  intolerable  ; 
yet  this  was  their  regular  jDlace  of  worship,  and  here  more  than  forty  rolls  of 
beautiful  Hebrew  manuscript  were  going  to  decay. 

Dr.  Grant  went  from  there  to  see  a  sick  man  ;  and,  on  leaving  the  ruinous 
shelter,  we  were  surprised  to  hear  that  it  was  the  home  of  one  of  their  leading 
men.  If  the  houses  of  the  rich  are  so  comfortless,  what  must  be  the  homes  of 
the  poor  ?  We  soon  found  out,  but  how  shall  we  describe  them  ?  Without 
door  or  window,  save  holes  in  the  wall,  half  choked  with  rubbish  ;  scrambling 
down  the  loose  slope,  one  enters  what  looks  like  a  dungeon,  so  dark  he  can 
scarce  discern  its  emptiness.  A  cradle  and  earthen  pot  composed  the  whole 
outfit  of  one  ;  two  earthen  pots  and  a  pile  of  rags  the  inventory  of  another. 
The  rags  on  the  inmates  hardly  served  the  purposes  of  decency ;  and  how  they 
endured  the  cold  we  could  not  imagine,  for  our  path,  when  we  left  the  town, 
in  the  pass  over  the  mountain  lay  over  the  unmelted  snow.  In  some  places 
night  brings  relief  to  wretchedness ;  but  in  many  of  these  houses  was  neither  a 
rug  to  keep  them  from  the  damp  earth  or  cover  them  from  the  cold.     We  were 

•  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestor ians,  p.  292. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE. 


73 


not  surprised  to  learn  that  numbers  had  died  of  hunger,  and  others  —  a  thino- 
most  unusual  in  this  land — had  put  an  end  to  the  existence  too  miserable  to 
endure.     One  Jew  had  first  killed  his  wife  and  then  himself.^ 

Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  Mt.  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Fefrcea,  in  i8j8,  by 
E.  Robinson  and  E.  Smith,  was  the  most  valuable  contribution  ever  made  to 
the  geography  of  Syria.  Three  volumes  were  published  in  1841,  at  Boston, 
London,  and  Halle.  Another  volume,  embodying  the  results  of  travels  in 
1852,  was  published  at  Boston,  London,  and  Berlin,  in  1856.  The  work 
wrought  a  complete  revolution  in  Biblical  geography,  both  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe ;  nor  has  it  been  superseded  by  any  later  production.  It  still 
holds  unquestioned  supremacy,  as  the  most  full,  accurate,  and  trustworthy 
description  of  that  country,  though  the  publications  of  the  "  English  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  "  furnish  the  results  of  more  recent  and  thorough  exploration 
of  particular  localities.  The  writer  found  that  the  volume  describing  the  region 
passed  through,  in  any  part  of  his  journey  through  Palestine,  was  a  better  guide 
than  any  native  he  could  procure  on  the  spot.  It  told  just  the  things  he 
wanted  to  know,  and  no  cross-questioning  was  needed  to  get  it. 

No  small  part  of  the  minute  accuracy  of  this  work  is  owing  to  the  familiar 
acquaintance  of  Dr.  Smith  with  the  language  and  the  people.  As  Dr.  Robin- 
son says  himself :  "  I  count  m3^self  fortunate  in  being  associated  with  one 
whose  familiar  and  accurate  knowledge  of  Arabic,  acquaintance  with  the  peo- 
ple of  Syria,  and  experience  in  former  journeys,  fitted  him  for  the  work.  In- 
deed, to  these  qualifications  of  my  companion,  combined  with  his  taste  for 
geographical  and  historical  researches,  and  his  tact  in  eliciting  and  sifting 
information  from  Arabs,  are  mainly  to  be  ascribed  the  more  important  and 
interesting  results  of  our  journey ;  for  I  am  well  aware  that,  had  I  traveled 
with  an  ordinary  interpreter,  I  should  have  undertaken  much  less  than  together 
we  accomplished,  while  many  points  of  interest  would  have  been  overlooked, 
and  many  inquiries  remained  without  satisfactory  answers."  ^  Then,  in  the 
preface  to  his  later  volume,  he  adds  :  "  That  very  much  of  the  success  and 
comfort  of  the  journey  depended  on  the  long  and  familiar  acquaintance 
possessed  by  my  companions  with  the  language  and  character  of  the  people,  I 
need  not  here  repeat."  Dr.  Smith  accompanied  him  on  this  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem,  Hebron,  and  as  far  north  as  Hasbeiya ;  Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson  to 
Banias  and  Damascus,  and  Rev.  S.  Robson  thence  via  Baalbek  and  the  Cedars 
to  Beirut.  Each  kept  his  own  separate  journal,  and  the  volume  was  compiled 
from  them  all.  If  Dr.  Robinson  studied  thoroughly  the  works  of  previous 
writers  on  Biblical  geography.  Dr.  Smith  also  studied  with  equal  assiduity  the 
writings  of  Oriental  authors  on  the  same  subject ;  made  out  full  lists  of  places, 
so  far  as  he  could  get  them  from  Arabic  books,  or  acquaintances  familiar  with 
the  several  localities,  and  then  verified  them  on  the  spot,  with  a  tact  and 
thoroughness  that  would  have  been  impossible  to  a  stranger  to  the  Arab  char- 
acter, even  though  he  might  have  known  the  language.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
pages  relating  to  Arabic  names,  in  the  third  volume,  are  his  work,  and  the  whole 

'  Do.,  pp.  299-300.  -  Biblical  Researches,  Vol.  I,  p.  2.     First  edition. 


74  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

I 

of  the  manuscript  of  the  three  previous  volumes  was  revised  and  corrected  by 
his  accurate  pen.  Manuscript  maps  of  Rev.  I.  Bird,  another  missionary,  gave 
fullness  and  correctness  to  Dr.  Robinson's  map  of  Mount  Lebanon.  Rev.  G. 
B.  Whiting  furnished  many  valuable  hints  to  Dr.  Robinson,  in  Jerusalem, 
suggested  by  his  residence  for  a  number  of  years  in  that  city.  It  was  his  re- 
mark, that  the  stones  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  temple  had  always  seemed 
to  him  a  portion  of  a  large  arch,  that  suggested  to  Dr.  Robinson  the  idea  that 
it  formed  part  of  the  ancient  bridge  from  the  temple  to  the  Xystus.  Dr.  Rob- 
inson himself  had  thought  it  only  a  bulging  of  the  wall  occasioned  by  an  earth- 
quake.^ 

If,  then,  as  Americans,  we  are  jDroud  "  that  it  was  reserved  for  a  fellow 
countryman  in  our  own  day  to  furnish  the  learned  of  both  continents  with  the 
most  accurate  and  thorough  work  ever  written  on  that  interesting  country,"^  let 
us  not  forget  how  much,  in  this  instance,  geographical  science  is  indebted  to 
foreign  missions. 

The  first  number  of  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  issued  by  Dr.  Robinson  in  Febru- 
ary, 1843,  is  occupied  as  far  as  page  88  with  corrections  and  additions  to  the 
Biblical  Researches,  received  from  Dr.  E.  Smith  and  Dr.  S.  Wolcott,  who  wrote 
an  article  on  maps  of  Palestine  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1845,  PP-  5^5-590- 

Prof.  C.  E.  Stowe,  in  introducing  a  letter  from  Dr.  H.  Lobdell  —  stating 
that  the  people  of  Mosul,  Moslems,  Christians,  and  Jews,  all  agree  that  Jonah's 
gourd  was  not  the  ricinus  communis,  as  scholars  generally  suppose,  but  a  kind 
of  pumpkin  (Arabic,  k^er^d)  —  takes  occasion  to  say  :  "The  interest  of  mission- 
aries in  the  Bible,  and  their  familiarity  with  its  original  languages,  give  a  pecul- 
iar \alue  to  their  personal  investigations,  beyond  those  of  ordinary  travelers, 
however  well  qualified  otherwise."  "  Dr.  Robinson's  invaluable  Biblical  Re- 
searches could  not  have  been  made  in  their  present  perfection  without  the  aid 
of  the  learned  missionary,  Dr.  E.  Smith."  ^ 

Rev.  S.  H.  Calhoun  gives  a  beautiful  description  of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,* 
in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  and  the  writer  published  two  articles  in  the  same 
periodical,^  on  Mount  Lebanon  :  its  geographical  connections,  rivers,  geology, 
scenery,  climate,   productions,  zoology,  roads,  population,  and  antiquities. 

Rev.  L.  Thompson  gives  an  account  of  "the  religious  sects  of  Syria,""  in 
which  much  valuable  information  is  brought  together,  at  the  cost  of  no  small 
labor. 

Life  Scenes  Amo7ig  the  Mountai7is  of  Ararat,  by  Rev.  M.  P.  Parmelee, 
sketches  some  delightful  home  pictures  of  Oriental  life  in  northeastern  Turkey, 
and  gives  many  valuable  and  interesting  geographical  facts. 

Rev.  C.  H.  Wheeler's  Ten  Years  on  the  Euphrates,  though  mainly  devoted 
to  the  history  of  missionary  work,  does  not  lose  sight  of  other  things.  It  gives 
us  a  vivid  portraiture  of  the  people ;  and,  among  other  things,  a  map  of  that 
missionary  field,  containing  many  names  of  villages  not  found  elsewhere.     It 

'^  Biblical  Researches,  Vol.  I,  p.  424.     First  edition. 

=  Address  of  J.  Pickering,  first  president  of  American  Oriental  Society,  at  its  first  annual  meeting.  See  Jour- 
nal 0/  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  I,  p.  22. 

^Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S55,  p.  398.  *  Do.,  1S57,  pp.  200-201. 

•''Do.,  i86g,  pp.  54i-57>)  673-712.  ''Do.,  1S57,  pp.  525-537. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE. 


75 


gives  a  vivid  sketch  of  a  very  successful  endeavor  to  make  even  very  poor 
missionary  churches  self-supporting;  and  his  Letters  from  Eden  give  interesting 
interior  views  of  the  missionary  work  in  its  details  and  results. 

Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson  is  almost  without  a  peer  in  the  variety  and  value  of 
his  contributions  to  the  geography  of  Syria ;  though  his  principal  work,  The 
Latid  and  the  Book,  is  devoted  to  bringing  out  the  relations  existing  between 
the  Bible  and  the  lands  in  which  it  was  written.  He  found  the  names  of  per- 
sons, places,  things,  and  incidents  all  around  him  illustrating  and  confirming 
Holy  Scripture,  and  sought  to  make  all  Christendom  partake  with  him  in  the 
light  his  long  residence  in  Syria  poured  upon  the  pages  of  the  Word  of  God. 
The  Bibliotheca  Sacra  truly  says  of  it :  "  If  the  Syrian  mission  had  produced  no 
other  fruit,  the  churches  which  have  supported  it  would  have  received  in  this 
book  an  ample  return  for  all  they  have  expended.  The  plan  of  the  book  is 
unique.  It  is  a  book  of  travels,  a  book  of  conversations,  a  running  comment  on 
the  Scriptures,  and  a  pictorial  geography  and  history  of  Palestine,  all  in  one." 
Dr.  A.  P.  Peabody  says  of  it :  ''  Of  literature  illustrative  of  the  Bible,  I  know 
of  no  work  so  well  arranged,  so  affluent,  and  so  equally  adapted  to  the  purposes 
of  reference  by  the  scholar  and  of  familiar  use  by  the  ordinary  reader."  ^ 

His  original  work,  with  maps  and  engravings  prepared  expressly  for  it,  em- 
bodied all  that  was  of  value  for  the  illustration  of  Scripture  in  our  knowledge 
of  Palestine  up  to  that  date.  Since  then  others  have  followed  him  in  the  same 
line  of  investigation,  and  now  he  is  re-writing  the  work  on  a  larger  scale.  The 
first  edition  was  reprinted  in  England,  and  the  new  one  appears  simultaneously 
from  the  presses  of  the  Messrs.  Harper  in  New  York,  and  of  Thomas  Nelson 
&  Sons,  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  As  yet  only  the  first  of  three  volumes  has  ap- 
peared ;  a  goodly  broad  octavo  of  592  pages,  and  got  up  without  regard  to 
expense.  The  illustrations  were  good  in  the  first  edition  ;  now  they  are  not 
only  exact  reproductions  of  the  scenes  they  represent,  but  the  engravings  are 
in  the  highest  style  of  art. 

More  than  most  missionaries.  Dr.  Thomson  has  traversed  over  and  over 
again^  the  scenes  which  he  describes  so  graphically.  From  the  beginning  of  his 
missionary  life,  in  February,  1833,  his  attention  seems  to  have  been  drawn  to 
this  line  of  study,  and  in  this  work  we  have  the  ripe  fruit  of  nearly  fifty  years 
of  careful  observation.  He  is  the  pioneer  in  this  branch  of  knowledge,  and 
readers  of  the  Bible  the  world  over  owe  him  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  this  labor 
of  love. 

.  One  great  value  of  this  new  edition  is  that  all  the  latest  discoveries  are 
embodied  in  his  description  of  the  various  localities.  The  thorough  work  of 
the  "  English  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  "  and  the  cream  of  other  travels  go 
to  increase  the  value  of  the  book.  It  is  not  a  wooden  building  repainted  and 
patched  up  here  and  there,  but  it  is  a  stone  structure  taken  down  to  the  foun- 
dation and  rebuilt  with  much  new  material  on  a  better  plan.  In  the  former  edi- 
tion he  began  at  Beirut,  and  took  his  reader  along  with  him  to  the  south.  In 
this  he  lands  at  Joppa,  and  enters  at  once  on  the  promised  land.  Many  of  the 
old  facts  are  repeated,  but  in  better  form  and  new  connections,  and  new  facts 

'  North  A  merican  Revieiv. 


76  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

are  collected  from  all  sources,  composing  sometimes  more  than  half  the  chap- 
ter; making  this  by  far  the  best  work  on  the  subject  now,  as  the  first  edition  at 
once  took  the  lead  in  1859. 

The  spirit  of  the  work  appears  in  the  following  paragraph  :  ^  "  The  range  of 
topics,  historic,  moral,  social,  and  religious,  that  illustrate  the  Bible,  is  wide 
and  surprisingly  diversified.  Think,  if  you  can,  of  a  Bible  with  all  these  left 
out,  or  others  essentially  different  in  their  place  — a  Bible  without  patriarch  or 
pilgrimage  ;  with  no  bondage  in  Egypt,  or  deliverance  therefrom  ;  no  Red  Sea; 
no  Sinai,  with  its  miracles  ;  no  wilderness  of  wandering,  with  all  the  associated 
incidents  ;  without  a  Jordan  with  Canaan  over  against  it,  or  a  Dead  Sea  with 
Sodom  beneath  it;  no  Moriah  with  its  temple,  or  Zion  with  its  palaces. 
Whence  could  have  come  our  divine  songs  and  psalms,  if  the  sacred  poets  had 
lived  in  a  land  without  mountain  or  valley ;  with  no  plains  covered  over  with 
corn,  no  hills  planted  with  the  olive,  the  fig,  and  the  vine  ?  All  are  needed, 
and  all  do  good  service,  from  the  oaks  of  Bashan  and  the  cedars  of  Lebanon 
'  even  unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall ; '  we  can  dispense  with 
none  of  them.  The  tiny  mustard  seed  has  its  moral,  and  the  lilies  of  the  field 
their  lessons.  Thorns  and  thistles  utter  admonitions  and  revive  sad  memories. 
The  shepherd  and  his  flock,  the  sheep  and  the  fold,  the  ox  and  his  yoke,  the 
camel  and  his  burden,  the  ass  and  his  owner,  the  horse  with  neck  clothed  with 
thunder ;  lions  that  roar,  wolves  that  raven,  foxes  that  spoil,  harts  panting  for 
water  brooks,  and  roes  feeding  among  lilies;  doves  in  their  windows,  sparrows 
on  the  house-top,  storks  in  the  heavens,  eagles  hasting  to  the  fray ;  things  great 
and  small ;  the  busy  bee  and  the  careful  ant  laying  up  store  in  harvest  — 
these  are  merely  random  specimens  out  of  a  world  of  rich  materials,  all  congre- 
gated in  this  land,  where  their  presence  was  needed  to  enrich  and  adorn  the 
revelation  of  God  to  man." 

Again :  "']'he  physical  features  of  Jerusalem  and  the  regions  round  about  it 
are  made  to  furnish  the  natural  basis  for  one  of  the  most  delightful  prophecies 
in  the  Bible.^  Ezekiel  was  a  priest,  occupied  with  the  temple  service,  and, 
therefore,  perfectly  familiar  with  the  outlook  from  the  temple  down  the  valley 
of  the  Kedron  out  into  the  desert,  and  away  southeast  to  the  Dead  Sea.  He 
also  knew  the  different  fountains  along  the  valley,  and  their  peculiar  action. 
Underneath  the  temple  platform  are  immense  cisterns,  and  from  them,  as  is 
supposed,  water  descends  in  a  small  stream  to  the  remitting  fountain  of  Mary, 
for,  at  the  end  of  the  first  thousand  cubits,  '  the  waters  were  to  the  ankles.' 
Further  down,  near  the  pool  of  Siloam,  the  stream,  much  enlarged,  reappears : 
'  the  waters  were  to  the  knees.'  At  the  end  of  the  third  thousand  cubits,  be- 
low the  well  of  Job,  where  the  water  even  now  breaks  out  from  many  places, 
forming  a  lively  mill-stream,  'the  waters  were  to  the  loins.'  This,  however, 
only  occurs,  in  our  day,  during  long-continued  and  heavy  rains.  I  saw  such  an 
outflow  once,  and  then  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  were  gathered 
there  in  holiday  costume,  rejoicing  at  the  rare  event,  which  is  believed  to 
promise  abundant  harvests.  Farther  down,  still  other  tributaries  swell  the 
stream  into  '  a  river  that  could  not  be  passed  over.' 

Inn    i-.^-i^R  2Ezek.  xlvii:   1-12. 


w 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    GEOGRAPHICAL    SCIENCE.  77 

"  There  were  many  things  peculiar  and  significant  in  this  :  its  source,  '  at 
the  south  side  of  the  altar  ; '  its  course,  '  toward  the  east  country,'  '  into  the 
desert,'  '  into  the  sea,'  /.  e.,  the  Dead  Sea ;  its  rapid  increase  from  a  mere  rill 
at  the  beginning  to  a  river  '  to  swim  in  ; '  and,  last  of  all,  its  effects  :  '  Everything 
shall  live  whither  the  river  cometh.'  On  either  bank  'grow  all  trees  for  meat, 
whose  leaf  shall  not  fade,  neither  shall  the  fruit  thereof  be  consumed.'  What 
a  contrast  to  the  present  banks  of  the  Kedron  —  a  wilderness  —  with  nothing 
to  relieve  its  frightful  desolation  !  But  wherever  this  river  from  under  the 
sanctuary  comes,  the  desert  blossoms,  the  banks  are  shaded  with  trees,  and 
vocal  with  music  of  birds.  And,  more  wonderful  still,  the  river  '  being  brought 
forth  into  the  sea,  the  waters  shall  be  healed.'  Now,  this  sea  of  Sodom  is  so 
bitter  that,  although  the  Jordan  and  other  streams  have  poured  into  it  sweet 
water  for  thousands  of  years,  it  continues  as  nauseous  as  ever.  Nothing  lives 
in  it ;  neither  fish,  nor  reptiles,  nor  even  animalculse ;  but  when  the  waters  from 
the  sanctuary  come  thither,  the  shores  will  be  robed  in  green,  its  depths  shall 
teem  with  fish,  and  '  fishers  shall  stand  on  it  from  En-gedi  even  unto  En-eglaim  : 
they  shall  be  a  place  to  spread  forth  nets  :  their  fish  shall  be  as  the  fish  of  the 
great  sea,  exceeding  many'  —  not  that  a  physical  miracle  is  here  predicted, 
but  only  a  spiritual  allegory,  which  foreshadows  miracles  of  mercy  in  store  for 
the  whole  world."  ^ 

It  would  be  pleasant  to  transcribe  other  descriptions,  but  these  must  suffice. 
The  reader  of  the  work  will  find  no  lack  of  them  in  any  part  of  it. 

In  Turkey,  Rev.  W.  H.  Gulick  visited  Arjish  Dagh,-  near  Kaisarieh,^  and 
noted  the  resemblance  of  its  volcanic  rocks  to  those  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
Rev.  W.  A.  Farnsworth  made  the  first  ascent  of  it  in  recent  times  —  a  note- 
worthy fact,  as,  with  the  single  exception  of  Ararat,  it  is  the  highest  in  the 
Turkish  empire.  Like  that,  though  a  spur  of  the  Taurus  range,  it  stands  alone 
in  a  vast  plain,  a  huge  cone  thirteen  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  covering  an 
area  of  three  hundred  square  miles.  It  is  an  extinct  volcano,  and  many  cones 
rise  along  its  sides,  some  of  them  higher  than  Mount  Washington,  The  peo- 
ple say  that  the  giant  who  built  the  mountain  let  these  fall  through  the  bottom 
of  his  basket.  The  peak  is  bare  for  three  thousand  feet.  On  September  13, 
1827,  Rev.  E.  Gridley  reached  within  four  hundred  feet  of  the  summit,*  but  died 
in  consequence  of  exposure  in  the  ascent.  In  1873,  Mr.  Farnsworth  attempted 
to  reach  the  summit,  but  got  no  farther  than  Mr.  Gridley,  the  same  precipices 
preventing  his  advance  ;  but  now,  on  the  25th  of  August,  1874,  he  succeeded  in 
attaining  to  the  highest  point.  He  pitched  his  tent  high  up,  near  the  limits  of 
perpetual  snow,  as  the  base  of  operations,  and  went  up  with  horses  as  far  as 
the  old  crater,  or  crater  valley,  surrounded  by  precipices  on  three  sides,  the 
northeast  side  alone  being  broken  down  ;  from  this  place  he  climbed  on  foot 
the  southern  wall,  and  reached  a  semi-circular  ridge,  as  regular  as  the  rim  of  a 
bowl,  on  which  he  advanced  for  three  hours,  so  steep  on  the  north  that  one 
could  not  step  down  even  a  few  feet  but  at  the  peril  of  his  life,  and  on  the 
south  so  steep  and  smooth  that  large  stones  once  started  went  down  till  the  eye 

1  pp.  422-426.  2  Mons  Argsus. 

3  Cxsarea.  *  Missionary  Herald,  1828,  p.  259. 


78  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

could  no  longer  keep  track  of  their  descent,  though  nothing  intervened  to  hide 
them. 

Arrived  at  the  precipices  that  stopped  Mr.  Gridley,  he  was  in  doubt  whether 
to  try  to  pass  round  by  the  south  or  the  north  side.  Some  small  stones  rush- 
ing down  on  the  north  decided  the  party  to  try  that,  and  soon  they  stood  on 
the  base  of  the  peak  above  the  wall  of  rock.  Here  some  concluded  to  stop ; 
but  Mr.  Farnsworth  went  on  alone  for  an  hour  of  hard  climbing,  when,  rejoined 
by  one  of  his  companions,  an  easy  walk  of  twenty  minutes  brought  them  to  the 
summit.  To  the  south  and  east,  the  air  was  clear,  and  the  view  exceedingly 
grand  ;  but  in  other  directions  it  was  blurred  by  a  fog,  caused  by  the  wind  from 
below  striking  the  huge  banks  of  snow.  It  was  of  no  use  to  wait,  for  they  were 
where  the  clouds  were  made,  and  they  saw  the  process  going  on.  The  air, 
clear  at  a  little  distance,  grew  thick  as  it  approached  the  snow  at  their  feet, 
and  drove  over  the  edge  of  the  rock,  not  ten  feet  away,  like  drifting  snow. 
Bleak  and  bare  as  the  peak  was,  a  little  bird  was  flitting  about,  and  a  tiny 
flower  bloomed  in  a  sheltered  nook  on  its  southern  face. 

Thinking  it  might  be  easier,  they  went  down  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
crag,  but  found  it  more  difficult  and  dangerous  than  the  other.  On  the  ridge 
they  found  a  practicable  path  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  and  descended 
more  than  twelve  hundred  feet  in  a  few  minutes,  providentially  unharmed. 
Here  the  snow  was  more  abundant  than  on  the  ridge.  In  one  place  the  bank 
of  snow  was  unbroken  for  a  mile,  and  dotted  over  with  innumerable  pebbles, 
and  here  and  there  a  boulder  that  had  fallen  from  above.  These  rolling  stones 
constitute  the  chief  danger  of  the  ascent. 

The  two  reached  the  horses  at  the  same  time  with  the  others,  and  arrived 
at  the  tent  as  Jupiter  and  Venus  began  to  show  themselves  near  the  summit. 
The  party  consisted  of  two  Americans,  two  Armenians,  and  a  Turk;  and  had 
the  atmosphere  allowed  it,  the  whole  of  Cappadocia,  and  parts  of  Galatia, 
Lycaonia,  Cilicia,  Pontus,  and  Armenia  would  have  been  visible.^ 

Rev.  G.  W.  Dunmore  traveled  more  than  six  thousand  miles  in  Turkey,  and 
one  thousand  in  Persia  and  Russia.  There  is  much  geographical  information 
in  the  Memoir  0/  Dr.  Lohdell,  both  ancient  and  modern,  concerning  the  coun- 
try from  Beirut  via  Aintab  and  Diarbekir  to  Mosul ;  from  Mosul  to  Bagdad 
and  Babylon  ;  and  to  Kurdistan  and  Persia.  Rev.  J.  H.  Shedd  gives  an 
account  of  a  tour  in  Kurdistan,'-'  and  another  across  the  uplands  of  Media 
to  Hamadan,^  the  summer  residence  of  Cyrus,  as  Shushan  was  his  winter  home. 
Its  population,  mostly  Moslem,  is  sixty  thousand.  The  climate,  owing  to  the 
snow  of  Mount  Elvend,  is  colder  than  Oroomiah.  A  part  of  his  route  was  new 
to  Europeans.  The  Jews  there  he  regards  as  probably  descended  from  the 
lost  tribes.  In  places  the  soil  is  so  rich  in  fragments  of  the  precious  metals, 
rthat  it  is  sold  by  the  donkey-load,  and  washed  by  the  Jews.  He  describes 
the  tomb  of   Mordecai  and  Esther,  in  Hamadan.* 

Rev.  T.  D.  Christie  gives  the  following  description  of  a  scene  in  the  heart  of 
the  Taurus  mountains :  We  crossed  the  gorge  of  the  Gaok  Su  by  a  road  cut 

'^Missionary  Herald,  1875,  pp   122-124.  "  Do.,  1870,  pp.  191-194. 

3  Ecbatana.  *  Journal  of  A  merican  Oriental  Society,  .'Appendix,  1871. 


CENTRAL   TURKEY. 


79 


zigzag  down  a  perpendicular  cliff  for  a  thousand  feet,  and  as  steep  in  the 
ascent  on  the  opposite  side.  We  approached  Hadjin  from  the  north,  over 
heights  of  seven  or  eight  thousand  feet.  The  road  winds  round  one  of  these 
peaks,  and  all  at  once  a  valley  like  an  immense  mill  hopper  lies  before  you, 
surrounded  by  lofty  mountains.  Two  thirds  down,  a  narrow  ledge  projects 
towards  the  south,  and  ends  in  a  precipice  at  the  center  of  the  valley.  This  is 
covered  with  houses  —  its  top,  its  sides,  tier  below  tier,  five  streets  down,  if 
you  can  call  them  streets.  The  houses  rest  on  tall  posts  where  the  rock  is  not 
wide  enough  for  an  entire  foundation.  It  is  a  hive  containing  twenty  thousand 
human  beings ;  resembling  a  huge  honey-comb  cut  open  so  as  to  show  the 
cells.  One  could  almost  toss  a  biscuit  on  the  flat  roofs  a  thousand  feet  below. 
We  wound  down  the  stair-like  road  till,  as  we  neared  the  houses,  though  still 
high  above  them,  there  were  signs  of  commotion  in  the  hive ;  the  roofs  began 
to  swarm  with  people,  and  we  could  see  others  hurrying  towards  us  in  the  nar- 
row paths  between  the  houses.  It  must  have  been  a  dreadful  degree  of 
violence  and  insecurity  that  drove  human  beings  to  select  such  a  place  to 
build  their  homes. ^ 

Rev.  L.  H.  Adams  also  describes  the  scenery  of  Giaour  Dagh,-  a  mountain- 
ous region  three  days  nortiivvest  from  Aintab.  There,  in  some  places,  the 
rocky  strata  stand  perpendicular,  like  our  own  Palisades,  forming  walls  for 
miles,  hundreds  of  feet  in  height.  He  also  describes  the  mountaineers,  who 
set  the  Turks  at  defiance,  or  obey  them  only  in  a  way  to  suit  themselves.^ 

Dr.  Hamlin's  volume.  Among  the  Turks,  gives  some  interesting  geographical 
information  concerning  southern  Macedonia,  and  abounds  in  graphic  pictures 
of  Turkish  life,  government,  institutions,  and  religions.  In  it  v/e  have  the  con- 
clusions of  one  whose  opportunities  for  observation  have  rarely  been  equaled, 
and  who  adds  to  personal  narratives  other  incidents,  which  let  us  into  the  inner 
life  and  character  of  the  people. 


CENTRAL    TURKEY. 

The  following  account  of  Central  Turkey,  by  Rev.  Henry  Harden,  of 
Marash,  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  contributions  of  our  missionaries  to  the 
science  of  geography  in  Western  Asia. 

"  The  Coimtry  audits  Products.  The  mission  field  called  Central  Turkey  lies 
around  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  extending  inland  some 
two  hundred  miles.  It  includes  Tarsus,  the  birthplace  of  Paul,  and  Antioch, 
where  the  disciples  of  Christ  were  first  called  Christians.  The  Taurus  Moun- 
tains, extending  from  Smyrna  to  Ararat,  ten  thousand  feet  high,  with  snow 
on  their  summits  nearly  the  whole  year,  cross  its  northern  borders.  Between 
Antioch  and  the  sea  is  the  Amanus  range,  with  the  famous  pass  called  the 
Syrian  Gates,  and  north  of  Tarsus,  in  the  Taurus,  are  the  Cicilian  Gates,  both 
famous  in  ancient  history.     East  of  Tarsus  is  Issus,  the  battle-field  of  Alex- 

^  Missionary  Herald,  1879,  p.  303.  =  Infidel  mounalr. 

2  Missio7iary  Herald,  1S67,  pp.  243-244- 


8o  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

ander  and  Darius.  The  old  Euphrates,  one  thousand  feet  wide  and  ten  feet 
deep,  flows  through  the  eastern  part,  on  its  way  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 

"The  face  of  the  country  is  about  equally  divided  between  mountains  and 
plains.  The  mountains  are  high  ridges  of  whitish  limestone,  some  without  a 
tree  or  shrub,  others  covered  with  a  scanty  growth  of  bushes,  while  here  and 
there  are  seen  straggling  forests  of  oak  and  pitch-pine.  The  valleys  are  fre- 
quently watered  by  cold,  clear  streams,  flowing  directly  out  of  the  mountain 
side,  and  are  very  productive.  The  soil  in  the  plains  is  rich  and  deep.  From 
December  to  May  it  rains  perhaps  one  fourth  of  the  time,  with  an  occasional 
sprinkling  of  snow ;  but  from  May  to  December  not  only  is  rain  almost  un- 
known, but  rarely  is  a  cloud  to  be  seen,  especially  in  the  interior,  while  the  sun 
pours  down  its  scorching  heat  day  after  day.  The  mercury  seldom  rises  in  the 
shade  above  iio°,  except  in  the  lower  plains.  On  the  mountains  the  air  is 
cool  and  refreshing.  Wheat  and  barley  are  sown  in  November,  and  harvested 
in  May  and  June.  The  grains  are  wheat,  rice,  millet,  barley,  and  Indian  corn. 
Vegetables  are  grown  in  irrigated  gardens  in  summer.  The  varieties  are 
onions,  garlic,  egg-plant,  okra,  tomatoes,  melons  of  all  kinds,  squashes,  and 
carrots.  Cotton  and  tobacco  are  grown  in  many  localities.  The  plow  is  the 
crooked  stick  of  Abraham's  day,  with  an  iron  point.  This  plow  and  a  common 
pickaxe  are  the  chief  farming  implements,  for  harrows,  cultivators,  hoes,  and 
rakes  are  unknown.  The  watered  ravines  in  the  mountains  are  generally  filled 
with  orchards  of  apricot,  peach,  mulberry,  pomegranate,  fig,  plum,  pear,  English 
walnut,  and  almond.  On  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  are  large  groves  of 
orange  and  lemon,  with  here  and  there  a  date  palm  tree  and  cactus  hedge. 
The  domestic  animals  are  camels,  horses,  mules,  donkeys,  cows,  sheep,  goats, 
and  buffaloes.  No  hay  is  gathered,  and  there  is  but  little  grazing,  except  for 
sheep  and  goats.  All  other  animals  are  fed,  especially  in  winter,  with  barley 
and  straw. 

"Grapes  of  the  finest  quality  are  raised  in  immense  quantities.  Some  cities 
have  twenty-five  square  miles  of  vineyards  spread  over  the  neighboring  hills 
and  mountain  sides ;  and  though  the  grapes  are  so  abundant  and  delicious,  not 
a  drop  of  rain  is  expected  from  the  time  the  vines  leave  out  till  the  grapes  are 
gathered,  and  they  are  never  irrigated !  The  grapes  are  eaten  fresh,  are  dried 
for  .raisins,  and  are  also  made  into  sweetmeats  of  many  varieties.  An  intoxi- 
cating drink  called  '  rakky  '  is  made  to  some  extent,  but  wine  is  seldom  seen. 
The  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  confined  largely  to  government  officials  and 
soldiers,  and  to  those  men  who  have  come  more  or  less  into  contact  with  the 
civilization  of  southern  Europe.  Tobacco  is  never  chewed,  but  is  smoked  by 
all  classes. 

"77/^  Cih'es  —  ^/le  People.  Aleppo  and  Adana  are  the  chief  commercial 
cities,  whence  European  merchandise  is  sent  hundreds  of  miles  into  the  inte- 
rior. The  chief  seaports  are  Alexandretta  and  Mersin,  which  are  visited  every 
week  by  steamers  from  Marseilles  and  Constantinople.  There  are  no  carriage 
roads,  but  mere  trails  from  city  to  city.  The  great  thoroughfare  from  Alexan- 
dretta  to  Aleppo  and    Bagdad,  though  used  for  perhaps   forty   centuries,  is 


CENTRAL   TURKEY.  8 1 

in  some  places  a  single  donkey  path.  All  transportation  is  done  by  cara- 
vans. The  people  live  either  in  cities  or  villages,  with  their  houses  built  as 
close  together -as  possible.  Cities  have  no  suburbs,  and  the  outside  rows  of 
houses  are  the  poorest  and  cheapest.  No  man  dares  to  live  at  a  distance  from 
neighbors.  The  village  houses  are  generally  made  of  sun-dried  brick,  some- 
times of  mud  and  cobble-stones,  while  the  larger  cities  are  built  of  well-cut 
limestone,  with  flat  earthen  roofs.  Thousands  of  people  live  in  tents  made  of 
black  hair-cloth  or  merely  reed  matting.  The  population  is  made  up  of  five 
or  six  distinct  nationalities. 

"  The  great  Aleppo  plain  is  dotted  over  with  the  black  tents  of  the  Arabs. 
The  Antioch  plain  has  many  villages  of  Turcomans.  These  Turcomans  are 
a  branch  of  the  Turkish  race,  living  in  tents  as  shepherds,  and  quite  separate 
from  other  classes  of  the  population.  A  little  further  north  are  thousands  of 
Kurds,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Carduchi  whom  Xenophon,  400  B.  C,  found 
in  these  same  mountain  fastnesses.  Two  thirds  of  the  population  of  the  cities 
and  towns,  and  the  entire  population  of  numerous  villages,  are  Turks,  lineal 
descendants  of  the  wild  Tartar  warriors,  who  came  down  from  Central  Asia 
hundreds  of  years  ago  and  conquered  all  Asia  Minor.  The  government  is  still 
in  their  hands.  Upwards  of  one  hundred  thousand  Circassian  refugees  from 
Turkey  in  Europe  were  scattered  through  Central  Turkey  in  1878.  They  are 
merely  armed  tramps,  feared  and  hated  by  all  classes.  The  other  third  of  the 
population  of  the  cities,  including  some  mountain  villages,  are  Armenian 
Christians.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  field  are  a  few  thousand  Syrians,  the 
remnant  of  an  ancient  race. 

"  In  nearly  every  city  is  a  community  of  Roman  Catholics,  sometimes  number- 
ing several  thousands,  as  in  Aleppo,  while  various  fragments  of  other  Christian 
sects  are  scattered  here  and  there.  The  Arabs,  Turcomans,  Kurds,  Turks,  and 
Circassians  are  all  Mohammedans,  with  scarcely  an  exception.  The  Armenians, 
Syrians,  and  various  smaller  communities,  are  nominal  Christians.  They,  with 
the  Ktirds,  are  descendants  of  the  original  inhabitants" of  the  land.  The  con- 
quering Moslems  gave  them  their  choice  between  the  Koran,  tribute,  and  the 
sword.  The  Kurds,  who  had  never  become  Christian,  accepted  Mohammedan- 
ism. What  Christians  were  left  after  the  bloody  wars,  still  adhered  to  their 
faith  and  paid  tribute.  Each  sect  retained  its  own  language,  forms  of  worship, 
and  customs,  and  their  religion  apparently  consists  largely  of  lifeless  formalities, 
without  influence  upon  the  character. 

"  The  Languages  and  Religions.  The  language  of  the  Arabs  is  Arabic,  the 
Kurds  speak  Kurdish,»the  Circassians,  Russian  ;  but  while  many  individuals  of 
these  classes  speak  also  Turkish,  the  Turcomans  and  Turks  speak  only  Turk- 
ish, except  in  Aleppo  and  vicinity,  where  they  speak  Arabic.  Yet  every  Mos- 
lem performs  his  religious  services  in  the  sacred  Arabic.  It  is  not  considered 
essential  that  he  understand  the  prayers  he  repeats  five  times  a  day !  All  the 
Christian  sects  have  been  so  overshadowed  by  the  Turks  that  they  have  learned 
their  language.  However,  the  Armenians  generally  in  their  homes  speak  the 
modern  Armenian,  but  conduct  their  church  services  in  the  ancient  Armenian. 

6 


82  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

The  Syrians  speak  the  modem  Syriac  at  home,  Turkish  in  the  street,  and  wor- 
ship God  in  the  ancient  Syriac.  No  one  doubts  that  Babel  was  somewhere  in 
this  vicinity. 

"In  Central  Turkey  the  Christian  population  is  chiefly  Armenian.  They  are 
a  fragment  of  the  old  Armenian  nation  that  in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  perhaps 
in  Abraham's  day,  was  located  near  Mount  Ararat.  They  have  maintained 
their  national  identity  most  remarkably.  It  is  claimed  that  in  the  third  century 
their  king  was  converted  and  ordered  the  nation  to  be  baptized,  when  doubt- 
less some  pagan  rites  received  a  christening.  Chosroes,  emperor  of  Persia, 
persecuted  them.  A  few  centuries  later  the  nation  was  overrun  by  the  Turks, 
large  numbers  were  put  to  death  without  mercy,  others  fied  from  their  homes, 
and  their  descendants  are  now  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire,  and 
many  have  emigrated  to  other  lands.  Despite  this  rough  treatment,  for  these 
hundreds  of  years. they  have  clung  with  wonderful  tenacity  to  their  Christian 
name,  and  to  the  forms,  at  least,  of  a  Christian  faith. 

'■'■  Aintah —  The  Arme?iians.  In  the  city  of  Aintab  there  are  thirty  thousand 
Turks,  with  sixty  mosques,  from  whose  minarets  their  muezzins  five  times  every 
day  shout  the  call  to  prayer.  There  are  ten  thousand  Armenian  Christians, 
with  their  church  edifice,  built  centuries  ago.  If  we  could  look  into  their  church 
as  it  appeared  thirty  years  ago,  we  would  find  an  audience  of  perhaps  a 
thousand  men.  The  priest  stands  before  the  altar  and  reads  from  a  prayer- 
book  in  the  ancient  Armenian,  which  is  probably  understood  by  no  one  in  the 
audience,  and  possibly  he  himself  merely  repeats  what  he  has  memorized.  The 
people  know  when  to  bow,  when  to  kneel,  and  when  to  cross  themselves. 
They  perform  their  part  and  the  priest  performs  his,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
service  the  men  come  forward,  kiss  the  sacred  crosses  on  the  huge  Bible,  which 
none  of  them  can  read,  cross  themselves  before  the  pictures  of  saints  upon  the 
walls,  and  go  home.  But  where  are  the  women  and  daughters  ?  They  are  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  body  of  the  house,  but,  closely  wrapped  in  white  sheets, 
climb  up  the  dark  stair-way  to  a  narrow  gallery,  and  sit  behind  a  lattice,  where, 
unable  to  hear  anything,  they  can  only  have  a  sociable  by  themselves.  Such 
were  the  religious  privileges  of  these  ten  thousand  nominal  Christians. 

"  Mission  Progress  at  Aintab.  The  first  missionary  was  stoned  out  of  the 
city  by  a  mob,  at  the  instigation  of  an  Armenian  priest,  but  a  few  earnest  men 
gladly  received  the  truth,  and  a  little  church  was  organized.  Then  followed 
Sunday  schools,  prayer  meetings,  day  schools,  pastoral  \work ;  and  the  first  con- 
verts, like  Philip,  brought  many  a  Nathanael  to  Jesus. 

"  Thirty  years  have  passed.  There  are  now  in  Aintab  two  thousand  enrolled 
Protestants,  two  churches,  more  than  six  hundred  church  members,  admitted 
on  the  same  conditions  as  in  New  England,  two  Sunday  schools  with  from 
seven  hundred  to  eight  hundred  members  in  each,  day  schools  for  all  the 
Protestant  children,  with  gradations  of  primary,  middle,  and  grammar  schools. 
These  two  churches  have  their  ordained    native   pastors,    with   deacons  and 


■  CENTRAL    TURKEY.  Sj, 

church  committees.  For  a  dozen  years  they  have  managed  their  own  affairs,, 
and  have  paid  the  current  expenses  of  tlieir  churches  and  schools.  The 
missionaries  now  have  no  control  over  them,  and  wish  none.  The  missionaries 
found  only  one  woman  in  the  city  who  could  read,  but  now  nearly  every  woman 
in  the  Protestant  community  can  read  her  Bible. 

"  Look  into  one  of  these  Sabbath  schools  and  see  eight  hundred  men,  women, 
-and  children  study  the  Word  of  God.  All  are  present  who  attend  the  preach- 
ing service.  Both  teachers  and  scholars  give  close  attention  to  their  work. 
Many  among  them  can  repeat  the  Bible  story  from  Genesis  to  Revelation.  An 
hour  or  two  later  they  gather  for  worship.  The  preacher  conducts  the  service 
in  Turkish  after  the  manner  of  the  evangelical  churches  in  America.  The 
hjmms  are  Turkish  translations  of  our  sweet  songs  of  Zion,  and  are  sung  in  the 
same  old  tunes  by  the  whole  congregation.  That  kind-faced  deacon  near  the 
pulpit  helped  stone  the  first  missionary  out  of  the  city.  The  man  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  audience,  with  a  deep  scar  on  his  brow,  is  a  converted  robber.  A 
third  congregation  of  some  two  hundred  has  recently  been  gathered  in  the  cit}% 
and  is  working  its  w-ay  up  towards  self-support. 

"  Change  Among  the  Armenians —  The  Moslems.  Look  with  me  again  into  the 
old  Armenian  church.  You  hear  again  the  service  in  the  sacred  language  of  the 
fathers,  but  at  the  close  there  is  a  sermon  in  Turkish  by  the  priest,  at  the  de- 
mand of  his  audience,  who  have  learned  from  the  Protestants  that  religious 
services  should  be  understood.  Near  by  the  altar  stands  an  Estey  organ  from 
Vermont.  The  pictures  have  mostly  gone  from  the  walls,  and,  side  by  side 
with  the  ancient  Bible,  which  few  if  any  could  read,  there  lies  the  plain  Turk- 
ish Bible,  fresh  from  the  mission  press.  In  the  Armenian  schools  close  by,  you 
will  find  the  Protestant  text-books,  and  very  likely  a  Protestant  teacher.  It  is 
said  that,  before  missionaries  came  to  Turkey,  there  was  not  in  the  whole  em- 
pire a  school  in  which  the  spoken  language  was  used,  while  geography  and 
arithmetic  were  quite  unknown.  The  Bible  is  in  a  large  number  of  Armenian 
houses,  where  it  is  often  read  with  thoughtful  interest.  The  effect  of  Protestant 
light  can  now  be  seen  on  the  dark  background  of  the  Moslem  faith.  The  old 
bitterness  that  forbade  a  Christian  to  speak  the  name  of  his  Master  in  the 
presence  of  a  Turk  gives  place  to  kind  regard.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a 
Christian  not  only  to  defend  his  faith  before  Moslems,  but  to  plead  with  them 
to  look  to  Christ  and  live. 

"  The  attitude  of  the  government  towards  Christianity  still  represses  all 
spirit  of  inquiry  among  the  Moslems.  It  cares  but  little  how  much  the  despised 
Christians  change  about  from  one  creed  to  another^  but  there  is  yet  practically 
no  religious  liberty  for  the  Moslems."  ^ 

"  Marash —  The  Outlook  for  Tu7-key.  In  Marash,  our  other  center  of  mission 
work,  instead  of  a  college,  the  Theological  Seminary  is  training  men  for  the 
pulpit,  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  Protestants  and  three  self-supporting 
churches  indicate  the  progress  of  evangelical  faith.     Oorfa,  Acliaman,  Kassab, 

^  His  account  of  the  college  at  Aintab  is  omitted,  as  that  belougs  to  another  chapter. 


84  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Killis,  Adana,  and  Hadjin  have  each  from  three  hundred  to  one  thousand 
Protestants,  with  a  self-supporting  church.  More  than  thirty  other  cities  and 
villages  in  Central  Turkey  have  their  churches  and  schools,  their  prayer- 
meetings  and   Sunday  schools. 

"  The  missionaries  reside  at  Marash  and  Aintab,  there  being  generally  three 
men,  their  wives,  and  two  unmarried  lady  teachers  in  each  of  these  two  cities. 
The  ladies  have  charge  of  the  boarding-schools  at  the  centers,  and  a  general 
supervision  of  the  schools  and  special  work  for  native  women  in  out-stations. 
The  missionaries  at  Aintab  have  charge  of  the  College,  and  the  missionaries  at 
Marash  of  the  Theological  Seminary;  while  from  each  place  as  a  center  they 
supervise  the  general  mission  work,  making  frequent  tours  over  the  field  on 
horseback,  preaching  as  occasion  may  require. 

"  These  same  evangelical  influences  are  at  work  in  all  parts  of  the  empire. 
But  few  cities  or  towns  are  now  without  a  community  of  Protestants,  with  its 
church  and  school.  In  Asia  Minor  alone  there  are  more  than  two  hundred 
places  of  worship  where  the  living  preacher  every  Sabbath  proclaims  the  Gos- 
pel message  in  the  languages  of  the  people.  The  whole  Turkish  empire  is 
indeed  starred  all  over  with  churches  and  schools,  with  Christian  homes  and 
family  altars,  each  a  center  of  life  and  light,  sending  out  its  sacred  influences 
into  the  surrounding  darkness. 

"  It  is  said  that  Turkish  birds  never  sing.  But,  one  summer  morning,  I 
wandered  down  through  the  gardens  for  an  hour's  rest.  In  the  hedge  by  the 
path  a  nightingale  was  pouring  forth  its  song,  so  sweet,  so  pure,  it  seemed  like 
an  echo  from  the  upper  world.  So  the  sweet  sound  of  the  Gospel  is  heard  here 
and  there  all  through  the  land,  waking  the  nation  into  life  from  the  sleep 
of  a  long,  dreary  night."  ^ 

The  following  description  of  Antioch,  from  the  same  pen,  may  show  that 
devotion  to  missionary  work  does  not  interfere  with  interest  in,  and  the  intelli- 
gent promotion  of,  all  useful  knowledge. 

"Antioch,  situated  on  the  southeast  bank  of  the  river  Orontes,  twenty 
miles  from  its  mouth,  was  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  B.  C.  300,  and  its  site, 
like  that  of  Rome,  was  determined  upon  by  the  flight  of  eagles,  Seleucus 
Nicator,  having  defeated  Antigonus,  compelled  five  thousand  Athenians  and 
Macedonians  to  tear  down  his  rival's  capital,  Antigonea,  and  convey  the 
materials  down  the  Orontes,  to  his  new  city,  which  he  called  Antioch,  in  honor 
of  his  father.  Its  site  is  romantically  beautiful,  and  strategically  commands  the 
only  level  road  to  the  sea  from  Mesopotamia  and  upper  Syria.  The  space 
between  the  Orontes  and  Mt.  Silphius  being  quite  narrow,  the  city  in  its  glory 
was  very  long  in  proportion  to  its  breadth,  and  contained  a  single  street  four 
miles  long,  bordered  on  either  side  by  vast  colonnades,  so  contrived  as  to 
shelter  the  crowds  from  the  heat  as  they  traversed  the  city.  The  Orontes 
opposite  Antioch  originally  contained  an  island  adorned  by  palaces,  and  con- 
nected with  the  main  land  by  magnificent  bridges,  a  feature  of  the  city  that  no 
longer  exists. 

I  Missionary  Herald,  iSSo,  pp.  44-5°- 


ANTIOCH. 


85 


"The  walls  of  Antioch,  famed  throughout  the  East,  originally  built  by  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  enlarged  by  his  successors,  and  repaired  by  Tiberius,  starting 
from  the  river,  crossed  the  city,  ascended  the  mountain,  stretched  along  its 
summit,  and  then  descended  again  to  the  river,  whose  city  bank  was  strongly 
fortified.  Much  of  this  wall  still  exists  on  Mount  Silphius,  and  is  a  splendid 
specimen  of  ancient  patience  and  skill  in  warlike  defenses.  Antioch  was  a 
favorite  retreat  of  most  of  the  great  Roman  rulers.  Caesar,  Augustus,  Caligula, 
and  Herod  of  Judea,  all  executed  vast  architectural  works  and  improvements  — 
as  aqueducts,  baths,  and  basilicas  —  until  the  city  was  famed  even  in  Rome  for 
its  magnificence,  and  at  one  time  contained  six  hundred  thousand  souls,  being 
the  third  city  in  the  world.  The  climate  added  to  the  city's  fascinations.  If, 
according  to  Euripides,  '  the  Greeks  were  ever  delicately  marching  through 
the  pellucid  air,'  this  was  preeminently  true  of  the  denizens  of  Antioch.  The 
purple  light  of  the  hills,  with  the  exquisite  softness  and  transparency  of  the 
atmosphere,  vividly  reminded  the  homesick  Athenian  of  his  beloved  Attica. 

"  Beautiful  as  was  Antioch,  it  was  well-nigh  eclipsed  by  its  famous  suburb, 
Daphne,  a  vast  elliptical  garden  over  three  miles  in  diameter  by  the  longer 
axis.  Here,  in  a  splendid  temple  dedicated  to  Apollo,  was  a  famous  image  of 
the  god,  sixty  feet  high.  Serpentine  walks  adorned  at  intervals  by  superb 
statuary  from  Greek  chisels,  marble  baths  overflowing  with  crystal  water  from 
the  adjacent  hills,  exquisite  miniature  temples,  beautiful  arches,  and  tiny 
bridges  over  the  little  winding  streams  that  were  taught  to  flow,  now  from  the 
mouths  of  huge  dragons,  now  over  precipices  into  deep  grottoes  shaded  by  lofty 
trees  full  of  singing  birds,  all  created  a  delicious  coolness  in  the  fierce  heat  of 
a  Syrian  sun,  and  a  luxury  so  dangerous  that  the  Roman  soldiery  were  strin- 
gently forbidden  to  approach  the  place.  Here,  in  purple  and  jewels,  the  most 
accomplished  courtiers  lived  and  reveled  in  pleasure.  But  now,  the  half-naked 
barbarian  herds  his  goats  among  the  ruins  of  Apollo's  worship,  and  chases  the 
fox  and  jackal  over  the  ashes  of  classic  glory, 

"  As  to  morals,  we  cannot  praise  the  ancient  people  of  Antioch.  It  was  at 
once  the  greatest  and  the  worst  of  all  Greek  Oriental  cities  under  the  sway  of 
Rome.  Nevertheless,  Christianity  in  Antioch  won  vast  trophies  during  the 
early  centuries,  and  here  was  founded  the  church  of  the  Gentiles  ;  at  one  time 
there  were,  in  the  city  limits,  three  hundred  and  sixty  churches  and  monasteries. 
From  here,  Paul  and  Barnabas,  with  other  devoted  souls,  went  forth  with  the 
Gospel  into  the  West,  and  as  a  result  we  are  now  rejoicing  in  its  blessed  hopes. 
Ten  councils  holden  here,  at  which  Arianism  and  other  heresies  were  con- 
demned, give  Antioch  a  prominent  place  in  church  history.  Among  the  power- 
ful patriarchates  of  the  early  church  —  as  Constantinople,  Rome,  ^lerusalem, 
Alexandria,  and  Antioch  —  the  latter  occupied  a  conspicuous  place,  and  exists, 
under  the  Greek  (and  Jacobite)  churches,  until  this  hour.  In  letters  and  oratory 
the  city  furnished  some  distinguished  names,  such  as  Ignatius,  Theophilus, 
John  Chrysostom,  Severus,  and  Sergius,  all  famous  in  the  church. 

"The  political  history  of  Antioch  is  most  eventful,  and  might  be  introduced 
by  the  statement  that  the  city  has  been  wholly  or  partially  destroyed  by  earth- 
quakes nearly  twenty  times,  the  last  one  occurring  in  1S72.     On  two  of  these 


S6  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

occasians,  two  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  souls  perished  in  three  minutes. 
Since  the  Christian  era  the  city  was  captured  and  plundered  by  Sapor,  of 
Persia,  A.  D.  260.  Justinian  rebuilt  and  called  it  '  The  City  of  God,'  in  A.  D. 
536.  After  it  was  captured  and  burnt  by  Chosroes,  Justinian  rebuilt  it,  A.  D. 
562.  It  was  destroyed  again  by  Chosroes,  A.  D.  574  ;  was  captured  by  the 
Saracens,  A.  D.  638,  and  retaken  by  Nicephorus  Phocas,  A.  D.  966.  One 
hundred  thousand  Saracens  perished  in  an  attempt  to  recapture  it,  A.  D.  970, 
but  it  was  betrayed  to  them  by  its  governor,  A.  D.  1080.  After  a  terrific  siege, 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  captured  the  city  June  3,  1098,  and  next  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Sultans  of  Egypt,  A.  D.  1268.  It  was,  however,  speedily  turned" 
over  to  the  Turks,  who  have  remained  its  masters  to  this  day,  except  during  a 
brief  period  from  1839  to  1840,  whea  it  was  held  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  of  Egypt, 
who  was  compelled  by  the  interposition  of  England  to  restore  it  to  the  Turks. 

"  At  the  present  time  Antioch  contains  about  thirteen  thousand  souls,  con- 
sisting of  Moslems,  Greeks,  Pagans,  Jews,  Armenians,  Catholics,  and  Protest- 
ants, whose  numbers,  commencing  with  the  largest,  follow  the  order  of  this 
enumeration.  Missionary  operations  are  carried  on  by  the  American  Board 
and  the  Reformed  Presbyterians  of  Ireland.  The  latter,  using  the  Arabic 
language,  have  large  and  flourishing  schools  under  the  care  of  Rev.  James  Mar- 
tin, M.  D.,  with  Sabbath  and  weekly  preaching  services,  attended  by  consider- 
able numbers.  There  is  a  church  here,  with  a  native  pastor,  connected  with 
the  mission  of  the  American  Board.  The  congregation  numbers  about  sevent)' 
persons,  and  the  church  twenty-two.  Efforts  towards  self-support  are  promis- 
ing. Surely,  in  the  missionary  efforts  put  forth  in  Asia  Minor,  this  ancient 
home  of  Christians  should  not  be  forgotten.  ^ 

"  The  accompanying  view  is  an  excellent  representation  of  Antioch  as  it  was 
about  forty  years  ago.  Since  then  the  wall  has  been  in  many  places  over- 
thrown by  earthquake,  and  large  sections  of  it  have  been  used  by  Ibrahim 
Pasha  and  others  in  the  erection  of  buildings.  The  city  extends  higher  up  on 
the  side  of  the  mountain  than  it  did  a  few  years  ago." 

AFRICA. 

Africa  has  been  less  known  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  world.  Stanley 
may  well  call  it  "the  Dark  Continent.''  A  French  writer  justly  styles  it  "a 
sphinx  devouring  those  who  would  solve  her  enigmas."  Rev.  D.  Lindley,  who 
was  a  missionary  there  for  forty  years,  says:  "Ordinary  accounts  of  African 
travelers  may  be  classed  under  three  heads  :  half-true,  untrue,  and  nonsense. 
Their  information  comes  through  interpreters,  who  may  not  know,  and  if  they 
did,  would  not  impart  their  knowledge  to  a  stranger  one  time  in  a  hundred." 

South  of  the  equator  missionaries  have  been  the  principal  explorers.  Secu- 
lar enterprise  has  done  much.  It  sent  seventeen  expeditions  in  forty  years  to 
explore  the  Niger.  Nineteen  leaders  perished  in  the  attempt,  besides  scores  of 
subordinates ;  yet  the  world  commends  the  heroism  of  these  martyrs  to  science. 
African  missions  also  count  their  martyrs.     The  Moravians  landed  on  the  gold 

'  Missionary  Herald,  iSSo,  pp.  2.(4-24(1. 


WESTERN    AFRICA.  87 

coast  in  1736,  and  braved  its  deadly  clime  till  eleven  had  fallen.  Seventy-five 
years  later  the  Wesleyans  began  at  Sierra  Leone,  in  the  same  spirit.  Scores 
fell,  but  volunteers  sprang  to  the  vacant  places. 

Among  our  own  missionaries,  Rev.  A.  Bushnell,  W.  Walker,  B.  Griswold, 
I.  M.  Preston,  H.  A.  Ford,  M.  D.,  and  others,  have  penetrated  the  country  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  explored  its  streams,  and  discovered  many 
towns.  They  have  ascended  the  Ogova^  three  hundred  miles,  and  visited 
places  on  the  Ragali,  a  branch  of  the  Gaboon,  never  seen  by  white  men  before. 
They  have  collected  information  concerning  the  first-known  occupants  of  that 
region  ;  of  the  Mpongwes,  a  later  immigration  ;  of  the  Shikanis,  another  fierce 
tribe,  also  from  the  interior,  now  nearly  extinct;  of  the  Bakeles'^  and  Pangwes, 
who  followed  after.  These  last  are  a  superior  race  ;  of  fine  physique,  and  from 
a  healthy  climate.  Mr,  Bushnell  thus  describes  them  to  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  July,  1856  :  "They  are  numerous  and  warlike,  independent,  and  a  ter- 
ror to  their  neighbors.  In  person  they  are  large,  well-formed,  and  a  shade 
lighter  than  other  tribes.  They  wear  little  clothing,  save  a  preparation  of 
powdered  redwood  and  oil.  From  native  ore  they  make  beautiful  and  well- 
tempered  knives,  two-edged  swords,  and  spears,  and  use  them  with  skill.  They 
have  also  cross-bows  and  poisoned  arrows.  They  are  cannibals,  but  only  in 
connection  with  war  or  criminals.     Their  spiritual  ideas  are  very  gross." 

In  July,  1864,  Mr.  Preston  explored  the  coast  as  far  south  as  the  Fernando 
Vaz,  the  southern  outlet  of  the  Ogova,  a  mile  in  width.  The  people  speak  a 
dialect  of  the  Mpongwe,  Up  the  river  to  the  southeast,  Dikele  is  spoken. 
Mr,  Bushnell  wrote,  in  1859,  that  a  Frenchman  who  had  ascended  the  Nazareth^ 
several  hundred  miles  found  the  country  beautiful  and  densely  peopled,  and 
the  inhabitants  ingenious  and  industrious.  He  crossed  prairies  sixty  miles 
long,  abounding  in  wild  cattle.     Cotton  and  tobacco  were  largely  cultivated,* 

The  Ogova,  or  Nazareth,  bends  round  east  of  the  Gaboon,  and  one  branch 
comes  down  from  the  north,  probably  from  a  great  lake  described  to  Mr. 
Preston  by  a  Pangwe  who  had  come  from  its  western  shore.  He  could  not 
see  across,  and  of  its  other  shores  he  knew  nothing.  Mr.  Preston  visited  a 
lake  named  Ndogo,  in  latitude  2°  4'  south,  forty  miles  long  and  from  five  to  ten 
in  width,  never  seen  by  white  men  before. 

Mr,  Preston  thus  describes  the  scenery  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Nkama 
river,  an  aifiuent  of  the  Gaboon,  Jiduma  is  twenty  miles  above  Nenge-nenge, 
and  there  the  river  is  half  as  large  as  the  Muskingum  at  Marietta :  "  In  half 
an  hour  above  Jiduma  —  to  which  the  influence  of  the  tide  extends  —  we  left 
the  mangroves  behind ;  and  in  an  hour  we  had  reached  the  hills.  The 
river  became  narrower,  and  the  current  stronger.  Never  have  I  seen  more 
beautiful  scenery.  The  river  wound  between  hills  on  either  side,  rising  steeply 
five  or  six  hundred  feet.  They  were  clad  to  their  summits  with  immense  trees, 
and  these  again  festooned  with  vines  covered  with  flowers  and  fruit.  Here 
monkeys  of  various  sizes  and  colors  gamboled  and  chattered,  and  there  sang 
birds  of  gayest  plumage.     At  one  point  a  land-slide  had  left  huge  piles  of  bare 

'  Ogowai  of  Stanley.  -  Bakalai  of  Stanley. 

^  Supposed  to  be  the  northern  outlet  of  the  Ogova.  *  Missio7iary  Herald,  1S59,  p.  186, 


as  THE    ELY    V(JI.CME. 

rocks,  and  nearly  closed  the  river  wiih  fallen  trees.  At  another,  the  rocks, 
covered  with  strange  lichens,  rose  perpendicularly  from  the  water  thirty  or 
fifty  feet.  Yonder  a  small  stream  comes  tumbling  over  the  rocks,  forming  a 
beautiful  cascade,  though  it  is  a  mountain  torrent  in  the  rainy  season.  Here  a 
cavern  yawns,  which  the  want  of  a  light  forbids  me  to  explore.  In  an  hour 
and  a  half  we  had  passed  this  range  of  hills  running  northwest  and  southeast, 
and  emerged  into  a  level  plain,  which  is  overflowed  in  many  places  in  the  time 
of  flood.  Through  this  region,  covered  with  rank  vegetation  and  dotted  with 
trees,  roam  various  wild  animals — hogs,  cattle,  deer,  and  elephants."  ^ 

It  was  the  desire  of  Richardson  to  found  a  mission  on  Lake  Tshad  that 
led  him  to  cross  the  Sahara  in  1850.  The  most  important  result  was  the  dis- 
covery of  a  large  river  flowing  into  that  lake  from  the  south,  and  of  the  Binue, 
explored  a  year  or  two  later  by  Bishop  Crowther,  himself  an  African  and 
a  missionary.- 

But  the  best  exposition  of  the  contribution  of  missions  to  geography  in 
Western  Africa  is  the  work  of  Rev.  J.  Leighton  Wilson  on  that  country.^  This 
is  one  of  several  similar  works  by  missionaries,  which  we  would  like  to  put  into 
the  hands  of  any  one  who  is  "  not  aware  that  missionaries  had  ever  done  any- 
thing for  science."  It  is  written  by  no  transient  visitor  who  "could  see  nothing 
but  the  surface  of  things,"  but  by  one  who  had  spent  more  than  eighteen  years 
in  that  country ;  had  visited  every  place  of  importance  along  the  coast,  and 
made  extensive  excursions  in  the  interior.  He  had  reduced  to  writing  two  of 
the  native  languages,  and  had  more  than  ordinary  facilities  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  life  of  the  people,  their  moral,  social,  civil,  and  religious 
condition,  as  well  as  their  peculiar  ideas  and  customs.  It  is  not  a  book  of 
travels,  in  which  the  writer  is  his  own  hero,  but  a  treasury  of  facts  drawn  from 
all  available  sources,  especially  his  own  personal  observation,  thoroughly 
digested,  well  arranged,  and  written  in  a  style  so  transparent  that  the  reader 
seems  to  look  on  the  scenes  and  occurrences  which  it  describes.  The  only 
fault  to  be  found  with  the  book  is  that  it  has  no  index  —  a  great  defect  in  a 
volume  so  rich  in  rare  and  valuable  facts.  He  gives  an  account  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Africa,  its  principal  divisions,  ancient  discoveries  in  that  con- 
tinent ;  its  natural  scenery,  its  rivers,  mountains,  seasons,  and  climate.  He 
narrates  at  length  the  Portuguese  discoveries  and  dominion  there,  and  the  early 
enterprises  of  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch.  Then  he  describes  in  detail 
Senegambia,  the  two  great  rivers  that  combine  to  form  its  name,  and  its  people, 
the  Jalofs,  Mundingoes,  and  Fulahs ;  the  characteristics  of  each,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  each  other.  So  he  goes  over  northern  Guinea,  comprising  Sierra 
Leone,  the  grain  coast,  its  different  tribes,  their  peculiar  customs,  style  of  build- 
ing, agriculture,  social  condition  of  the  people,  products  of  the  country,  their 
food,  the  domestic  habits  and  dress  of  the  women  ;  the  government,  their 
deliberative  assemblies,  with  specimens  of  their  oratory.  In  like  manner  he 
describes  the  Ivory  and  Gold  Coasts  ;  Ashanti,  its  history,  its  wars  with  the 
British;    the    caboceers  or  nobles;   the  royal  revenues;  life   in   the  palace; 

^Missionary  Herald,  1853,  pp.  13-18.  =  Kingston's  Great  African  Travellers. 

^Kew  York,  iSsS,  121110,  pp.  $2-;. 


WESTERN    AFRICA.  89 

gold  mines  ;  and  human  sacrifices,  which  last  are  perhaps  without  a  parallel  in 
the  history  of  the  world,  and  are  made  annually  to  the  manes  of  the  king's 
ancestors.  The  government  is  a  most  absolute  and  barbarous  despotism,  alike 
over  noble  and  peasant ;  whoever  opposes  the  will  of  the  king,  even  in  the 
most  trivial  matter,  is  guilty  of  high  treason,  and  the  spies  of  the  king  report 
every  word  that  comes  to  their  ears,  so  that  no  one  is  ever  called  to  the  palace 
without  trembling  lest  some  evil  report  about  him  has  been  carried  to  the  king, 
or  lest  his  blood  be  wanted  to  water  some  royal  grave. 

In  describing  the  slave  coast,  our  author  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the 
origin  and  history  of  Abbeokuta  —  literally  "  Understone,"  from  the  cavern 
where  its  founders  found  a  hiding-place  —  and  the  attacks  made  on  the  place 
by  the  king  of  Dehomi,  whose  despotism  and  cruelties  rival  those  of  his  neigh- 
bor in  Ashanti.  Wars  were  often  waged  solely  to  obtain  human  skulls  to  pave 
the  court-yard  and  adorn  the  walls  of  the  palace.  The  Abbeokutans  were 
trained  to  resist  one  of  his  desperate  assaults  by  an  American  missionary',  who 
had  learned  war  with  our  army  in  Mexico,  and  they  attribute  to  him  their  success 
on  that  occasion,  when  they  would  have  captured  even  the  king  himself  had  it 
not  been  for  the  frantic  fury  of  his  Amazons  ;  for,  while  he  had  three  thousand 
women  in  his  harem,  he  had  selected  from  the  stronger  women  of  the  country 
five  thousand  for  his  army.  These  are  so  brave  and  loyal  that  he  makes  them 
his  body-guard,  and  assigns  a  chief  place  to  them  in  important  battles.  They 
are  led  by  officers  from  among  themselves  ;  and  when  they  would  brand  each 
other  as  cowards,  they  say,  "You  are  a  man." 

Before  leaving  northern  Guinea  he  describes  their  belief  in  God  and  in 
future  retribution,  and  their  system  of  fetich,  which  is  inwrought  into  the  whole 
texture  of  society.  A  stranger  lands  under  a  canopy  of  fetiches,  meets  them 
wherever  he  goes,  at  every  cross-road  or  ford,  at  eveiy  large  rock  or  tree,  at  the 
entrance  of  every  village,  over  the  door  of  every  house,  and  around  the  neck  of 
every  one  he  meets. 

Kindred  to  this  is  the  universal  belief  in  witchcraft.  Every  case  of  sickness, 
and  especially  every  death,  is  believed  to  be  caused  by  this ;  and  no  class,  age, 
or  sex  is  exempt  from  the  dire  suspicion  awakened  by  such  an  event.  Broth- 
ers and  sisters,  fathers,  and  even  mothers  are  accused  of  the  unnatural  crime. 
The  priesthood  have  ample  scope  here  for  malice  or  revenge,  and  are  not  slow 
to  use  it,  though  they  themselves  often  fall  under  the  same  condemnation. 
The  accused  can  be  cleared  from  the  charge  only  by  submitting  to  the  ordeal 
of  the  "  red  water,"  which  in  northern  Guinea  is  prepared  from  a  tree  of  the 
mimosa  family,  and  in  southern  Guinea  from  a  plant  called  nkazya.  If  this 
produces  nausea  and  vomiting,  the  person  is  acquitted,  and  attains  to  greater 
honor  than  before.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  occasions  vertigo,  he  runs  the  risk 
of  being  killed  on  the  spot  by  the  fury  of  the  mob.  This  superstition  and  the 
ordeal  connected  with  it  are  constant  sources  of  mischief,  and  the  evil  is  hardly 
lessened  by  the  liability  of  the  accusers  to  undergo  the  same  ordeal  which  has 
cleared  the  accused. 

Passing  on  to  southern  Guinea,  he  describes  the  country,  its  climate  and 
peoples ;  the  difference  between  the  Ethiopian  and  Nigritian  races  ;  European 


go  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

settlements ;  trade,  productions,  food ;  the  slave  trade,  and  the  cunning  dis- 
played by  the  natives  in  trade,  of  which  he  gives  some  specimens  that  would 
be  most  amusing  did  they  not  involve  an  utter  lack  of  truth  and  honesty.  He 
gives  a  clear  statement  of  the  difference  between  the  people  of  the  coast  and 
the  interior ;  their  dwellings,  furniture,  social  institutions,  and  government.  It 
is  a  delight  to  read  what  he  says  of  the  respect  shown  by  youth  to  old  age,  both 
in  northern  and  southern  Guinea.  They  esteem  it  one  of  the  greatest  crimes 
for  the  young  to  treat  the  aged  with  disrespect.  They  never  come  into  the 
presence  of  aged  persons  without  taking  off  their  hats.  In  handing  them  a 
glass  of  water  they  do  it  on  one  knee,  and  address  them  as  father  or  mother. 
Yet,  before  a  king  is  inaugurated,  every  man,  woman,  child,  and  even  slave, 
may  say  what  he  pleases  to  him,  lecture  him  on  his  future  duties,  or  remind 
him  of  past  wrong-doing ;  and  it  would  be  deemed  most  unkingly  to  resent  it, 
either  then  or  afterwards. 

No  less  cheering  is  the  account  he  gives  of  African  natural  affection,  blunted 
indeed  by  heathenism  and  the  slave  trade,  but  not  eradicated,  and  needing  only 
the  Gospel  to  make  them  the  most  affectionate  people  on  the  earth.  Among 
the  Krus  —  whose  name  he  derives  from  the  fact  that  more  than  any  other 
tribe  they  were  sought  for  to  make  up  the  crews  of  ships  in  those  seas  —  robust 
men,  whose  faces  indicated  anything  but  gentleness,  might  be  seen  carrying 
infants  in  their  brawny  arms,  and  lavishing  on  them  most  tender  care ;  but 
here,  of  course,  the  mother  excels,  and  no  one  can  doubt  the  love  of  the  Afri- 
can for  his  mother.  Her  name,  dead  or  alive,  is  ever  on  his  lips.  "  Strike 
me,"  says  a  Mandingo  proverb,  ''but  don't  curse  my  mother."  She  is  the  first 
one  he  thinks  of  when  he  wakes,  and  the  last  one  he  remembers  when  he 
retires  to  rest.  To  her  he  confides  his  secret^.  For  her  alone  does  he  care  in 
sickness.  She  alone  must  prepare  his  food  or  his  medicine.  He  flies  to  her 
in  distress,  for  he  knows  that,  though  all  the  world  is  against  him,  she  is  stead- 
fast in  her  love.  It  is  a  common  saying  that,  if  wife  and  mother  are  equally  in 
peril,  the  mother  must  be  saved,  for  no  second  person  could  ever  take  her 
place.  Then,  while  the  love  of  the  father  may  be  divided  among  several 
families,  in  that  home  of  polygamy,  and  he  must  often  decide  quarrels  against 
the  children,  the  mother  always  befriends  her  own,  and  so  secures  their  earliest, 
strongest  love. 

A  missionary  in  eastern  Africa  met  a  native  carrying  a  moldy  and  moth- 
eaten  European  coat,  who,  in  answer  to  the  question,  "Where  did  you  get  it?" 
replied  :  "  Ten  years  ago  a  white  man  gave  it  to  me,  who  treated  black  men  as 
his  brothers  \  whose  words  were  always  gentle,  and  his  actions  always  kind  ; 
who  knew  the  way  to  every  heart,  and  whom  it  was  a  privilege  to  serve."  Do 
these  words  bear  more  decided  testimony  to  the  goodness  of  his  old  employer, 
Dr.  Livingstone,  or  to  the  capacity  of  that  grateful  African  to  be  transformed 
into  the  image  of  Christ  ?  ^ 

Then  follows  a  particular  account  of  several  of  the  divisions  of  the  Pongo 
country,  where  the  author  lived  for  many  years  on  the  Gaboon  river,  with  a 
description  of  the  Shekanis,  Bakeles,  and  Pangwes,  the  kingdoms  of  Loango 

■  Missionary  Herald,  iS8o,  p.  2go. 


WESTERN    AFRICA. 


91 


and  Kongo,  and  the  marked  failure  of  Papal  missions  there  and  in  Angola;  with 
a  chapter  on  natural  history,  and  another  on  their  superstitions,  witchcraft,  and 
secret  societies,  among  both  men  and  women. 

One  chapter  in  the  book  was  written  in  England,  on  his  way  home,  when 
the  British  people,  discouraged  with  their  long  and  apparently  ineffectual 
efforts  to  suppress  the  slave  trade,  were  about  recalling  their  war  vessels  from 
the  coast.  It  was  published  in  one  of  their  magazines,  and  showed  so  plainly 
the  need  of  continuing  the  blockade  only  a  little  longer  in  order  to  success, 
that  the  whole  matter  was  reconsidered,  and  the  work,  so  long  and  so  faithfully 
prosecuted,  was  carried  out  to  its  triumphant  issue.  He  showed  that  the 
presence  of  their  ships  had  abolished  piracy  in  those  waters ;  had  restored 
peace  to  more  than  two  thousand  miles  of  sea-coast,  and  created  a  large  and  flour- 
ishing commerce  in  the  natural  productions  of  the  country,  besides  protecting 
missions  and  every  agency  employed  to  promote  the  well-being  of  Africa  ;  and 
therefore  had  accomplished  results  that  more  than  compensated  for  all  that  it 
had  cost. 

The  chapters  on  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  are  very  valuable  repositories  of 
facts  concerning  these  countries,  giving  a  vivid,  yet  terse  account  of  what  has 
been  accomplished  there  for  good,  with  their  prospects  for  the  future ;  while 
some  suggestions  are  made  about  Liberia,  in  the  line  of  giving  more  attention 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  a  less  exclusive  devotion  to  trade.  The  coffee 
grown  there  is  of  a  very  fine  flavor,  and,  if  only  cared  for  as  it  ought  to  be, 
might  equal  any  in  the  world.  Already  millions  of  plants  are  exported,  to 
supersede  in  their  own  soil  the  famous  coffee  trees  of  Java.  He  mentions  the 
need  of  more  thoroughly  educated  missionaries,  and  their  exclusive  attention 
to  missionary  work  ;  the  importance  of  the  people  being  trained  to  sustain  their 
own  schools  and  churches,  and  seeking  to  elevate  the  vast  mass  of  heathenism 
within  their  borders  —  hints  which,  if  carried  out,  would  greatly  promote  the 
prosperity  and  usefulness  of  that  republic. 

The  volume  everywhere  presents  views  of  the  people  of  Africa  which  could 
proceed  only  from  one  who  had  long  lived  among  them,  and  had  been  an  intel- 
ligent observer  of  their  daily  life.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  estimate  such 
a  writer  forms  of  their  capacity  for  improvement  and  self-government.  He 
reminds  us  that  the  same  variety  of  mental  endowment  we  find  at  home  is  also 
to  be  expected  there.  While  a  general  type  of  character  may  mark  the  people 
as.  a  whole,  he  does  not  look  for  them  to  equal  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  energy  and 
enterprise,  though  they  will  excel  him  in  other  traits  equally  commendable. 
Naturally  social,  generous,  and  confiding,  when  Christianized,  unlike  the  Afri- 
can among  us,  they  exemplify  the  beauty  and  consistency  of  their  religion 
more  than  any  other  race.  The  obstacles  to  their  elevation  have  arisen  from 
their  circumstances,  and  are  not  inherent  in  themselves.  Compared  with  our 
own  Indians,  or  South  Sea  Islanders,  they  appear  well.  No  one  can  live  among 
them  and  not  note  their  energy  and  shrewdness,  the  cunning  with  which  they 
"drive  a  bargain,"  the  adroitness  with  which  they  practice  on  the  credulity  of 
white  men,  who  are  overreached  even  when  most  vigilant.  They  learn  more 
about  a  white  man  in  a  few  hours  than  he  will  of  them  in  as  many  months. 


92 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


They  cultivate  the  soil,  possess  cattle,  have  fixed  habitations,  are  skillful 
mechanics,  and  show  both  taste  and  aptitude  for  trade.  In  Africa  they  have 
none  of  that  improvidence  so  noted  among  them  here.  They  have  little  taste 
for  logic  or  abstract  discussion,  but  have  excellent  memories,  vivid  imagina- 
tions, and  accurate  observation  of  men  and  things.  They  have  no  written  litera- 
ture, though  the  Veys  have  invented  an  alphabet,  itself  no  mean  attainment. 
Mr.  Wilson  gives  a  page  in  this  character,  containing  fifty-six  different  let- 
ters. Many  of  them  are  good  practical  botanists,  mineralogists,  and  zoologists, 
though  without  definite  system.  They  abound  in  legends,  fables,  allegories, 
and  proverbs,  which  they  are  fond  of  repeating. 

Our  missionaries  have  traversed  the  country  north  and  east  from  Natal. 
Dr.  Lindley  and  two  associates  commenced  a  station  nearly  one  thousand  miles 
north  of  Cape  Town,  but  wars  compelled  them  to  journey  circuitously  thirteen 
hundred  miles  to  Port  Natal.  Rev.  Messrs.  J.  Tyler  and  S.  B.  Stone,  in  urg- 
ing the  establishment  of  a  new  station  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  west  of 
Sofala,  one  thousand  miles  north  of  Natal,  sent  home  a  manuscript  map  of 
the  region  they  proposed  to  occupy,  with  all  the  geographical  facts  known  con- 
cerning it. 

In  eastern  Africa,  Dr.  Krapf  and  his  associates  at  New  Rabbay,  near 
Mombas,  have  made  important  discoveries.  With  Rev.  J.  Rebman  he  traveled 
on  foot,  at  different  times,  nine  thousand  miles,  over  an  unknown  region,  extend- 
ing five  degrees  south  from  the  equator.  On  one  of  these  journeys  they  discov- 
ered the  snow-crowned  Kilima  Njaro,  eighteen  thousand  five  hundred  feet  high; 
and  when  English  geographers  denied  its  existence,  they  discovered  a  similar 
mountain,^  and  heard  of  a  great  inland  sea  beyond.  This,  again,  led  to  the 
sending  out  of  Speke  and  Grant,  who  discovered  Victoria  Nyanza  and 
Tanganyika.  Thus  a  question  mooted  from  the  days  of  Ptolemy  was  settled, 
and  the  true  sources  of  the  Nile  made  known  —  a  result,  sa}''s  Colton,  the  cartog- 
rapher, "that  would  not  probably  have  been  attained  for  years  but  for  these 
missionaries."     They  were  sent  out  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society. 

It  would  be  a  crime  to  close  this  account  of  missionary  contributions  to  our 
geographical  knowledge  of  Africa  without  alluding  to  the  valuable  series  of 
papers  now  appearing  in  the  Missionary  Hej-ald,  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  J.  O. 
Means.  Not  only  do  they  give  the  cream  of  all  that  is  now  known  of  that 
continent,  but  they  draw  a  most  inspiring  picture  of  its  capabilities  when  re- 
lieved from  the  incubus  that  has  hitherto  hindered  its  development.  With 
actual  facts  for  a  basis,  and  the  analogy  of  the  advance  of  other  lands  for  a 
guide,  he  ventures  into  the  future,  and  draws  a  picture  of  Africa  as  she  shall 
be,  that  thrills  every  lover  of  his  race.  Nor  is  it  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  vision, 
but  an  anticipation  of  the  near  future,  which  the  reality  may  soon  show  fell 
far  short  of  the  truth.  Take,  for  example,  his  terse  estimate  of  the  future  busi- 
jiess  of  Africa.^  The  annual  business  of  Great  Britain  is  at  the  rate  of  $ioo 
for  each  of  her  population ;  that  of  France  is  $50  for  each,  and  of  our  own 
country  about  $30.  Taking  the  world  over,  the  average  is  about  $11  for  each 
person ;  but  the  total  annual  business  of  Africa  now  is  at  the  rate  of  only  $1.10 

'  Kenia.  ^  Missionary  Herald,  i?,%o, -p.  j,o2. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO   GEOGRAPHICAL   SCIENCE.  93 

for  each  one  of  her  two  hundred  miUions.  Now  let  that  only  come  up,  as  it 
soon  must,  to  the  general  average,  and  what  a  change  does  that  imply  in  the 
condition  of  that  vast  and  naturally  productive  continent !  No  one  can  form  a 
correct  idea  of  the  present  and  prospective  condition  of  Africa  who  has  not 
read  those  papers.  It  would  seem  as  though  the  Lord  had  been  preparing 
their  author  for  this  work  from  the  period — many  years  ago  —  when  he  was 
an  officer  on  board  of  one  of  our  national  vessels  on  that  coast,  down  to  the 
time  when  they  issued  from  his  pen. 

In  this  rapid  review  of  our  missions,  we  have  found  them  all  adding  to  our 
geographical  knowledge.  In  this  alone  we  have  an  ample  return  for  all  their 
cost.  If  the  contribution  of  our  United  States  Exploring  Expedition  to  geo- 
graphical science  justified  its  outlay  of  one  and  a  half  million  dollars ;  if  Polar 
expeditions  are  still  sent  forth  at  very  great  cost,  though  their  results  have 
been  less  satisfactory,  these  contributions  to  sound  learning  by  our  own 
missionaries  demand  a  generous  appreciation.  Every  station  is  not  only  a 
center  of  observation,  but  also  a  starting-point  for  explorers  to  regions  beyond. 
The  friendship  of  the  natives,  secured  by  missionaries,  enables  them  to  obtain 
more  reliable  guides,  and  make  better  preparations  for  their  work.  There  is 
scarcely  an  exploration  in  any  land,  says  Mr.  Colton,  the  cartographer,  that 
does  not  thus  acknowledge  its  indebtedness  to  our  missionaries. 


I 


IV. 
GEOLOGY. 


Our  missionaries,  widely  scattered  over  the  globe,  have  good  opportunities 
to  study  its  geological  formation,  and  they  have  not  been  remiss  in  improving 
them.  Attention  began  to  be  devoted  to  this  science  at  a  very  early  period  in 
the  history  of  the  Board.  In  the  month  of  November,  1819,  Rev.  Levi  Par- 
sons, in  the  cabin  of  the  vessel  that  conveyed  him  from  Boston  to  Smyrna, 
studied  Prof.  Cleaveland's  treatise  on  mineralogy  and  geology,  as  well  as  French 
and  Italian,  and  in  February,  1820,  sent  to  Prof.  Hall,  in  Middlebury  College, 
a  box  of  minerals  from  Smyrna,  among  them  a  specimen  of  Malta  stone,  a 
fragment  broken  off  from  St.  Paul's  cave  in  that  island ;  also  specimens  from 
the  castle  of  Smyrna ;  a  specimen  from  the  amphitheater  where  Polycarp  suf- 
fered martyrdom,  a  specimen  from  ruins  near  Diana's  Bath,  two  miles  from 
Smyrna,  and  a  specimen  of  the  mortar  of  the  amphitheater.  It  may  seem 
stra:ige  that  he  should  send  this  last,  but  the  writer  has  seen  old  mortar  in 
Syria  so  tenacious  that  quarriers  who  resorted  to  ancient  ruins  for  materials  to 
use  in  new  buildings  often  broke  the  stones  themselves  in  spite  of  all  their 
efforts  to  extract  them  whole,  for  the  mortar  along  the  lines  of  junction  was 
stronger  than  the  original  structure  of  the  solid  limestone ;  and  it  is  of  some 
interest  to  examine  the  composition  of  mortar  that  retains  such  tenacity  after 
the  lapse  of  so  many  ages.^ 

The  greater  part  of  Micronesia  consists  of  low  coral  islands,  built  up  by 
the  labors  of  minute  animals  belonging  to  the  class  of  the  aciinozoa,  which  have 
the  power  of  secreting  hard  structures  of  the  nature  of  a  skeleton.  They  are 
also  called  coralligertous  zoophytes.  They  belong  to  the  radiated  animals,  and 
to  the  orders  of  the  zoa7itharia,  rugosa,  and  alcyonaria.  They  live  and  labor 
at  a  depth  not  .exceeding  twenty-five  fathoms,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet, 
and  are  confined  to  seas  where  the  temperature  does  not  sink  below  sixty- 
six  degrees  Fahrenheit  —  or  not  more  than  eighteen  hundred  miles  on  either 
side  of  the  equator;  and  their  headquarters  are  in  the  central  Pacific.  They 
build  up  land  in  three  forms  :  fringing  and  barrier  reefs,  and  atolls.  Fringing 
reefs  line  the  shore,  and  have  no  great  depth  of  water  between  them  and  the 
land.  Barrier  reefs  are  formed  at  a  greater  distance,  and  the  water  on  both 
sides  of  them  is  deep,  but  deepest  on  the  outside.  Atolls  —  and  this  is  the 
form  most  common  in  Micronesia  —  are  in  the  shape  of  a  ring  enclosing  a 

'  Memoir  of  Rev.  Levi  Farsotis,  pp.  269,  289-291. 
(94) 


CORAL    ISLAND. 


95 


lagoon.  These  central  lakes  are  generally  connected  with  the  ocean  by  one 
or  more  channels  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  island.  In  the  largest  of  these 
enclosed  lakes  the  navies  of  the  world  might  ride  at  anchor,  but  the  ring  of 
land  is  so  narrow  that  one  can  walk  across  in  a  few  minutes.  The  soil  is 
quite  poor.  There  are  no  springs,  and  of  course  no  hills,  few  land-birds  or 
flowers.  Flocks  and  herds  could  not  survive  long  on  them,  but  multitudes 
of  men  find  there  a  home. 

Others  of  these  islands  are  volcanic ;  that  is,  they  are  the  result  of  the  action 
of  volcanoes,  bringing  up  material  from  below  the  surface,  and  piling  it  up  in 
the  form  of  mountains,  from  whence  lava,  ashes,  and  cinders  flow  down  on  all 
sides.  These  islands  are  very  diversified  in  surface,  and  though  in  some  places 
very  rough  and  bare,  yet  where  the  lava  has  had  time  to  distintegrate  into  soil, 
and  is  watered  either  by  rain  or  irrigation,  it  becomes  exceedingly  fertile,  and 


LAGOON    ISLAND    IN    MICRONESIA. 


produces  an  abundance  of  trees  and  plants.     Tropical  fruits  and  vegetables 
flourish  in  it  with  great  luxuriance. 

The  parish  of  Rev.  Titus  Coan  extends  fifty  miles  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  Hawaii,  and  is  very  picturesque.  Within  a  distance  of  thirty-five  miles  sixty- 
three  streams  rush  headlong  to  the  sea.  Fourteen  of  their  ravines  are  from 
two  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  in  depth,  and  the  rest  smaller.  The  perpen- 
dicular sides  of  many  can  be  ascended  or  descended  only  on  the  hands  and 
knees.  ^ 

He  has  given  some  vivid  pictures  of  volcanic  eruptions  on  these  islands.  In  1840,  the 
crater  of  Kilauea  had  gradually  filled  up  four  hundred  feet,  leaving  a  depth  of  only  nine  hun- 

'^  Missionary  Herald,  1S37,  p.  36. 


96  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

dred ;  till,  near  the  close  of  May,  its  whole  area  raged  like  the  ocean  in  a  storm,  and  waves  of 
liquid  fire  dashed  with  such  force  against  its  rocky  sides  as  to  shake  the  whole  mountain  and 
hurl  huge  masses  of  rock  from  near  the  top  into  the  fiery  gulf  below.  On  Sabbath,  May  31, 
worship  in  adjacent  villages  was  interrupted.  Fiery  outbreaks  grew  more  frequent  and  terri- 
ble, but  the  molten  mass  seemed  to  pause  as  if  uncertain  which  way  to  turn.  All  were  in  con- 
sternation, for  none  knew  at  what  point  it  would  plunge  down  the  descent  of  four  thousand 
feet,  or  what  ruin  would  mark  its  path.  On  Monday  it  began  to  flow  northeast,  and  on 
Wednesday  evening  it  reached  the  sea,  at  an  average  rate  of  half  a  mile  an  hour.  Sometimes  it 
rushed  on  at  ten  times  that  speed,  and  then  stopped  to  fill  up  valleys  and  break  away  the  hills 
that  stood  in  its  way.  The  lava  broke  out  in  a  forest  at  the  bottom  of  an  old  crater,  four 
hundred  feet  deep,  eight  miles  east  from  Kilauea,  which  it  had  reached  by  a  very  deep  subter- 
ranean gallery,  whose  position  could  be  traced  by  the  fissures  on  the  surface,  and  the  escajDing 
steam  and  gas.  Disappearing  here  for  a  mile  or  two,  it  gushes  up  again,  filling  an  area  of  fifty 
acres.  A  third  time  it  passes  underground  three  miles,  and  reappears  in  another  wooded  cra- 
ter, consuming  the  trees,  and  partly  filling  the  basin.  Once  more  it  disappears,  fissures  from 
six  inches  to  twelve  feet  wide  marking  its  course.  Trees,  split  from  the  bottom  almost  to  the 
top,  form  gothic  arches  across  some  of  these,  and  then  some  seven  miles  away  it  breaks  forth, 
sweeping  forest,  field,  and  hamlet  before  it,  till  it  leaps  from  a.cliff,  fifty  feet  high,  one  unbroken 
sheet  of  fire,  into  the  sea,  with  a  thousand  unearthly  sounds.  Picture  Niagara,  as  red  as  gore, 
thus  plunging  into  the  ocean  —  two  gigantic  forces,  fire  and  water,  in  dire  collision — the 
atmosphere  not  only  filled  with  steam  and  gases,  but  the  lava  itself  shivered  into  millions  of 
minute  particles,  thrown  back  into  the  air,  falling  in  showers  over  the  region.  A  new  cape, 
with  white  sandy  beach,  extended  a  quarter  of  a  mile  into  the  sea,  and  three  hills  rose  in  the 
water  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  in  height. 

For  three  weeks  this  river  flowed  with  small  abatement.  The  fishes  in  the  vicinity  were 
killed,  and  the  ocean  heated  to  a  distance  of  twenty  miles.  Its  entire  length  was  forty  miles, 
with  a  breadth  from  one  to  four  miles,  conforming  itself  to  the  surface,  and  it  was  half  a  mile 
in  width  where  it  fell  into  the  sea.  Its  depth  varied  from  ten  to  two  hundred  feet ;  and  all  that 
time  night  was  turned  into  day  on  eastern  Hawaii,  while  its  glare  was  seen  on  the  western 
shore.  It  was  visible,  also,  one  hundred  miles  at  sea,  and  at  the  distance  of  forty  miles  fine 
print  could  be  read  at  midnight.  Hills  melted  down  like  wax,  deep  ravines  filled  up,  and 
majestic  forests  disappeared  like  feathers  in  the  flames.  In  some  places  the  stream  separated 
and  then  reunited,  leaving  islands  between  seared  by  the  heat.  Sometimes  large  trees  were 
enclosed  by  the  lava,  and  their  trunks  consumed,  leaving  holes  from  ten  to  forty  feet  deep 
where  they  had  been,  each  like  the  bore  of  a  cannon.  While  the  stream  was  flowing,  men 
could  approach  very  near  to  windward ;  but  to  the  leeward  no  one  could  come  within  many 
miles  for  the  smoke  and  deadly  gases,  while  showers  of  fire  destroyed  all  vegetable  life.  Exten- 
sive tracts  of  land  were  undermined  and  floated  off  like  rafts  on  the  fiery  flood.  Sometimes 
the  lava,  obstructed  in  its  subterranean  course,  swelled  the  surface  into  dome-like  hills ;  and 
one  man,  suddenly  raised  with  the  ground  on  which  he  stood,  had  barely  time  to  flee  before  his 
standing-place  became  a  fountain  of  fire.' 

January  10,  1843,  an  eruption  began  on  Mauna  Loa,  thirteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  thirty  miles  from  Hilo.  After  being  kept  awake  many  nights,  watching  its  varying  devel- 
opment—  for  the  eruption  was  in  plain  sight  from  his  bed-chamber,  and  he  could  see  the  rising 
of  lofty  pillars  of  fire,  and  the  fearful  flow  of  the  molten  sea  —  on  the  6th  of  March  Mr.  Coan 
set  out  to  visit  it  with  Mr.  Paris.  The  first  day  they  ascended  the  almost  dry  bed  of  a  river, 
leaping  from  rock  to  rock,  crossing  and  recrossing  as  they  could  find  a  way  round  the  deep 
pools,  along  the  steep  cliffs,  and  over  the  masses  of  drift-wood,  composed  sometimes  of  entire 
trees  torn  up  by  the  roots  and  flung  in  wild  confusion  across  the  gorges.  The  second  day  still 
found  him  and  his  attendants  in  the  solitary  forest,  under  the  frowning  battlements  of  dark 
lava,  deafened  by  the  mountain  torrent,  or  soothed  by  the  song  of  birds  that  filled  every  shrub 
and  tree  with  living  joy.  The  third  day,  at  noon,  they  emerged  from  the  ravine,  and  found  the- 
mass  of  Mauna  Kea  rising  high  before  them.  At  its  base  was  an  open  country,  occupied  by 
herds  of  wild  cattle.     They  now  crossed  a  rolling  plateau,  dotted  with  orchard-like  clumps  of 

^Missionary  Herald,  1841,  pp.  283-285. 


HAWAIIAN    VOLCANOES. 


97 


trees  to  the  southwest,  with  the  peaks  of  Mauna  Kea  on  the  right,  and  at  evening  came  in 
sight  of  Mauna  Loa,  and  camped  under  an  ancient  wooded  crater,  four  hundred  feet  hi"-h. 
Here  they  had  a  splendid  view  of  the  highest  crater,  twenty-five  miles  away,  and  of  the  flood 
of  lava  that  had  poured  down  the  northern  side  of  the  mountain,  about  five  miles  off.  They 
were  now  about  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  a  thunder-storm  raged  below  them, 
while  he  saw  hail  for  the  first  time  since  his  arrival  in  the  islands.  As  darkness  set  in,  the 
lurid  fires  gleamed  from  the  foot  of  Mauna  Kea  all  along  the  intervening  plain,  and  up  to  the 
snow-crowned  peak  of  Mauna  Loa,  like  countless  furnaces  flashing  through  the  gloom.  In  the 
morning,  both  mountains  were  mantled  with  snow.  Thursday  morning,  they  pitched  their  tent 
near  an  old  tree-covered  crater,  surrounded  by  a  vast  field  of  bare,  jagged  scoria,  deposited  by 
former  eruptions,  which  left  the  hill  like  an  island  in  the  sea.  Leaving  the  most  of  their 
attendants  to  collect  fuel  and  prepare  the  camp,  they  set  off  for  the  nearest  flow  of  lava,  two 
miles  distant,  into  which  they  thrust  their  staves,  and  took  out  some  of  the  viscid  mass,  to  be 
carried  off  as  a  memento.  The  day  was  spent  on  the  great  plain  between  the  two  mountains, 
examining  the  products  of  the  eruption,  some  cooled  and  some  yet  in  igneous  fusion.  The 
scoriform  masses  lay  in  ridges  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  high,  forming  jagged  and  almost 
impassable  barriers.  Between  these  were  broad  streams  of  slag,  solid  on  the  top,  like  rivers 
covered  with  ice.  This  was  smooth,  and  of  a  lustrous  black,  revealing  in  places  the  fiery  river 
that  still  flowed  beneath,  sending  up  gory  jets  through  cracks  and  seams.  They  were  amazed 
at  the  immense  area  of  this  surface.  One  broad  stream  had  gone  west  toward  Kona,  another 
to  the  base  of  Mauna  Kea  on  the  north,  dividing  there  into  two,  one  flowing  northwest  toward 
Waimea,  and  the  other  northeast  toward  Hilo.  Together  they  would  form  a  river  six  miles 
broad,  the  longest  being  nearly  thirty  miles  in  length.  They  were  still  both  advancing  slowly 
toward  the  sea.  Weary,  but  intensely  interested,  Mr.  Coan  returned  to  the  tent  to  spend 
another  night  "  in  a  sea  of  electricity." 

Next  morning  early,  they  set  out  for  the  crater,  twenty  miles  distant,  committing  some  ex- 
tra wraps  and  a  little  food  and  water  to  two  strong  natives.  These,  however,  were  so  impeded 
by  their  loads  and  the  sharp,  jagged  scoria,  that  they  could  only  advance  at  the  rate  of  a  mile 
an  hour;  and  so  all  baggage  was  left,  except  some  biscuit  in  their  pockets,  and  their  cloaks  on 
the  shoulders  of  the  guides.  Soon  they  moved  more  rapidly  over  compact,  smooth  lava,  hop- 
ing to  reach  the  summit  and  return  the  same  day,  as  a  night  in  that  high  region  of  cold  might 
be  fatal.  The  path  lay  now  on  old  deposits,  now  on  new ;  here  on  broad  fields  of  smooth,  shin- 
ing lava,  and  there  across  ragged  scoria  full  of  spurs.  Ten  o'clock  found  them  at  the  foot  of 
the  cone,  and  the  ascent  became  steeper.  At  noon  their  guides  were  out  of  sight  in  the  rear, 
and  the  rarity  of  the  air  compelled  frequent  stops  for  breath.  Soon  they  reached  an  opening 
of  some  sixty  feet  by  thirty,  and,  looking  down,  at  the  depth  of  fifty  feet  they  saw  a  vast  subter- 
ranean tunnel  with  smooth  vitrified  sides,  and  in  this,  with  headlong  speed,  a  river  of  fire 
rushed  down  the  steep  declivity.  The  sight  of  this  pyroduct  was  startling.  It  made  them 
dizzy  to  look  down,  but  one  glance  at  it  would  have  repaid  a  journey  of  a  thousand  miles. 
For  hours,  without  knowing  it,  they  had  traveled  over  this  fiery  flood.  They  found  similar 
openings  afterwards ;  and  large  stones  thrown  down,  instead  of  sinking,  were  borne  out  of  sight 
upon  its  surface.  Sometimes  irregularities  on  the  sides  of  the  tunnel  projected  masses  of 
melted  matter  with  terrible  noise  and  startling  force. 

They  did  not  reach  the  summit  till  three  o'clock,  having  waded  through  snow  for  the  last 
three  miles.  Here  they  found  two  immense  craters  of  vast  depth,  in  terrific  action;  but  they 
had  to  hurry  away  without  minute  investigation,  utterly  exhausted.  Night  found  them  hardly 
able  to  move,  and  their  camp  still  ten  miles  away.  A  fog  now  shut  out  all  things,  even  the 
volcanic  fires ;  but  after  an  hour  this  dispersed,  and  they  reached  the  camp  at  eleven  o'clock.^ 

At  half  past  three  on  the  morning  of  February  17, 1852,  a  small  beacon  light  again  appeared 
on  the  summit  of  Mauna  Loa ;  at  first  a  star,  it  soon  became  a  moon,  and  sailors  on  watch 
said,  "What  is  that?  Is  the  moon  rising  in  the  west.'"  In  fifteen  minutes,  a  flood  of  fire 
burst  forth,  and  again  traversed  the  northern  slope  of  the  mountain.  Streams  of  light  flooded 
the  earth  and  filled  the  firmament,  illuminating  the  chambers  of  distant  Hilo.  The  splendor 
was  surpassing,  but  it  lasted  only  twenty-four  hours.     February  20,  another  eruption  burst  out 

^ Missiotiary  Herald,  1S43,  P-  4!J3  ;  do.,  1S44,  pp.  44-47- 

7 


98  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

half  way  down  the  mountain,  facing  Hilo,  and  soon  the  molten  flood  headed  directly  for  the 
town.  Ere  long  it  reached  the  forest  at  its  base,  having  traversed  a  distance  of  twenty  miles. 
A  canopy  of  cloud  and  smoke  hung  over  the  mountain,  murky,  blue,  white,  purple,  and  scarlet, 
as  the  light  played  on  it  from  below.  At  times  it  assumed  the  form  of  a  mountain  inverted 
over  the  other,  peak  to  peak ;  then,  curving  gracefully,  it  swept  off  like  the  tail  of  a  comet, 
further  than  eye  could  follow.  Ashes  and  cinders  fell  on  the  decks  of  ships  approaching  the 
islands.  Vitrified  filaments,  called  "  Pele's  hair  "  by  the  natives,  fell  on  the  roofs  and  in  the 
streets,  and  the  whole  atmosphere  looked  pale  and  sallow.  Mr.  Coan  again  started  for  the 
crater  February  23,  with  Dr.  Wetmore  and  four  natives.  Their  way  led  through  a  dense  forest, 
thirty  miles  broad,  so  tangled  with  vines,  ferns,  and  brambles  that  no  animal  penetrated  it, 
and  they  could  only  advance  about  a  mile  an  hour.  Many  trees  were  of  immense  size,  and  one 
fern  measured  nine  feet  in  circumference.  At  noon  of  the  second  day  they  could  see  over  a 
part  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  found  the  lava  only  six  miles  away,  and  advancing  steadily 
toward  them.  Here  Dr.  Wetmore  returned,  but  Mr.  Coan  kept  on.  At  the  close  of  the  day 
he  camped  on  a  hill,  and  at  half  past  three  in  the  afternoon  of  the  next  day  reached  the  crater 
and  stood  alone  in  the  light  of  its  fires.     He  says  : 

"  It  was  a  moment  of  unntterable  interest.  I  seemed  to  stand  before  the  burning  throne  of 
God.  I  was  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  solitude  untrodden  by  man  or  beast,  amid  a 
silence  unbroken  by  created  voice,  almost  blinded  by  the  brightness,  deafened  by  the  clangor, 
and  petrified  by  the  terrific  nature  of  the  scene."  The  heat  was  too  intense  to  approach  the 
crater  within  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  the  windward,  and  probably  it  would  have  been 
unsafe  two  miles  to  the  leeward.  The  eruption  had  begun  on  the  summit,  but  the  immense 
pressure  of  the  pent-up  mass  broke  through  the  side  of  the  crater,  rending  the  mountain  from 
the  summit  to  the  point  of  exit,  three  thousand  feet  below,  where  the  fiery  flood  was  thrown 
from  one  to  five  hundred  feet  in  the  air.  A  rim  more  than  a  hundred  feet  high  surrounded 
the  vent,  like  a  truncated  cone,  half  a  mile  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  tapering  to  the 
top.  From  this  horrid  throat  a  continuous  column  of  red-hot  and  white-hot  matter  rushed 
with  deafening  noise,  and  a  force  that  threatened  to  rend  the  mountain.  The  sound  varied ; 
now  a  premonitory  rumbling,  and  then  an  explosion  like  a  broadside  at  sea.  Sometimes  it 
resembled  the  roar  of  ten  thousand  furnaces ;  sometimes  it  was  like  the  dash  of  the  waves  in  a 
storm  on  the  rocks,  and  again  like  thunder.  The  eruption  was  continuous,  and  the  force  such 
as  to  shiver  the  column  into  millions  of  fragments  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  some  of  them  falling 
back  again  into  the  crater.  Every  particle  shone  most  brilliantly,  and  all  kinds  of  geometrical 
figures  were  constantly  formed  and  dissolved.  No  pen  or  pencil  could  set  forth  its  beauty  or 
terrible  sublimity. 

As  evening  came  on  Mr.  Coan  retired  about  a  mile,  and  all  night  long  saw  the  lava  at  a 
white  heat  ascend  continually  in  the  form  of  pillars,  pyramids,  cones,  towers,  spires,  and 
scimetars,  while  the  descending  showers  poured  incessantly  fragments  large  enough  to  sink  the 
largest  ship.  A  large  opening  in  the  lower  side  of  the  rim  allowed  the  melted  mass  to  flow 
off  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  in  a  stream  that  the  eye  could  trace  for  more  than  twenty 
miles,  till  it  disappeared  from  sight.' 

November,  1S51,  Mr.  Coan  found  smoke  still  issuing  from  crevices  in  the  lava  of  1840,  and 
some  fissures  too  hot  for  the  hand  to  be  held  over  them.^  It  illustrates  the  felicities  of  travel- 
ing in  the  islands,  that,  on  this  tour,  going  across  the  mountains  from  Hilo  to  Kcalakomo,  he 
was  two  days  passing  a  dreary  desert,  without  inhabitants;  and,  though  the  rain  fell  almost 
incessantly,  he  found  no  shelter,  not  even  a  dry  log  or  stone  on  which  to  rest.  Three  days 
later,  in  returning  along  the  shore  to  Kalapana,  he  walked  over  black  lava,  glowing  in  a  tropi- 
cal sun,  without  water  or  even  "the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  "  to  refresh  him.  Yet  in  the  same 
region,  in  1841,  he  had  to  cross  raging  streams  once  in  half  a  mile  for  thirty  miles,  running  at 
the  rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour,  and  abounding  in  falls  from  ten  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
perpendicular.  Across  some  he  swam,  landing  far  below  the  point  where  he  entered,  and 
others  could  only  be  crossed  by  the  aid  of  a  rope,  which  had  to  be  grasped  with  might  and 
main  to  prevent  being  swept  away  by  the  stream  that  dashed  over  iiim.  At  one  j^lace  it  was 
three  hours  Ijeforc  he  found  a  place  where  he  could  use  even  a  rope  with  any  hoi)e  of  safety.^ 

^Missionary  l/nra/il,  1S52,  pp.  225-227.  "Do  ,  p.  162. 

^Do.,  1S42,  p.  157. 


GEOLOGY. 


99 


On  the  27th  of  March,  1868,  a  series  of  earthquakes  again  alarmed  the  people  of  Kona  and 
Kau.  Next  day  eruptions  of  steam  and  fire  were  visible  at  four  points  on  Mauna  Loa.  The 
streams  of  lava  rushed  down  the  mountain  in  divergent  lines,  the  largest  towards  Kahuku  in 
Kau.  Shocks  more  vigorous  and  frequent  were  now  felt  all  round  the  island.  The  fiery  mass 
surged  against  the  walls  of  the  great  caldron,  throwing  down  avalanches  of  rocks,  and  burst- 
ing through  into  a  lateral  crater.  The  stone  church  at  Kahuku  and  the  buildings  of  foreign 
residents  there  were  now  shaken  down.  Suddenly  the  smoke  and  fire  on  the  mountain  dis- 
appeared. All  eyes  were  turned  to  it,  and  the  inquiry  ran  along,  "  Where  is  the  eruption  ? " 
The  rapid  jars  and  tremblings  of  the  earth  told  how  it  was  forcing  its  way  underground.  Till 
April  2,  the  earth  hardly  rested  between  the  shocks.  At  the  quietest  point  of  the  intervals 
the  quivering  of  the  island  was  like  the  trembling  of  a  ship  under  the  firing  of  a  broadside. 
On  that  day  there  was  a  shock  such  as  the  traditions  of  Hawaii  had  never  recorded.  The 
earth  rose  and  sank  like  the  ocean  in  a  storm  ;  trees  swayed  to  and  fro  ;  stone  walls  fell  flat ; 
houses  reeled  —  some  nearly  slid  from  their  foundations,  and  a  few  fell;  furniture  was  moved 
or  thrown  down,  and  all  houses  were  filled  with  debris;  chimneys  fell  over;  ovens  were 
broken ;  sugar  boilers  and  cooling  vats  nearly  emptied.  The  shock  was  terrific.  The  earth 
opened  in  fissures  from  one  inch  to  two  feet  in  width.  Avalanches  of  rocks  and  earth  poured 
from  the  cliffs  along  the  shore ;  streams  ran  mud ;  the  sea  swept  over  the  low  shore,  and  con- 
sternation reigned  everywhere.  The  noise  of  the  cracking  earth,  falling  stones,  and  crashing 
timber  was  bewildering.  The  acids  and  drugs  in  an  apothecary's  shop  were  compounded  in  a 
way  not  prescribed  in  the  Pharmacopceia,  and  threatening  ignition.  One  woman  was  killed  by 
the  falling  rocks,  and  others  escaped  as  by  a  miracle.  Some  children,  playing  under  a  ledge, 
huddled  together  like  frightened  sheep,  and  prayed,  the  rocks  falling  all  around  and  leaving 
them  unharmed.  Many  left  their  houses  and  camped  out ;  some  did  not  sleep  in  their  houses 
for  many  days.  But  if  things  were  bad  at  Hilo,  at  Kau  all  was  wreck  and  ruin.  At  Kapapala 
and  Keaina  a  mass  of  rocks,  mud,  and  earth,  two  or  three  miles  long  and  as  many  in  width, 
suddenly  buried  a  whole  village  with  all  its  cattle.  It  was  as  sudden  as  a  shot ;  and  there  was 
no  escape.  The  marvel  is,  that  the  mass  was  cold.  The  noise  of  the  explosion  and  the  crash- 
ing of  the  ^rata  beneath  was  as  if  the  rocky  ribs  and  pillars  of  creation  were  being  broken  up. 
Looking  seaward,  the  stone  church  at  Punalau,  six  miles  off,  was  prostrated,  and  a  tidal  wave 
some  twenty  feet  high  swept  off  the  debris  of  that  and  the  houses  all  along  the  coast,  into  the 
sea.  Thus,  in  a  moment,  that  shore  was  desolated.  The  statistics  of  the  loss  of  life  could  not 
be  obtained.  Some  were  buried  alive,  and  others  suffocated  by  the  volcanic  gases.  A  great 
stream  of  lava  flowed  into  the  sea  near  Waiahinu,  filling  all  that  region  with  a  glare  of  light; 
and  Kilauea  sunk  down  hundreds  of  feet,  looking  like  a  vast  pit  of  blackened  ruins.  The 
melted  lava  has  flowed  off,  and  wide  fissures  yawn  along  its  upper  rim.  Mr.  Coan's  descrip- 
tion, written  April  9,  closes  thus  :  ■  "  Our  earthquakes  still  continue,  but  they  are  not  severe. 
A.S  the  lava  flows  above  ground  in  Kau,  we  hope  relief  is  near.  Our  trust  is  in  Him  'who 
looketh  on  the  earth  and  it  trembleth;  who  toucheth  the  hills  and  they  smoke.'"  As  late 
as  1879,  Mr-  Coan  communicated  to  the  Atnerican  Journal  of  Science  and  Art  an  account  of 
"  a  recent  silent  discharge  of  Kilauea,"  2  very  different  from  the  one  described  above. 

Rev.  Lewis  Grout  speaks  of  the  terraced  character  of  Zulu-Land,  from 
the  coast  all  the  way  up  to  the  Kwahlamba,  or  Drakensberg  mountains,  six 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  coast  is  a  beautifully  variegated  strip  of 
country,  ten  or  fifteen  miles  wide.  The  underlying  rock  is  mainly  granite, 
though  here  and  there  ledges  of  sandstone  and  trap  are  washed  by  the  waves. 
One  thousand  feet  above  this  lies  another  shelf  of  about  the  same  width,  and 
one  thousand  feet  more  brings  us  to  the  midland  terrace,  about  twenty  miles  in 
width,  and,  like  the  rest,  very  diversified  in  surface.  Fifty  miles  from  the  sea 
we  find  still  another,  three  or  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  stretching  away 
for  fifty  or  one  hundred  miles  to  the  Kwahlamba.     From  the  summit  of  this 

'^  Missionary  Herald,  t868,  pp.  219-221.  -American  Journal  0/  Scietice  attd  Art,  p.  227. 


lOO  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

last,  which,  like  the  mountain  at  the  cape,  is  not  a  peak,  but  an  immense  table 
surface,  the  land  slopes  gradually  down,  for  two  thousand  miles,  to  the 
Atlantic  coast,  requiring  all  that  distance  to  get  down  again  to  the  same 
level  which,  on  the  eastern  coast,  is  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant. 
The  mountain  behind  Maritzburg,  the  capital  of  Zulu-Land,  is  a  few  hundred 
feet  lower  than  Table  Mountain.  It  is  a  quadrangular  block  of  nearly  equal 
sides,  with  a  pasture-clothed  top  of  four  square  miles,  or  between  two  thousand 
and  three  thousand  acres,  separated  from  the  surrounding  surface  by  bodily 
upheaval,  leaving  sheer  precipices  of  old  sandstone,  without  fossils,  all  around, 
and  accessible  only  at  one  point.  From  this  summit  one  looks  down  on 
tlie  irregular  surfaces  of  the  terraces  below,  that  here  appear  level,  except 
where  the  short,  rapid  rivers  that  break  their  way  through  to  the  shore  seem 
to  have  washed  down  the  originally  level  surface  into  all  sorts  of  shapes,  leav- 
ing here  and  there  a  fiat  portion  to  show  what  had  been  there  before.  Lower 
down,  a  more  recent  and  finer-grained  sandstone  occurs,  containing  impressions 
of  vegetable  remains.  The  trap  rock  is  of  various  ages,  some  closely  associated 
with  the  granite,  and  some  newer  than  the  more  recent  sandstone.  The  older 
is  generally  amygdaloidal,  with  small  fragments  of  the  more  ancient  rock 
embedded  in  it  like  almonds  in  paste.  The  newer  trap  rocks  vary  in  com- 
pactness, and  therefore  disintegrate  more  readily,  so  that  boulders  of  trap 
are  often  strewn  very  thickly  over  the  surface.  The  granite  hills  are  low  and 
smoothly  rounded,  in  contrast  with  the  truncated  cones  of  the  trap  rocks. ^ 

Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson  describes  an  earthquake  that  occurred  in  Syria,  January  i,  1S37.2 
In  Beirut  it  took  place  at  4.30  P.M.,  unheralded  by  anything  remarkable;  only  a  pale  haze 
obscured  the  sun,  and  there  was  an  oppressive  calm.  The  mission  church  was  at  the  com- 
munion table,  when  suddenly  the  house  began  to  shake  and  the  floor  to  rise  and  fall ;  the  con- 
gregation rushed  out  unharmed,  and  the  building  was  cracked  from  top  to  bottom.  In  the 
city  a  few  houses  were  seriously  shattered,  and  some  near  the  river  thrown  down.  During  the 
week  news  of  disaster  began  to  come  in,  and  in  Safed  some  said  that  not  one  in  a  hundred  had 
escaped,  and  others,  more  correctly,  that  six  thousand  had  perished  out  of  a  population  of  ten 
thousand.  A  collection  was  taken  up  in  the  city,  and  Dr.  Thomson  and  Rev.  Mr.  Caiman 
were  sent  to  oversee  its  distribution  among  the  survivors.  On  the  13th,  seven  hours'  riding 
brought  them  to  Neby  Yoonas,  and  next  morning,  leaving  early,  they  soon  entered  Sidon. 
Here  they  took  with  them  the  consular  agent  and  his  two  sons  to  assist  them.  At  10  p.m. 
they  reached  Tyre,  cold  and  hungry,  to  lie  down  without  a  fire,  in  a  house  shattered  by  the 
earthquake.  Some  of  the  streets  were  impassable  with  the  debris  of  fallen  houses.  At  Sidon 
over  seventy  houses  had  been  injured,  and  Tyre  was  nearly  ruined ;  even  the  best  houses 
needed  to  be  rebuilt.  Twelve  persons  were  killed  here,  and  thirty  wounded;  but  things  were 
reported  so  much  worse  in  Safed,  they  hurried  away  on  the  1 5th,  though  it  was  the  Sabbath, 
and  spent  the  night  at  Kanah,  where  the  earth  still  continued  to  tremble.  On  the  17th  they 
reached  Rumaish,  to  find  it  in  ruins,  and  the  people  living  in  booths  made  of  old  boards,  mats, 
brush,  and  anything  that  could  afford  shelter  from  cold  and  rain.  Thirty  people  had  been  killed 
in  this  small  village,  and  more  would  have  shared  their  fate  had  they  not  been  in  the  church, 
which  was  not  seriously  injured.  After  visiting  the  wounded,  and  giving  them  help,  they 
pushed  on  to  Burcyam,  where  fourteen  had  been  killed  and  many  wounded.  They  stopped  for 
the  night  at  Jish,  an  hour  beyond  ;  here  not  a  house  remained,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
persons  were  buried  under  the  ruins  of  the  church;  only  the  priest  escaped.  The  entire 
vaulted  roof  dropped  instantly,  and  escape  was  imijossible.     Fourteen  bodies  still  lay  unburied, 

^  Zuhi-Land,  pp.  255-269. 

'^Missionary  I/erald,  i><37,  pp.  433-442.     Land atid  Book,  Vol.  I,  pp.  42S-433. 


EARTHQUAKE    IN    SYRIA.  lOI 

and  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  in  all  had  perished.  The  survivors,  sixty  in  number,  had  gone 
elsewhere,  leaving  their  sheikh,  with  five  others,  to  dig  out  the  property  from  the  ruins,  and 
bury  the  dead.     The  atmosphere  about  the  church  was  unendurable. 

The  hill  here  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  the  houses  had  been  built  of  volcanic  stone.  As 
the  pigeons  here  were  left  without  owners,  the  sheikh  authorized  Dr.  Thomson's  servants  to 
shoot  some  of  them  for  the  evening  meal.  A  large  rent  in  the  mountain,  to  the  east  of  the 
village,  about  a  foot  wide  and  fifty  feet  in  length,  was  gradually  closing  up.  The  road  now- 
lay  over  a  plain  strewed  with  volcanic  rock.  A  small  lake  occupied  an  e.xtinct  crater.  They 
passed  Kudditha,  nearly  destroyed,  and,  in  the  afternoon,  Ain  Zeitun,  in  utter  ruin.  Just  at  the 
ascent  of  the  Mountain  of  Safed,  they  met  a  merchant  of  Sidon,  returning  home  with  his  wid- 
owed sister.  Her  husband  had  been  buried  up  to  the  neck  by  his  fallen  house,  and  in  that 
pitiable  condition  remained  several  days,  begging  for  help,  till  he  died  without  it.  During  the 
ascent,  several  rents  appeared  in  the  earth  and  rocks.  But  all  this  was  forgotten  when  they 
reached  the  city.  No  language  could  overstate  the  ruin.  Of  the  Jewish  half,  which  held  four 
thousand  inhabitants  when  Dr.  Thomson  was  there  before,  not  one  house  remained.  The 
town  was  built  on  a  side-hill  so  steep  that  the  roof  of  one  house  formed  the  street  for  the  next 
above;  and  when  the  highest  fell  on  the  one  below,  and  these  together  on  the  third,  and  so  on 
to  the  bottom,  no  wonder  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  streets  were  buried  beyond  the  reach  of 
help.  Though  some  were  rescued  even  seven  days  after  the  shock,  still  alive,  a  larger  number 
were  never  reached  at  all,  or  only  lifeless  bodies  rewarded  the  labor.  One  found  his  wife  dead, 
and  the  child,  with  the  breast  of  the  dead  mother  yet  in  its  mouth,  had  also  died  of  hunger. 
Parents  heard  their  little  children  calling  on  father  and  mother  in  fainter  tones,  till  the  feeble 
cry  ceased  altogether  before  it  was  possible  to  reach  them.  What  a  night  that  was  when,  in 
the  darkness,  three  fifths  of  the  population  lay  under  the  ruins,  and  the  shrieks  and  groans  of 
the  wounded  mocked  the  inability  of  their  friends  to  help  them  1  the  earth  trembling  the  while, 
as  though  shuddering  at  the  ruin  she  had  wrought.  As  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  nothing  was 
even  now  to  be  seen  but  one  vast,  mingled  wreck  of  stone  and  timber,  furniture  and  clothing, 
in  horrible  confusion ;  men  everywhere  at  work,  worn-out  and  woe-begone,  in  search  of  the 
mangled  bodies  of  friends,  while  here  and  there  companies  of  two  and  three  bear  away  a 
dreadful  mass  of  corruption  to  the  grave.  Of  the  wretched  survivors,  some  were  weeping, 
others  laughing,  as  though  their  power  to  weep  was  exhausted.  In  one  place,  an  old  man  sat 
alone  on  the  site  of  his  once  crowded  home.  In  another,  a  child  was  at  play,  too  young  to 
know  that  it  was  left  alone.  Kind  words  unsealed  the  fountain  of  tears  in  some,  others  seemed 
dazed  with  sorrow;  parents  were  childless,  and  children  were  new-made  orphans,  and  many- 
remained  the  sole  survivors  of  large  households.  Most  had  extemporized  such  shelters  as 
were  described  at  Rumaish,  and  some,  unable  to  move,  lay  under  tottering  wails,  that  might  at 
any  moment  fall  over  and  end  their  misery. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  party  began  their  labors,  but  they  soon  found  that  the  first  thing  to 
do  was  to  extemporize  a  hospital.  Eight  lay  in  an  old  vault,  accessible  only  by  a  hole  in  the 
roof,  the  air  tainted  beyond  endurance.  Others,  bruised  and  swollen  out  of  shape,  and  partly 
mortified,  had  no  shelter  at  all.  On  the  19th  the  hospital  was  ready;  yet,  even  then  they 
had,  in  some  cases,  to  carry  the  wounded  to  it  with  their  own  hands,  or  pay  their  relatives 
exorbitant  prices  for  the  service!  In  one  case,  a  woman  lay  on  the  ground,  with  a  number  of 
wounds,  all  in  a  state  of  mortification.  One  foot  had  dropped  off,  and  the  bones  of  the  leg 
were  bare.  There  was  nothing  to  do  for  her  but  to  relieve  pain,  as  far  as  possible,  till  the 
end  came,  which  was  not  far  off.  Even  before  the  shelter  was  ready,  some  of  the  wounded 
were  brought  and  laid  down,  waiting  for  its  completion.  Half  of  the  Christian  population  had 
perished,  and  the  survivors  occupied  one  great  tent.  Here,  too,  were  wounded  and  orphans 
needing  attention.  Even  while  Dr.  Thomson  was  there,  the  shocks  continued.  On  the  19th, 
while  nailing  boards  on  the  roof  of  the  building,  a  cloud  of  dust  rose  from  the  ruins  all  round, 
and  the  people  rushed  out  with  loud  cries,  beating  their  breasts  and  tearing  their  garments  in 
despair.  The  workmen,  too,  threw  down  their  tools  and  fled.  One  jerk  was  so  sudden  and 
violent  as  to  affect  Dr.  Thomson  like  an  electric  shock.  After  some  days,  leaving  his  asso- 
ciates to  care  for  the  sufferers  at  Safed,  Dr.  Thdmson  passed  down  to  Tiberias,  where  the 
destruction  was  not  so  great.     Only  seven  hundred  perished  out  of  two  thousand  five  hundred ; 


102  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

while  at  Safod  four  thousand  Jews  and  Christians  were  killed,  and  one  thousand  Moslems. 
Yet  even  here  the  only  physician,  who  is  wealthy,  had  his  wife  and  children  killed  at  his  feet, 
and  his  own  leg  broken  below  the  knee.  He  was  held  fast  in  that  condition  two  days,  begging 
for  some  one  to  come  and  set  him  free.  At  length  he  offered  three  hundred  dollars,  but  in  vain. 
When  the  flies  got  to  his  wound,  in  despair  he  sought  to  end  his  life  and  suffering  together; 
but  he  did  not  succeed,  and  at  length  found  relief  and  healing.  Kefr  Kenna  sustained  no 
injury;  Nazareth,  a  little.  The  upper  story  of  the  house  of  the  Nazarene  who  had  since  been 
helping  Dr.  Thomson  for  five  days  fell  down,  but,  providentially,  no  one  was  hurt.  The  lower 
part,  built  very  strong,  stood  firm,  and  here  Dr.  Thomson  was  entertained,  with  many  tons  of 
rock  and  earth  piled  on  the  floor  above.  Only  five  were  killed  here,  though  a  little  more 
would  have  brought  down  the  Latin  convent  on  the  heads  of  the  monks.  Workmen  were  now 
busy  on  it  repairing  damages. 


V. 
METEOROLOGY. 


TURKEY. 

The  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  early  gave  attention  to  observations  of  the  climate  in  their  fields  of 
labor.  February  ist,  1825,  Rev.  W.  Goodell,  then  in  Beirilt,  Syria,  in  answer 
to  a  letter  of  inquiry  from  Rev.  R,  Anderson,  gave  some  account  of  the  climate 
in  that  place.  He  had  kept  a  regular  journal  of  the  temperature  for  eight 
months,  and  reported  the  highest  temperature  in  January  64°;  lowest,  49°;^ 
average  at  9  a.m.,  54.5°,  and  at  3  p.m.,  56.5°.  On  ten  days  the  wind  was 
southwest,  accompanied  by  rain,  and  five  days  without  rain.  One  day  it  was 
southeast,  and  two  days  northwest ;  eight  days  it  was  northeast,  two  days  it 
was  north,  one  day  west,  and  two  north-northeast.  The  temperature,  winds, 
and  rain  were  much  the  same  in  December,  1824,  and  in  both  months  there 
was  more  cold,  more  northeast  wind,  and  less  rain,  than  in  the  same  months  the 
year  before.  That  year  thunder-storms  were  frequent  and  sometimes  terrific, 
but  this  year  they  were  rare.  The  rain  came  almost  invariably  from  the 
southwest,  not  in  a  steady  storm,  but  in  showers  that  poured  down  torrents. 
The  southwest  winds  were  the  most  pleasant.  Northeast  and  north  winds 
were  dry  and  cold.  Though  within  twenty  or  thirty  miles  of  a  New  England 
winter,  he  was  sitting  without  a  fire,  still,  after  a  few  hours  of  study,  need- 
ing to  walk  a  little  to  keep  warm.  It  was  characteristic  of  him  to  'add,  "We 
are  reminded  of  Him  who  walked  in  the  temple  in  Solomon's  porch,  for  it 
was  winter."  The  summer  was  not  oppressively  hot.  It  was  often  85°  at  9 
A.M.,  and  87°  at  3  p.m.  ;  and  one  day  it  rose  to  90°.  There  was  usually  a 
refreshing  breeze  from  the  southwest,  and,  by  eating  fruit  and  abstaining  from 
hearty  food,  he  was  able  to  study  successfully  the  entire  summer.  He  closes 
his  letter  thus  :  "  The  hail  is  now  rattling  on  my  windows.  The  birds  of  the 
air  have  just  sought  refuge  in  my  study ;  and  though  I  have  on  a  surtout,  and  a 
plaid  cloak  over  that,  with  my  hat  on  my  head,  yet  I  have  barely  warmth  enough 
to  assure  you  that  I  am  truly  and  always  yours,  W.  G." 

March  ist,  he  writes  that  the  average  temperature  for  February  was  nearly 
49°  at  9  A.M.,  and  51°  at  3  p.m.;  the  lowest  35",  and  the  highest  6t°.  On 
the  coldest  morning  he  found  ice  nearly  half  an  inch  thick.  One  day  there 
was  snow,  with  a  northeast  wind,  and  another,  rain,  hail,  and  snow  on  the 

1  In  these  pages  the  temperature  is  measured  always  on  the  scale  of  Fahrenheit,  and  never  on  that  o£  Reau- 
niur,  or  Centigrade. 

(103) 


I04  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

ground  most  of  the  day,  with  the  same  wind.  On  eight  days  there  was  rain 
with  a  southwest  wind ;  five  days,  a  little  rain,  with  the  same  wind ;  and  on 
three  days  there  was  a  little  rain,  with  both  northeast  and  southwest  winds,  and 
one  day  with  only  a  northeast  wind.  Two  days  the  vj'md  was  north  and  dry. 
Two  days,  southwest  without  rain,  and  four  days  northeast  without  rain.  Once 
it  was  northeast  and  southwest  and  dry.  Part  of  the  month  the  weather  was 
colder  than  it  had  been  for  half  a  century.  Many  persons  thirty  vears  of  age 
had  never  seen  ice  before,  and  could  not  tell  v/hat  it  was.  Some  called  it 
glass,  and  others  insisted  that  it  was  a  new  kind  of  snow,  but  how  it  got  into 
their  houses  they  could  not  imagine.  There  was  a  good  deal  of  suffering ;  the 
cold  stone  walls  were  damp ;  the  flat  roofs  leaked,  and  there  was  no  fire  or 
place  for  a  fire  in  the  houses.  Mr.  Goodell  says :  "  They  were  wet  with  the 
showers  of  the  mountain,  and  embraced  the  rock  for  want  of  shelter."  We 
wonder  that  we  acknowledge  no  more  the  hand  of  that  great  and  good  Being 
who  "hath  set  all  the  borders  of  the  earth;  who  hath  made  summer  and  win- 
ter ; "  "  who  preserveth  our  lives  from  destruction,  and  crowneth  us  with  loving 
kindness  and  tender  mercy." 

March  31st  he  wrote  that  the  lowest  temperature  v/as  48°  during  the  month, 
and  the  highest  64°.  The  average  for  9  a.m.  was  56°,  and  for  3  p.m.  58°. 
There  was  rain  on  two  days  with  a  south-southwest  wind,  and  on  three  days 
with  a  southwest  wind  ;  a  little  rain  on  five  days  with  a  southwest  wind.  The 
same  wind  another  day  brought  rain  and  hail.  Twice  a  northeast  wind  brought 
a  little  rain,  and  once  a  northwest  wind  did  the  same.  Eight  dry  days  the 
wind  was  northeast,  and  five  of  them  southwest.  Once  a  north  wind,  again  a 
northwest,  and  at  another  time  a  north-northeast  wind,  were  equally  dry.  The 
quantity  of  rain  was  not  large.  March  9th,  six  water-spouts  were  in  sight,  from 
the  roof,  out  at  sea,  moving  to  the  northeast,  and  on  the  20th  there  was  severe 
thunder  and  hail,  which  broke  a  window  before  Mr.  Goodell  could  close  the 
shutters.  The  extremes  for  the  three  months  were  35°  and  64°,  and  the  mean 
at  9  A.M.,  52°,  and  at  3  p.m.,  55°.  Half  of  the  ninety  days  there  was  more  or 
less  rain,  and  on  two  of  them  it  snowed  and  hailed,  and  almost  all  the  rain 
came  with  a  southwest  wind.^  On  Mount  Lebanon,  which  was  in  plain  sight 
from  the  house,  the  snow  of  winter  continued  visible,  not  only  through  the 
spring,  but  even  beyond  the  middle  of  July,  while  the  thermometer  set  out  in 
the  sand  rose  to  120°.  Arab  poets  say  that  Lebanon  bears  winter  on  his  head, 
spring  on  his  shoulders,  and  autumn  in  his  bosom,  while  summer  lies  sleeping 
at  his  feet. 

Mr.  Goodell  spoke  of  Beirut  as  a  healthy  place,  compared  with  other  locali- 
ties in  the  vicinity,  and  especially  with  the  island  of  Cyprus.  He  also  gave 
some  rules  for  preserving  health  which  might  not  prove  altogether  without 
profit  to-day.  Among  these  were,  to  wear  flannel  under-clothing  all  the  year 
round,  to  avoid  sudden  exposure  to  cold  air  while  perspiring,  and  to  adhere 
rigorously  to  a  simple  vegetable  diet  during  the  heat  of  summer. 

In  1826  he  reported  the  spring  as  unusually  backward,  and  the  following 
is  an  abstract  of  his  meteorological  observations  for  April,  May,  June,  and  July, 
and  also  for  October  and  November  of  that  year: 

'  Missionary  fferald,  1825,  pp.  345-348. 


METEOROLOGY    OF    WESTERN    ASIA. 


loS 


Hig 

hest. 

Lowest. 

Range. 

General 

Range 

Mean. 

Months. 

9  A.M 

3  P.M. 

9  A.M 

3  P-M. 

9  A.M.  3  P.M. 

9    A.M. 

3    P 

.M. 

9  A.M. 

3  P.M. 

Wind. 

Weather. 

April 

68° 

70° 

,54° 

58° 

14°         12° 

56° 

64° 

61° 

68° 

6i° 

63° 

S.W.i 

Rain  7  days 

May 

76° 

79° 

66° 

71° 

10°           8° 

70° 

72° 

73° 

76° 

71° 

74° 

S.W.i 

"     4     " 

June 

82° 

84° 

75° 

79° 

go             5O 

76° 

80° 

80° 

83° 

78° 

81° 

S.W.i 

"      I     " 

July 

83° 

86° 

80° 

83° 

3°           3° 

80° 

81° 

83° 

85° 

81° 

84° 

S.W. 

"     0     " 

Results 

83° 

86° 

54° 

S8° 

29°         28° 

56° 

Si° 

61° 

85° 

72° 

75° 

S.W.I 

"     12       "2 

October 

79° 

84° 

70° 

74° 

9°          10° 

74° 

78° 

76° 

8i° 

74° 

77° 

S.W.  and 
N.E. 

"      3      " 

Nov. 

78° 

79° 

64° 

66° 

14°         18° 

66° 

69° 

68° 

72° 

67° 

71° 

S.W.I 

"      5     " 

Results 

79° 

84° 

64° 

66° 

15°         18° 

66° 

78° 

68° 

81° 

70° 

74° 

S.W.  and 
N.E. 

"     8     " 

*  Occasionally  northeast  for  several  days;  sometimes  northwest. 
2  Often  small  in  amount,  generally  from  the  southwest. 
Snow  was  in  sight  on  Lebanon  till  July  28. 


-Missionary  Herald,  1826,  pp.  1S3-185. 


These  early  contributions  to  the  science  of  meteorology  in  Sj^ia  were  sup- 
plemented eighteen  years  later  by  a  more  extended  series  of  observations 
reported  by  Dr.  H.  A.  DeForest  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1844,  pp.  221-224. 
He  kept  a  record  for  fourteen  months  in  Beirut,  latitude  33050'  north,  longi- 
tude 550  30'  east,  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  and  at  Bhamdun,  in  Mount 
Lebanon,  five  hours  southeast  from  Beirut,  and  four  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea.  Dr.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck  kept  a  like  record  at  Aitath,  three  hours  east- 
southeast  from  Beiriit,  and  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  three  thousand  feet.  Rev. 
G.  B.  Whiting,  also,  and  Rev.  J.  F.  Lannean  recorded  for  Jerusalem,  latitude 
31"  46'  north,  longitude  35°  13'  east,  and  two  thousand  six  hundred  sixty  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Instead,  however,  of  reporting  these  alone,  an  abstract  of  similar  observa- 
tions made  at  different  points  by  our  missionaries  in  Western  Asia,  and  pre- 
pared by  Rev.  Azariah  Smith,  M.  D.,  for  the  American  jfouryial  of  Science^  is 
here  inserted. 

Smyrna  is  on  the  seashore,  in  latitude  t^?)"^  26'  north,  longitude  27°  9'  east. 
Constantinople  lies  on  the  Bosphorus,  in  latitude  41°  north,  longitude  28°  59'. 
Pera  is  on  the  hill  directly  above  Galata,  and  Bebek  is  half  way  up  the  Bos- 
phorus, on  its  northern  shore.  Brusa  lies  fifty-seven  miles  east-southeast  from 
Constantinople,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus.  Trebizond  is  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  latitude  41°  i' north,  and  longitude  39°  46' east. 
.Erzrum  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  southeast  of  Trebizond,  and  not  far 
from  six  thousand  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  above  the  sea.  Mosul  is  in 
latitude  36°  19'  north,  longitude  43°  12'  east,  in  a  plain  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris.  Oroomiah,  or  Oormia,  is  in  latitude  ^^f  2,°  north,  and  about  longitude 
45''  east,  four  thousand  five  hundred  or  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 
Mount  Seir  is  in  latitude  37°  28'  north,  and  seven  thousand  three  hundred 
and    thirty-four  feet  above  the  sea. 


^Dc,  1846,  pp.  72-85. 


io6 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


Place  and  Month. 


Year. 


Average 
sunrise 


Average 

2    V.M 


Average 

9    P.M 


General 
Average 


Coldest, 
and  date. 


January. 
Oormia  (Oroomiah)  .  .  . 
Erzrfim      - 


Trebizond 


Constantinople  (Bebek) 
Constantinople  (Pera)  . 
Brusa 


Smyrna  . 
Beirut    , 


Aitath  .  . 
Jerusalem 
Mosul    .   . 


Oormia  . 
Erzrum 


February. 


Trebizond 


Constantinople  (Bebek) 
Constantinople  (Pera)  . 
Brusa      


Smyrna  . 
Beirut 


Jerusalem 
Mosul    .    . 


March. 


Oormia  , 
Erzrum 


Trebizond 

Constantinople  (Bebek) 
Constantinople  (Pera)  . 
Brusa     


Smyrna  . 
Beirut     . 


Aitath  .  . 
Jerusalem 
Mosul     .    . 


1845 


1839 
1844 
1845 

1844 
1845 
1S40 
1841 
1S44 
1845 
1844 
1843 
1844 
184s 
1843 
1844 
1844 


'845 
1836 

1837 
1838 

1839 
1844 
1845 
1844 
1845 
1840 
1841 
1844 
1845 
1844 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1S44 
1844 


1S45 
1836 

1837 
1838 

1839 
1844 
1844 
1845 
1840 
1841 
1844 

1845 
1844 
1843 
1S45 
'S43 
1844 
1844 


*i6.27 
*i6.8 
ti7-8i 
*4i.i6 

44.52 
»39.64 

38.70 

40.1 
§37-35 
§42.7' 

35- 

36.32 

39. 

54. 

50. 

46.74 

46. 

44-63 

38. 


22. 

+  16.37 
t22.39 

19-51 

t47-39 

4S.35 

42.13 

47-73 

41-35 

45-48 

41-5 

46.S1 

49- 

59-25 

59- '4 

57.90 

53-30 

51.09 

47- 


II8.54 
45.68 

39-40 
42.19 

**39-35 

**43-35 
38- 
39-1 
42.65 

tt57-36 
52.04 
49-19 

ttso. 
47-45 

tt46 


15-67 

15-29 
46.18 

40.07 
43-34 
39-68 
43-85 
38.17 
40.74 

43-55 
56.88 
53.76 
51.28 
49-75 
47-72 
43  67 


39 

28th,   31 

i2th,   31 

20th,   24 

20th,    30 

18 

29 

27th,   24 

i6th,   25 

27th,   27 

51 

23d,      44 

36 

42 

40 


25- 
♦25.93 
*i9.o8 
123.37 
♦46.56 

50.1 

♦46.46 

47-0 

40.14 

§37-59 

§3725 

47-5 

40.38 

47.02 

56-71 
52.80 
52. 82 
50.02 
44. 


40. 
127.67 

t2I.8l 

25.06 

t46.92 

5285 

48.9 
45-33 
41.04 

42.82 
55-5 
47-36 
59-48 
63.85 
62.33 
64.03 
58.09 
tt55- 


28. 


Ili4.i8 
51.96 

49-3 
40.57 
**38.07 
**38.57 
50.0 
41. iS 

50-39 
+t6i.S9 

5525 
54.10 
53.07 
51- 


31. 


20.S7 

51.04 

48.4 

42.01 

38.90 

3958 

51.0 

42.97 

52.3 

60.82 

56.79 

56.98 

53-73 
50. 


20th,    38 


2d, 


26th 

22d, 

1 8th 


36 
iS 

25 

31 

,  36 

23-5 

.    32 

S3 

48 
47 
45 
3  5 


26. 

*3o.75 

*37-4i 

t34-o6 

*43-4i 

50.26 

46.29 

47-13 

§37-84 

§39-19 

45- 

50.13 

47-93 

57.16 

57-87 
50.23 
53- 
5'- 


37- 

t35-87 

t34-ii 

35-87 

t43-45 

52-84 

5.. 16 

55-26 

42.52 

43.29 

53- 

59-65 

60.93 

65-32 
69. 

58-14 

69. 

62. 


II24.05 

50.52 

44-9 
49.19 
II39.06 
II40.06 
47-5 
5255 
50-21 

tt58.88 
S9-70 

tt52.5o 
58.03 

tt58. 


31- 


31-33- 

51.21 

47-45 

50-53 

39-81 

40.S4 

48.5 

54.11 

53-02 

60.32 

62.19 

53-62 

60.01 

57- 


nth,   22 

14 

>5 

39 

17th,    40 

31st,    38 

3d,        34 

24 

29 

25th,    3& 

2  5lli.    35 

i5tli,    39 

50 

49 

40 

47 
17th,    45- 


Index  to  signs:     *  9  a.m.     t  4  p.m.     t  8  a.m.     ||  8  p.m.     §  7  a.m. 


P.M.     tt  Sunset. 


METEOROLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS    IN    WESTERN    ASIA. 


107 


Place  and  Month. 


April. 
Erzrum      

Trebizond 

Constantinople  (Bebek) 

Constantinople  (Para) 

Brusa 

Smyrna 

Beirut 

Aitath 

Jerusalem     .    • 

Mosul • 

May. 
Erzrum      

Trebizond 

Constantinople  (Bebek) 

Constantinople  (Pera) 

Brusa • 

Smyrna 

Beirut 

Aitath 

Jerusalem 

Mosul 

June. 
Erzrum      

Trebizond 

(i6th  to  30th) 

Constantinople  (Bebek) 

Constantinople  (Pera) 

Briisa 

Smyrna 

Beirut 

Aitath 

Jerusalem 

Mosul 


Year. 


1836 


1839 
1844 
1844 
1845 
1840 


1845 
1844 
1842 
1843 
184s 
1843 
1844 
1844 


1836 

1837 
1838 
1838 
1839 
1S44 
1844 
1845 
1840 
1S41 
1844 
1845 
1S44 
1842 
1843 
1845 
1843 
1843 
1844 


1S36 
1837 
184s 
1S38 
1S43 
1S44 
1844 
184s 
1840 
JS41 
1844 
1844 
1842 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1S44 


Average 
sunrise. 


*46.5 

*46.83 

t47-23 

*5i.i3 

*47-73 

45-79 

45-7 

52-63 

§43-03 

§48-23 

44- 

53-04 

44-43 

61.13 

59-07 
52-97 
49.04 

50- 


*52.22 

*4o. 

t54-3o 

♦63.23 

*6o.  12 

57-42 

55-3 

60.26 

§58.03 

§56.13 

57- 

62.81 

5S.35 

66.13 
68. 26 
59-45 

§6l.2I 

64. 

66. 


*65.83 
♦65.66 

51- 
*7i-73 

69. 

64-77 
62.23 
65.07 

§62.7 
§67.27 

64. 

65-9 

72-77 
64.60 

§65-30 
80.1 

76. 


Average 

2    P.M. 


t5o.is 

tsi-13 

48.02 

151.76 

t47-9 

48,68 

52.29 

64-43 

5°-37 

55-3 

53- 

69.03 

62.33 

67.23 

71.15 

63-17 

64. 

62. 


t55-3i 

t6o. 
58.57 

t63-55 

t6o.46 
61.61 
62.22 
72.84 
67.48 
65.36 
67. 
79-35 
74-13 

72. 68 
76  39 
7i-'3 
73-14 
69. 


t65.96 
67-9 

t70.2 

76. 

70-37 

7.'^-43 

77-6 

71.03 

74-57 

80. 

82.33 

77-97 
75.27 
77-56 
92-31 
96. 


Average 
9   P.M. 


II36.63 


45 
55 
**44 
**49 
48. 
58, 
52 

tt64 
62 

tt57 
51 

tt57 


II46.5 


58.48 
55-18 

64-35 

**6o.32 

**5S. 
60.5 
68.23 
64.23 

tt69.io 
67.64 

tt64.io 
69.32 
64.06 
74- 


General 
Average 


43-96 


47.04 
47-75 
57-53 
45-82 
51-17 
48-33 
60.25 

52-95 
67.80 
64.16 
64.07 

57.80 
54-70 
56-33 


Coldest, 
and  date. 


59-17 

57-53 

65.82 

61.94 

59-83 

61.5 

70-13 

65-57 

73-83 

69.30 

70.76 

64.89 

67.89 

65.69 

74- 


70- 

67- 

67.38 

64-43 

70.32 

67.2 

69.96 

*64-73 

66.15 

♦69.03 

70.29 

70.5 

68. 1 7 

72.14 

73-46 

75-43 

75-43 

75-39 

69-23 

69.70 

72.16 

71-74 

tgo.14 

87.52 

83. 

86.67 

13th, 
13th, 

3d, 


i2th, 

3d, 

4th, 


14th, 


34 
41 
30 
39 
44 
33 
36 
34 
35 
40 
34 
34 
35 
63 
55 
46 
42 
38 
38 


Warmest, 
and  date. 


3d, 
6th, 


5th, 
ist, 
4th, 


43 

58 
36 
66 

62 

loth,    57 

7''i.       56 

56 

52 

59 

7t>'.      54 


22d, 


62 

62 

64.5 

73 

54 

29th,   66 

27th,    74 

2o:h,   80 

61 

64 

28th,    76 

12th,   85 

2Sth,    80 

92 

74 

85.5 

76 

72 

30th,    75 

72 
66 

67.5 
70 

70 

20th,  70 
17th,  8r 
31st, 


22d, 
31st, 
21st, 


87 
81 

75 
77 
93 
84 
92 
83 
97 
82 
90 
83 
24th,   91 

80 
71 
79 
80 

79 

29th,    78 

29th,   94 

86 

76 

80 

2gth,    96 

30th,    92 

84 

82 

84 

88 

100 

19th,  104 


Index  to  signs  :     *9A.m.     t  4  p.m.     J  8  a.m      ||  8  p.m.     §  7  a.m.     **  10  p.m.     ft  Svmset. 


io8 


THE     ELY     VOLUME. 


Place  and  Month. 


July. 

Oormia,  15th  to  31st 

Erzrum      

Trebizond 

Constantinople  (Bebek),  19th  to  31st  . 
Constantinople  (Pera)  ........ 

Brusa     

Beirut 

Aitath 

Bhamdun,  20th  to  31st 

Jerusalem 

Mosul 

August. 

■Oormia 

Erzrum      

Trebizond 

Constantinople  (Bebek),  ist  to  8th  .   . 

Constantinople  (Pera) 

Brusa 

Beirut .   . 

Aitath 

Abeih 

El  Abadiyeh 

Bhamdun  

Jerusalem 

Mosul 

September. 

Oormia 

Erzrum      

Trebizond >  •    • 

Constantinople  (Bebek) 

Constantinople  (Pera) 

Brusa 

Smyrna 

Beirut 

Aitath 

Abeih 

El  Abadiyeh 

Bhamdiln 

Jerusalem      

Mosul 

Index  to  signs  :     *  9  a.m 


Average 

sunrise. 


1S44 
1836 
1837 
1S45 
1838 
1843 
1844 
1844 
1840 
1844 
1842 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1844 

1S44 
*,83r, 

IS37 
1845 
I83S 
1843 

1844 

1844 
1840 

1844 
1842 

1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
IS43 
IS43 

1844 
1836 
1837 
1838 

1843 
1844 
1844 
1840 
IS44 
1843 
1842 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 
1843 


Average 
2    P.M. 


66.59 
*69.s6 

*69.o4 
58.5 

*74-77 
70. 
72.8 
71.92 

§73-03 
7'-5 

78.1 5 

71. 16 

§72-35 

82. 1 
•86. 


77-°7 
64.1 1 
65.03 
65.64 

§68.25 
81.03 

57- 
*S5-37 
^60.65 

*73-i7 

65. 

68.13 

65.28 
§65-43 

63. 

60.2 

72.77 
64.87 
59-52 
62.47 

70.2S 
71.71 


Average  General 
9  P.M.   lAverage 


t75.11 

76.  s 

t75-03 

78. 

79-57 
82.04 
81.23 

87.5 

84.74 
78.71 

84.44 

100.97 

10.6 

83- 
tSo.5 

79-5 
t75-32 
80. 
77.91 
83- 
77-87 
84.0 

84.61 
77-05 
72-94 

75-54 

79.06 
98. 

78. 
164.19 

t72.93 
73- 
73-83 
76.31 
72.87 

79- 
76.51 

82.13 

72-93 
6S.69 

72-13 

77- iS 
87-69 


66.5 

72. 

75-7 
75-15 
*74.i 
78.5 

81.67 
75.26 

75-23 
tt94-48 
95- 

73- 


67.5 


70, 
tt92 


64 


66. 

69.56 

68.3. 

**67-3 
68.5 


tt74-83 
tt69.io 
tt64.i5 
tt68.67 

69.27 
tt83.55 


75-58 


67.17 

73-33 

76.02 
76-37 
76.12 
79.17 
82.38 
81.52 
75-04 
73.50 
77-34 
92-52 
95-67 

74.67 


68.83 

73- 
77-47 
76.28 
72.91 

75-17 
S3 .00 
St. 13 
71.26 
68. 4 1 
73.29 
69.16 

72-55 
90.64 

46.33 


68. 

70-51 

6993 

68.53 

70.17 

6S.27 

82.67 

76.5S 

68.97 

64.12 

67.76 

7  ■•83 

72.24 

80.98 


Coldest, 
and  date. 


15th,   64 

56 
56 
46 
70 
60 

9th,     68 

25th,  60 
66 

24th,  63 
76 
74 
64 
68 
66 
74 

loth,    78 

lolh,    57 

62 
56 
52 
70 

45 

26th,    67 

68 

65 
19th,    61 

78 
75 
66 


74 

24th,  50 
38 
44 
68 

59 
23d,  63 
29th,   60 

60 
2,Sth,    5S 

5' 
78 
70 
59 
54 
58 
62 
62 
30th,   68 


t  4  A.M.      t  4  P.M.     II  8  P.M.      §  7  A.M. 


10  P.M.     tt  Sunset. 


METEOROLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS    IN    WESTERN    ASIA. 


109 


Place  and  Month. 


October. 


Oormia  . 
Erzruin 


Trebizond 


Constantinople  (Bebek),  ist  to  iSth 

Constantinople  (Pera) 

Brusa 


Smyrna 

Beirut 

Bhamdun,  ist  to  15th     .    . 

Jerusalem 

Mosul 

November. 

Oormia 

ErzrOm      


Trebizond 


Constantinople  (Bebek) 
Constantinople  (Pera)  . 

Brusa 

Smyrna 

Beirut 


Jerusalem 
Mosul    .    . 


December. 


Oormia 
Erzrum 


Trebizond 


Constantinople  (Bebek) 
Constantinople  (Pera)  . 


Brusa  . 
Smyrna 
Beirut     . 


Aitath  .  . 
Jerusalem 
Mosul     .    . 


Year. 


1844 

■835 
1836 

1S37 
1838 
1843 
1844 
1844 
1840 
1S43 
1844 

1843 
1S42 

■843 
1843 
1843 


1S44 

■835 
1836 

1837 
1838 

1843 
1844 
1840 
1S44 
1S43 
1842 
■  843 
1844 
•843 
1843 


1844 

1835 
1836 

1837 
1838 
1843 
1844 
1S44 
1839 
1840 
1844 
'843 
1842 
1843 
1844 
.842 
1843 


Average 
sunrise. 


48. 
♦51.69 
*48.i9 

t4S-52 
*6o.95 

63-74 
60.56 
59-53 
§57.58 
57-31 
57-5 
55-32 


§64.08 
65-3 


36. 
*35-43 
*33-52 
t35-32 
*58.85 

57- 

55.21 
§52-53 

53- 

49.90 

61.10 

59-77 
56.08 

56-43 


28. 

*22.C 

*I9. 

t22.C, 

*45-7 
.44- 


51.26 
52.71 


Average 

2    P.M. 


65. 

t57-48 
tsS. 

48.87 
t62.i5 

69.86 

67-75 
69.56 

63-94 
69-35 
69. 

70-73 


74.04 
78.65 


56. 

t4i-07 

t4o-78 

40.17 

t59-38 

61. 

61.72 

57-3 

62.5 

60.34 

67.41 
71.70 
62.08 
62.5 


31- 

$24.09 
124.05 

26.04 
t46.67 

49.29 

44-2 

46.1 

40.48 

44- 

50-93 

58.63 
60.87 

50.08 
49-36 


Average 

9   P.M. 


*4o.96 

65.42 
63.11 
60. 
♦59.29 
59-83 
61.5 
62.15 


67.13 
tt74-7' 


II33-13 

58.17 
56.03 

*54-i3 
57- 
53-67 

62.21 
63-47 
58.63 
59-4 


HI7-55 
45-67 

40.19 

*43.97 
*38.26 

39- 
41-39 

tt52.52 
54-42 

47.06 
47- 


General 
Average 


45.12 

66.34 
63.81 
63-03 
60.27 
62.15 
62.67 
62.73 
79.82 
67-33 
68.42 
72.89 


44-67 


36.21 

58.72 

57-65 

54-65 

57-5 

54-64 

68.56 

63-57 
64.98 

58.93 

59-44 


29-33 


46.54 

41-36 
44-49 

3S.6 
40.  r  7 
43-78 
60.13 

53-93 

56. 

51.87 

47-38 

46.27 


Coldest, 
and  date. 


13th, 

2d, 


20th, 


2  ist,      23 

6 
13 

24 

45 
46 

29th,  39 
31 

29th,  34 
40 
58 
52 
47 


31st, 
5th, 


23 


6th,  24 
26 
52 
42 
46 
42 
36 


Warmest, 
and  date. 


12th,   72 

65 

66.5 

62 


9th,  76 
17th,  76 
77 
79 
77 
79 
90 
82 


22d, 


87 


7th,  68 
50J 
54 
S3 
48 
69 

loth,    76 
66 


loth. 


8th,     46 
44 

39 

57 

62 

2  ist,    54 

15th,    53 

54 

55 

•3th,    55 

62 

70 

66 

70 

66 

58 

57 


Index  to  signs :     *  9  a.m.     t  4  p.m.     t  S  a.m.     ||  8  p.m.     .§  7  a.m.     **  10  p.m.     tt  Sunset. 


THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


Place. 


Erzrfim  • 
Oormia  . 
Bebek  .  . 
Brusa  .  . 
Trebizond 
Smyrna  • 
Jerusalem 
Mosul  .  . 
Beirut  .    . 


6,225 
5,ooo(?) 
150 


50 
2,500 


39  57 

37  30 
41  7 

40  5 

41  I 

38  26 
31  47 
36  19 
33  5° 


40  57 

45  'o 

28  59 

29  10 
39  45 
27  7 
35  14 
43  10 
35  28 


1844-45 

1844 

1844 

1843-44 

1843-44 

1843-44 

1843-44 

1843 


43-6i 
50.  (?) 
58.01 

58.22 

59-5' 

61.  (?) 

62.  So 
67.80 
68.32 


Coldest. 

Warmest. 

0 

0 

-20 

84 

3 

89 

24 

86 

24 

98 

31 

86 

26 

85 

36 

94 

30 

114 

44 

90 

REMARKS  ON  THE  PRECEDIXG  TABLES. 

The  coldest  day  at  Beirut  from  April,  1842,  to  April,  1843,  was  March  23d, 
when  the  mercury  stood  at  sunrise  50°,  at  2  p.m.  57°,  and  at  sunset  53°  ; 
average,  53.33°.  The  warmest  day  was  August  7th:  at  sunrise  77°,  2  p.m. 
95°,  sunset  83°;  average,  85°.  Difference  between  the  extremes,  45°,  The 
average  of  December  was  the  lowest,  60.13°,  "^^^^  ^f  July  the  highest,  83°. 
The  average  difference  between  Beirut  and  Bhamdun  from  July  25th  to  Octo- 
ber 15th  was  12.1°,  and  between  Beirut  and  Aitath,  7.11°  in  the  same  time. 

During  the  year  ending  April  30,  1843,  ^^i'^  ^^^^  ^^  Beirut  on  seventy-three 
days,  or  an  average  of  one  day  in  five.  There  was  none  from  June  2d  till 
September  21st,  and  from  that  date  till  November  ist,  only  four  slight  showers  ; 
and  no  rain  at  Bhamdun  till  October  i6th,  save  a  slight  sprinkle  September 
2ist,  and  a  shower  October  loth.  The  rainy  days  at  Beirut  were  as  follows  : 
April,  two  days;  May,  eight  days;  June,  one  day;  September,  one  day; 
October,  three  days ;  November,  eleven  days ;  December,  twelve  days ;  Janu- 
ary, twelve  days  ;  February,  nine  days ;  March,  seven  days  ;  April,  nine  days  ; 
May,  five  days;  at  Aitath,  in  December,  1842,  eight  days;  and  in  January, 
1843,  ten  days.  In  February  no  record  was  kept.  March  had  nine,  April 
seven,  and  May  four  days. 

At  Beirut,  during  summer,  west  and  southwest  winds  go  down  after  sunset, 
and  between  8  and  9  p.m.  a  land-breeze  sets  in  and  makes  the  nights  com- 
fortable ;  after  sunrise  the  sea-breeze  sets  in.  Five  sixths  of  the  time  the  wind 
is  west  or  southwest. 

In  May,  1843,  the  coldest  day  at  Jerusalem  was  the  4th.  Mercury  at  sun- 
rise 49°,  and  toward  sunset  it  rose  to  50°.  The  warmest  was  the  i4tli,  with 
sirocco:  at  sunrise  70°,  2  p.m.  86°,  3  p.m.  90°,  and  sunset  75°;  average, 
80.25°.  In  the  same  month  Beirut  averaged  4.92°  higher  at  sunrise,  0.46° 
lower  at  2  p.m.,  and  0.22°  lower  at  sunset;  general  average,  1.41°  higher  at 
Beirut. 

The  high  average  at  Jerusalem  was  owing  to  tlie  prevalence  of  the  sirocco  for 
ten  days ;  in  Beirut  and  Aitath  it  prevailed  only  two.  In  Western  Asia,  rain 
is  very  rarely  known  to  fall  during  several  weeks  in  summer.  In  Syria,  this 
period  reaches  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  end  of  September,  with  little 
rain  in  May  and  October.  At  Mosul,  the  dry  season  begins  a  month  earlier, 
and  at  Erzrum  a  month  lat,er;  but  Oroomiah  is  seldom  without  rain  a  month  at 
a  time,  owing  to  the  neighboring  lake.     All  of  these  places  are  subject,  more  or 


^' 


rtS^     rT^J   J^t^^, 


-  <"  t 


r  v^ 


METEOROLOGY    OF    WESTERN    ASIA.  HI 

less,  at  all  seasons,  to  the  hot  and  dry  sirocco,  which  prevails  several  days,  and 
causes  excessive  languor.  In  the  north  of  Asia  Minor  it  usually  blows  from 
the  south  ;  but  in  Cyprus  it  comes  from  the  north,  and  in  Syria  it  has  no  uniformi 
direction. 

At  Erzrum,  more  than  a  mile  above  the  sea,  the  winter  is  cold.  The  mer- 
cury, Mr.  Parmelee  says,  is  sometimes  20°  below  zero,  but  with  fewer  sudden 
changes  than  in  Vermont.  The  air,  however,  is  so  dry,  pure,  and  bracing,  and 
there  is  so  little  wind,  that  the  cold  is  easily  borne.  The  stars  shine  with 
unusual  luster,  and  he  pronounces  it  the  healthiest  climate  in  the  world/'  The 
nights  are  cool  during  the  entire  year ;  but  though  the  region  is  so  elevated, 
neither  field  nor  garden  can  flourish  without  irrigation ;  and  this  is  true  of  all 
Turkey,  the  southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  excepted.  Even  among  the 
mountains  of  Tiary  and  Jelu,  no  land  can  be  cultivated  without  a  stream  of 
water.  Still,  there  are  exceptions,  as  Dr.  Smith  found,  when,  on  June  21st 
and  22d,  1845,  ^^^  encountered  a  storm  on  the  plain  of  Erzrum  that  left  the 
ground  covered  with  snow  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Few  of  the 
inhabitants  had  ever  known  such  an  occurrence. 

Trebizond  is  noted  for  its  abundant  moisture,  and  the  small  range  between 
its  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Everything  there  rusts,  moulds,  or  gathers 
dampness.  The  situation  of  Constantinople,  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Marmora,  exposes  it  to  northerly  and  southerly  winds  ;  northeast  is  the  pre- 
vailing direction.  Its  temperature  in  winter  is  milder  than  the  same  latitude 
in  America,  but  it  is  more  chilly  than  the  bracing  air  of  New  England.  It  is 
a  common  saying  there  that  one  must  keep  his  best  fuel  till  March.  The 
vicinity  of  Mount  Olympus,  seven  thousand  feet  high,  causes  a  large  range  of 
temperature  at  Brusa ;  yet  invalids  crowd  there  in  summer  to  the  hot  baths 
that  nature  provides  in  that  vicinity. 

At  Smyrna  the  annual  range  is  not  great,  but  the  daily  average  is  14°,  and 
the  dampness  of  winter  makes  it  uncomfortable  to  Americans.  Mardin  is  in 
about  37°  18'  north  latitude,  on  the  southern  face  of  Mount  Masius,  and  looks 
down  from  its  lofty  eyrie  on  the  vast  plain  of  Mesopotamia.  Rev.  W.  F. 
Williams  describes  its  climate  as  in  winter  bleak  and  boisterous,  with  rain  and 
snow.  Clouds  cling  to  the  mountain  side,  and  make  it  dark  at  noon.  The 
summers,  however,  are  clear  and  delightful,  and  the  temperature  is  like  that  of 
New  York  city ;  drier  and  cooler  than  Aintab.^ 

The  climate  of  Mosul  is  very  hot,  though  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  Jelu  are  in 
sight  from  the  city.  January,  1844,  the  lowest  temperature  was  30°,  and  in 
July  the  highest  was  114° — range,  84°;  average  of  July,  95.67°,  and  of  the  year, 
67.80°.  This  is  extreme  for  north  latitude  36°  19'.  All  classes  sleep  on  the 
roofs  from  May  till  September,  Clouds  or  dew  during  summer  are  alike 
unknown  ;  but  winter  is  the  rainy  season,  damp  and  chilly.  Then  the  earth  is 
covered  with  rank  vegetation.  In  January  the  grass  is  almost  up  to  the  horses' 
bellies,  but  the  whole  region  is  a  sere  desert  in  June.  The  wheat  harvest  is 
finished  in  May,  though  near  Oroomiah  it  is  not  over  till  the  middle  of  Jul}^ 
and,  on  the  high  lands  near    Julamerk,  wheat  was  still  green  at  the  end  of 

'^  Life  Scenes  A  7nong  the  Mountains  of  Ararat,  pp.  57-5S.  ^  Missionary  Herald,  i860,  p.  172. 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


August,  1844;  and  well  might  it  be  so  late,  when  in  Ashitha,  April  27th,  1843. 
everything  was  covered  with  sleet,  which  next  day  changed  to  snow ;  and  May 
3d  and  4th,  rain,  hail,  and  snow  fell  each  day.  Even  that  was  counted  un- 
usually mild  for  the  season,  for  the  feast  of  Mar  Guwergis  (May  ist)  is  usually 
celebrated  on  the  surface  of  the  unmelted  snow. 

Near  Mosul,  in  the  summer,  the  soil  gapes  open  in  cracks.  In  July,  1852, 
the  mercury  rose  to  117°  in  the  shade,  and  in  1844,  it  was  sometimes  100°  at 
midnight,  and  the  wind  at  that  hour  seemed  to  come  from  the  mouth  of  an 
oven.  At  that  season  siroccos  sometimes  fill  the  air  with  fine  sand,  that  pen- 
etrates every  closet  and  sifts  into  every  drawer  and  trunk.  The  heat  is  stifling, 
in-doors  and  out,  and  the  air  seems  almost  impervious  to  light.  Summer  there 
makes  sad  havoc  with  furniture.  If  fastened  with  glue,  it  falls  to  pieces.  The 
ivory  handles  of  knives  and  forks  split  open,  and  it  is  impossible  to  keep  a 
piano  in  tune  in  the  terrible  heat.^ 

Dr.  DeForest  gives  the  temperature  of  several  fountains  in  Lebanon,  as 
follows  : 


1842,  June  2.  Bhamdun 55° 

"      9,  Ain  Aiiub 64° 

"     9,  Ain  Bsaba 66° 

"     9,  Ainab 59° 

"    10,  Abcih 59° 

"    10,  Aleih 61° 

"    10,  Khan  Kehaly 64° 

Sept.  5,  Below  Ain  Zhalty 58° 

"      5,  At  Ain  Zhalty 62=' 


1842,  Sept.  5,  Baruk 53^^ 

"      7,  Tezzin 55° 

"      7,  'Ammatur 57° 

"    27,  Falugha 62'' 

"    27,  Kefr  Sihvan 54° 

"    28,  On  road  to  Sunnin 50° 

"    29,  Ain  Mustuleh 47° 

"    30,  Karnail 59-" 

Oct.    I,  Ain  ed  Dilbeh 57° 


Ain  Mustuleh  is  at  the  base  of  Jebel  Sunnin,  and  the  amount  of  water  at 
Ain  Zhalty,  Baruk  and  Jezzin,  and  Ain  el  Dilbeh,  is  large  enough  to  turn  two 
pairs  of  mill-stones,  with  a  fall  of  only  six  or  eight  feet.  The  last  is  one  of 
the  sources  of  the  river  of  Beirut. 

Rev.  G.  C.  Knapp  describes  Bitlis  as  abounding  in  springs,  some  of  them 
mineral  and  effervescent.  He  sent  home  a  sample  of  the  water  of  one  of  these 
last,  which  was  analyzed  by  Prof.  E.  H.  Swallow,  of  Harvard  College,  with  the 
following  results:  In  the  gallon,  13.5  grains  of  calcium;  magnesium,  2.1; 
sodium,  10.2  ;  potassium,  6.1 ;  iron,  2.8  ;  sulphuric  acid,  12.6  ;  chlorine,  6.6  ;  car- 
bonic acid,  43  ;  boracic  acid,  5.3. 


In  India  the  heat  is  more  intense  at  the  same  latitude  than  in  America,  and 
the  difference  between  the  temperature  in  the  sun  and  in  the  shade  is  greater ; 
hence,  exposure  to  the  £.»an  is  more  injurious.  The  Anglo-Saxon  race  cannot 
perform  so  much  labor  or  for  such  a  length  of  time  as  at  home,  without  risk  of 
serious  injury,  though  the  natives  suffer  but  little  from  the  heat.  The  same 
degree  of  cold  causes  greater  suffering  than  with  us,  and  to  the  natives  more 
than  to  Europeans.  The  mean  temperature  of  Calcutta  in  January  is  67°;^  in 
Madras  77'',  and  in  Bombay  78°.     The  mean  temperature  of  May,  generally 


'  Dr.  Grant  atid  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  pp.  201-202,  229,  307. 
2  F.  DeW.  Ward  says:   In  Calcutta  69.5°,  Bombay  77°,  Madras  78. 15 


°.     India  and  the  Hindoos,  p.  12. 


METEOROLOGY    OF    INDIA.  II3 

the  hottest  month  of  the  year  in  Calcutta,  is  83°/  in  Madras  87°,  and  in  Bom- 
bay 85°;  showing  that  the  average  of  the  coldest  months  is  several  degrees 
higher  than  that  of  the  hottest  months  in  cities  situated  in  the  same  latitude 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  punka  is  used  in  houses  to  mitigate  the  heat.  These  are  frames  cov- 
ered with  cloth,  of  the  length  of  the  room,  and  two  or  three  feet  in  width. 
They  are  suspended  by  ropes,  and  swung  to  and  fro  over  the  inmates  of  the 
apartment,  by  native  attendants.  They  are  used  in  churches  as  well  as  houses. 
The  curtains  hanging  before  doors  and  windows  are  also  kept  wet,  so  as  to 
cool  the  air  passing  through  them.  These  things  are  as  essential  in  India  as 
stoves  and  furnaces  in  America.^ 

Instead  of  our  four  seasons,  in  India  there  is  the  rainy  and  the  dry  season. 
In  the  central  and  northern  provinces  they  speak  of  the  rainy,  the  cool,  and 
the  hot  season ;  and  on  the  eastern  coast  they  sometimes  divide  the  year 
into  the  southwest  and  northeast  monsoons.  The  southwest  monsoon  lasts 
from  June  till  September,  and  is  the  rainy  season.  Its  coming  is  indicated  by  a 
moist  haze,  fleecy  clouds  on  the  hills  in  the  morning,  and  lai-ge  banks  of  clouds 
in  the  afternoon.  In  the  more  elevated  regions,  severe  thunder-storms  mark 
its  commencement  and  close.  It  commences  at  Cape  Comorin  and  advances 
northward,  passing  by  the  Coromandel  coast.  The  greatest  rains  fall  along 
the  coast  and  among  the  mountains.  On  the  western  coast  the  quantity 
varies  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  inches.  On  the  east  it  is  generally 
less.  On  the  Ghauts  it  often  exceeds  two  hundred  inches,  and  occasionally 
reaches  three  hundred.  Their  summits  are  wrapt  in  clouds,  and  the  rain 
is  almost  incessant.  On  the  Coromandel  coast  rain  falls  in  October  and 
November.  Hence  they  speak  of  the  southwest  and  northeast  monsoons,  for 
their  rains  come  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  In  Bengal  the  rains  come  from 
the  south,  and  pass  up  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  to  the  Himalayas,  where  they 
gradually  cease. 

The  rainy  season  is  the  season  of  growth,  and  combined  warmth  and  moist- 
ure render  that  growth  very  luxuriant.  The  change  in  the  landscape  is 
surprising.  The  rivers  fill  their  dry  channels,  and  the  bare  fields  are  covered 
with  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  On  high  table-lands  the  rains  often  continue  into 
October.  After  that,  the  weather  is  fair ;  there  is  seldom  a  shower  or  a  cloud. 
The  atmosphere  is  often  smoky,  the  ground  is  parched  to  the  depth  of  several 
feet,  and  the  wind  raises  clouds  of  dust ;  vegetation  dies  except  where  the  land 
is  irrigated ;  cattle  become  lean,  and  require  to  be  fed  as  in  our  winter.  Those 
districts  that  have  no  forests  are  very  desolate,  and  trees  must  be  deep  rooted 
or  perish.  Water,  of  course,  becomes  very  scarce,  and  in  March,  April,  and 
May,  the  mirage  is  common,  called  "deer  water,"  because  the  deer  so  often 
are  seen  running  after  it,  in  the  vain  hope  of  quenching  their  thirst.  All 
classes  then  long  for  and  welcome  the  first  signs  of  the  approach  of  the  rainy 
season.^ 

'  F.  DeW.  Ward  says:  In  Calcutta  88.6^,  Bombay  85°,  and  Madras  89''.  The  observations  were  probably 
ill  different  years. 

"India,  Ancient  and Modertt,  pp.  3-5. 
'  India,  A  ncient  and  Modern,  pp.  5-8. 


114 


THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


SI  AM. 

There  is  great  uniformity  of  temperature  in  Siam.  During  the  five  years 
1840-1844,  Rev.  J.  Caswell  did  not  find  the  thermometer  at  Bangkok  rise 
above  97°  or  sink  below  61°;  though  in  January,  1845,  i^  ^^'^  ^^  ^<^^v  ^s  54°. 
In  1844  the  thermometer  was  placed  outside  the  house,  and  sometimes  stood 
three  or  four  degrees  lower  than  it  did  inside  in  the  morning.  During  the  first 
four  months  of  1845  the  greatest  daily  range  was  24.16°,  15.15°,  and  the 
smallest  10.8°,  3.4°;  average  daily  range,  16.03°,  12.64°,  10.90°,  10.60°. 
During  the  hot  season,  from  the  middle  of  February  to  the  middle  of  May,  in 
the  morning  the  mercury  seldom  stands  below  77°  or  above  83°.  In  the  hot- 
test jDart  of  the  day  it  is  seldom  below  87°  or  above  93°.  The  rainy  season 
lasts  from  the  middle  of  May  till  the  first  of  November,  when  two  or  three 
weeks  of  warm  weather  j^recede  the  northeast  monsoon.  The  temperature  of 
morning  during  this  season  varies  little  from  that  of  the  hot  season,  but  that 
of  the  afternoon  is  five  degrees  lower.^ 




SYNOPSIS    OF 

MEANS. 

, SYNOPSIS 

OF    EXTREMES. . 

SYNOPSIS  OF  RAINY  DAYS. 

1S40.     1S41.     1S42.     1843.     1844.             1S40. 

1841.      1S42. 

1843.     1844.          1840 

1841 

1842 

1S43 

1844 

January.  . 

77.16 

78.77 

79-32 

77-53 

74.59 

61. 89 

65.90 

66.  SS 

64.89 

62.90 

1 

^ 

I 

0 

2 

February  . 

80.80 

80.84 

83.13 

79.50 

79-32 

71.91 

70.90 

74.90 

70.90 

62.92 

3 

I 

2 

9 

2 

March   .    . 

83.5s 

85-73 

83.73 

83.7> 

85.79 

73.94 

76.94 

77.91 

73-93 

11-^1 

2 

I 

II 

3 

4 

April  .   .    . 

83.60 

87-25 

84.50 

85.03 

85.32 

75.95 

75-97 

77-93 

77-94 

73-97 

9 

5 

10 

5 

8 

May       .    . 

84.0S 

84.67 

83.41 

84.75 

84.58 

75-73 

78-94 

78-93 

76.96 

73-97 

18 

19 

20 

10 

18 

June  .    .    . 

82.27 

84.40 

83.12 

84.44 

82.50 

76.91 

78.93 

77.91 

77-95 

75-90 

21 

15 

23 

12 

21 

July   .    .    . 

S2.66 

84.39 

81.92 

82.51 

81.2S 

76.91 

80. 9 1 

77.90 

77.90 

75-90 

16 

14 

12 

18 

20 

August  .    . 

82.38 

84.84 

82.16 

82.75 

80.07 

76.91 

79-93 

76.90 

77-9' 

74-88 

'9 

'7 

II 

15 

25 

September. 

S2.83 

83. 48 

82.02 

82.01 

80.15 

75-93 

7S.89 

75-92 

75-92 

74-88 

14 

12 

18 

21 

21 

October.    . 

81.77 

84.55 

80.57 

Si. 27 

79.70 

74.91 

77-93 

72.91 

71.90 

74-89 

9 

'7 

14 

9 

16 

Novembet 

81.15 

82.58 

78.92 

80.83 

77-52 

68.89 

75.90 

68.88 

70.90 

64.86 

8 

II 

4 

2 

12 

December . 

76.34 

So.  40 

77.11 

75-45 

76.98 

65.87 

70.90 

62.88 

61.88 

63.88 

6 

■  5 

I 

6 

3 

Mean  of  Year. 

F.xtre7nes  of 

Year.                      — 









81.55  1 

83.75  1 

81.66  1 

8. .65  1 

S0.65 

61.96 

65.97 

62.93 

61.96 

62.97 

126 

118 

127 

no 

152 

The  temperature  of  China  in  general  is  moderate  ;  softened  in  winter  by 
winds  from  the  ocean,  and  mitigated  in  summer  by  those  from  the  mountains. 
In  the  north  the  cold  is  severe  and  long-continued.  The  thermometer  at 
Peking  sinks  to  20°  below  zero.  In  the  south,  summer  heat  ranges  from  75° 
to  96°,  and  in  winter  from  30°  to  55°.  Violent  winds  often  occur  about  the 
autumnal  equinox.- 

The  people  are  not,  as  in  India,  deluged  witli  rain  one  monsoon,  and 
parched  with  drought  the  other.  The  average  temperature  of  the  empire  is 
lower  than  that  of  other  countries  in  the  same  latitude,  and  the  coast  is  subject 
to  extremes  like  our  own  Atlantic  States.     The  climate  of  Peking,  though  sub- 


'  Chinese  Repository,  1845,  pp.  337-339. 


-Do.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  123. 


METEOROLOGY    OF    CHINA,  II5 

ject  to  extremes,  is  salubrious.  Water  is  frozen  from  December  to  March, 
and  the  mercury  ranges  from  io°  to  25°.  Violent  storms  occur  in  the  spring. 
In  summer  the  temperature  rises  sometimes  to  95°  or  105°,  but  is  usually  from 
75°  to  90°.  Autumn  is  the  pleasantest  part  of  the  year  ;  the  air  is  mild,  the 
sky  serene,  and  the  winds  calm.  The  unsheltered  position  of  the  region  at  the 
foot  of  mountains  intensifies  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Near  rivers  and 
marshes  the  climate  is  unhealthy,  and  produces  fever  and  ague.^ 

The  climate  of  Ningpo  and  Chusan  is  made  pleasanter  by  the  hills  in 
the  vicinity.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  24°  to  107°  during  the  year,  and 
changes  of  twenty  degrees  in  two  hours  are  not  uncommon,  and  open  houses 
make  this  harder  to  bear.  Fires  are  needed,  but  the  natives  only  put  on  more 
clothing.  The  river  never  freezes,  though  ponds  do.  Snow  does  not  remain 
long,  though  it  is  frequent.  Ningpo  and  Fuhchau  are  healthy,  for  they  are  not 
so  hot  as  Canton  or  so  variable  as  Shanghai.  The  climate  of  Amoy  is  pleas- 
ant, but  less  so  than  that  of  the  adjacent  main  land.  The  city  is  only  a  few 
feet  above  the  tide,  and  the  thermometer  ranges  from  40°  to  96°  during  the 
year.  The  heat  lasts  longer  and  has  not  the  sudden  changes  of  Ningpo.  The 
spring  is  rainy,  and  typhoons  occur  in  August ;  but  the  air  is  clear  and  bracing 
from  November  to  March.  On  the  whole,  the  climate  of  Canton  and  Macao  is 
better  than  that  of  most  places  between  the  tropics.  In  July  and  August  the 
thermometer  averages  from  80°  to  88'^,  and  in  January  and  February  from  50° 
to  60°.  The  highest  in  183 1  was  94°  in  July,  and  the  lowest  29°  in  January. 
Thin  ice  sometimes  forms,  but  not  so  as  to  be  used.  Two  inches  of  snow  fell 
at  Canton  in  Februarj^  1835,  and  remained  three  hours  ;  but  it  was  so  unusual 
that  some  called  it  falling  cotton,  and  sought  to  preserve  it  as  a  febrifuge. 
Fogs  are  common  in  February  and  March,  requiring  fire  to  dry  the  houses, 
though  it  is  not  needed  for  warmth.  Most  of  the  rain  falls  in  May  and  June. 
From  July  to  September  is  the  monsoon  season,  with  wind  from  the  southwest, 
and  frequent  showers  temper  the  heat.  After  that,  northerly  winds  begin,  and 
from  October  to  January  the  temperature  is  pleasant,  the  sky  clear,  and  the  air 
invigorating.  Woolen  clothes  are  worn  in  January  and  February,  but  the 
natives  do  not  use  fires  for  warmth.  The  monsoons  do  not  extend  above  25° 
north  latitude. 

The  climate  of  Macao  and  Hong  Kong  has  not  so  great  a  range  as  that  of 
Canton.  Few  cities  of  Asia  excel  Macao  in  climate,  though  not  many  natives 
attain  a  great  age.  Its  maximum  temperature  is  90°,  and  the  summer  average 
84°.  The  minimum  is  50°,  and  the  winter  average  68°,  with  almost  constant 
sunshine.  Fogs  prevail  on  the  river,  and  northeast  gales  are  common  in  spring 
and  autumn,  lasting  sometimes  three  days.  In  winter  trees  cease  to  grow,  and 
grass  becomes  brown ;  but  March  brings  out  the  bright  gre'en  leaves.  The 
unhealthiness  of  Hong  Kong  is  due  to  bad  drainage.  Rain  is  more  abundant 
there  than  in  Macao.  In  March  new  walls  drip  with  moisture,  dresses  mildew, 
and  cutlery  and  books  are  injured  by  the  damp.  Kwangtung,  Kwangsi,  and 
Yunnan  are  the  most  unhealthy  of  the  eighteen  provinces,  and  the  central  parts 
of  the  empire  are  the  most  healthy,  being  more  uniform  in  their  temperature. 

1  Middle  Kingdotn,  Vol.  I,  pp.  45-46. 


11,6  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Shanghai  suffers  from  the  rapid  changes  of  autumn  and  spring,  and  pul- 
monary and  rheumatic  diseases  prevail.  The  maximum  temperature  is  ioo°, 
and  the  minimum  24°  ;'  but  ice  is  not  common,  and  snow  does  not  remain  long. 
The  summer  average  temperature  is  80°  to  93°  by  day,  and  60°  to  75°  at  night. 
The  average  in  winter  is  45°  to  60°  by  day,  and  36°  to  45°  at  night.  The 
mercury  ranges  in  a  day  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  degrees.^  The  east  winds 
are  unusually  chilly. 

Sixteen  years'  observation  at  Canton  gives  seventy  inches  as  the  annual  fall 
of  rain.  During  four  years  there  were  only  fifteen  rainy  days  from  October  to 
February.  Thunder-storms  are  not  severe,  but  a  few  persons  are  killed  by 
lightning  every  year.^ 

The  climate  of  Manchuria  is  colder  than  Moscow,  and  the  houses  are  very 
poor.  Vines  must  be  covered  up  from  October  till  April.  It  is  too  cold  for 
the  mulberry,  so  the  leaves  of  a  tree  resembling  the  oak  furnish  food  for  their 
silk-worms.  The  ground  is  said  to  freeze  seven  feet  deep  in  Kirin,  and  about 
three  in  Shingking.  In  winter  the  cold  is  30°  below  zero.  The  snow,  driven 
by  fierce  northeast  winds,  is  so  fine  that  it  penetrates  clothes,  and  ev-en  the 
lungs.  On  the  road,  the  eyebrows  become  a  mass  of  ice,  the  beard  a  huge 
icicle,  and  the  eyelashes  freeze  together.  The  wind  pierces  the  skin  like 
needles,  and  the  ground  is  frozen  for  eight  months  of  the  year.* 

Mongolia,  also,  owing  to  its  dry  air  and  want  of  shelter  from  the  winds,  is 
excessively  cold.  Near  Chihli  the  people  make  their  houses  partly  under- 
ground for  shelter.  Neither  rain  nor  snow  falls  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of 
agriculture,  except  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  North  of  Gobi,  as  far  as  to 
the  Russian  possessions,  the  cold  in  winter  is  30°  to  40°  below  zero,  and  the 
changes  are  great  and  sudden.  No  month  is  free  from  frost ;  yet  on  the  steppes 
the  heat  of  summer  is  intense.  Even  in  cold  weather  the  cattle  find  food 
under  the  thin  covering  of  snow.^ 

The  climate  of  Thibet  is  exceedingly  dry  and  pure.  The  valleys  are  hot, 
though  close  to  snow-capped  mountains.  On  the  table-lands  the  sky  is  clear 
from  May  till  October,  and  in  the  valleys  the  harvest  is  gathered  in  before  the 
gales  and  snows  of  October.  The  extreme  dryness  of  the  air  makes  the  trees 
wither,  till  their  leaves  may  be  powdered  between  the  fingers.  The  people 
cover  the  wood-work  of  their  houses  to  protect  it  from  the  destructive  dryness. 
Timber  there  neither  rots  nor  is  worm-eaten  —  it  becomes  brittle  and  breaks. 
Flesh  exposed  to  the  air  becomes  so  hard  it  may  be  powdered  like  bread,  and 
will  keep  for  years  ;  no  salt  is  used  in  the  process,  nor  does  the  meat  ever 
become  tainted.     It  is  eaten  without  any  further  cooking.'' 

There  is  a  brief  notice  of  typhoons  in  the  Middle  Kingdom^'  and  an  article 
on  "Typhoons  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  Seas"  in  the  Chinese  Repository, 
1839,  pp.  225-245.  There  is  a  very  elaborate  article  on  the  meteorology  of 
the  island  of  Chusan,  from  September,  1840,  to  Februar3^  1841,  in  the  same 
periodical,  1841,  pp.  353-371  ;  but  as  it  is  the  v/ork  of  officers  in  the  British 
navy,  it  does  not  come  within  the  range  of  this  volume. 

1  Dr.  Lockhart  says  1 5=.     Chinese  Repository,  1848,  p.  iSq.    =  Dr.  Lockliart  says  30'  to  40°.     Do. ,  do. ,  do. 
8  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  46-49-  ■*  ^°->  "^°'-  ^'  P"  '59- 

"Do.,  Vol.  I,  p.  165.  "Do.,  Vol.  I,  p.  19'.  '  Vol.  I,  p.  49- 


METEOROLOGICAL    TABLES. 


117 


Meteorological  Tables  of   Observations  in  Canton  and  Macao,  in  1831. 

The  following  tables  of  average  for  183 1  were  published  in  the  Chinese 
Repository,  Vol.  I,  p.  491.  Those  at  Canton  were  taken  from  the  Canton  Reg- 
ister, and  those  at  Macao  from  a  private  diary.  They  were  prepared  by  Dr. 
E.  C.  Bridgman. 


MONTH. 


January  . 

February  . 
March  .  . 
April    .    . 
May .  .    . 
June.  .    . 
July     .    . 
August  . 
September 
October  . 
November 
December 


THERMOMETER. 


29 
38 
44 
55 
64 
74 
79 
75 
70 

57 


65 

59 
69 

75 
78 
84 
88 
85 
84 
78 
68 
65 


BAROMETER 


AT   CANTON. 


S:5 


30.22 
3013 
30.17 
30.03 
29.92 
29.S8 
29-83 
29.85 
29.91 
30.01 
30.16 
30.23 


30.50 
30.50 
30.50 
30.25 
30.10 
30.00 
30.00 
30.00 
30.10 
30.20 
30.55 
30.35 


30.00 
29.60 
29.95 
29.85 
29.80 

29- 75 
29.60 

29'55 
29.70 
29.50 
29.95 
30.15 


BAROMETER 

HYGROMETER 

RAIN 

CONTINUANCE  OF  WINDS 

AT 

MACAO. 

AT 

MACAO. 

AT  CANTON 

AT  CANTON.       MEAN  OF  FOUF 

YEARS  IN    DAYS. 

MONTH. 

.2 

1 

0 

<f, 

t 
0 

1) 

.s 

c 

11 

c.S 

a  a 

0 
'A 

a 

0 
15 

w 

0) 

3 
0 

.5 

"5 

0 

0 

to 

1 

t; 

0 

January  . 

30.26 

30.50 

30.05 

76 

95 

46 

0 

6| 

3i 

II 

2 

2i 

4 

4 

oi 

0 

7 

February . 

30-13 

30.40 

29.97 

82 

96 

70 

I 

7 

7 

" 

1} 

2| 

5i 

'i 

"i 

0 

6i 

March  .  . 

30.20 

30.48 

30.05 

78 

97 

30 

2 

I A 

6 

8| 

A 

3! 

Io3 

2i 

9 

oi 

3 

April.  .    . 

30.08 

30.27 

29-93 

Si 

95 

50 

5 

6i 

10 

l\ 

I 

4 

14I 

I 

oj 

0 

3i 

May  .   .    . 

29.95 

30.06 

29.85 

81 

95 

57 

II 

H 

i5i 

4? 

2i 

3i 

i6i 

li 

oi 

oi 

A 

June .  .    . 

29.92 

30.00 

29.85 

80 

95 

70 

" 

I 

9 

ij 

04 

2 

2li 

3 

o3 

0 

ok 

July  .  .    . 

29.87 

30.01 

29.60 

83 

96 

70 

7 

7l 

10 

i\ 

I 

,3 

21 

3 

il 

oi 

I 

August .  . 

29.88 

30.02 

29.56 

84 

97 

70 

9 

9 

12* 

3 

2 

3 

18 

il 

ok 

oi 

3 

September 

29.91 

30.05 

29-35 

84 

95 

50 

10 

9i 

10 

loA 

4 

ik 

81 

0 

0 

0 

2f 

October  . 

3°-03 

30.19 

29-45 

75 

95 

20 

5 

5 

5 

12 

3i 

z\ 

5i 

j3 

oi 

ol 

5l 

November 

30.14 

30.36 

29.95 

61 

95 

20 

2 

4i 

3 

23 

o| 

ol 

li 

,T 

0 

0 

3 

December 

30-23 

30.31 

30.15 

71 

90 

30 

0 

9I 

3i 

.8^ 

2j 

^\ 

2 

2i 

0 

oi 

3l 

ii8 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


RANGE  OF  THERMOMETER  IN  SHANGHAI,  FROM  MARCH,  1S45,  TO  MARCH,  1846,  IN  THE 

SHADE  OUT-OF-DOORS.* 


AVERAGE. 

MAXIMUM. 

MINIMUM. 

MONTH. 

AVERAGE. 

MAXIMUM.           MINIMUM. 

P 

« 
P 

.2 

0 

i 

P 

Night. 
Day. 

To 

March  .  .    . 
April     .    .    . 
May  .... 
June  .... 
July.    .    .    . 
August .  .    . 

47 
57 
72 
83 
88 
90 

38 
47 
63 
71 
78 
78 

57 
8. 
88 

lOI 

94 
94 

46 

71 
69 

S3 

So 
78 

39 
47 
55 
64 
70 
75 

31 
44 
47 
61 

67 
68 

September  . 
October   .    . 
Kovember  . 
December  . 
January'  .    . 
February .  . 

78 
67 

59 
40 

38 
46 

69 

60 

46 

30 

28 

34 

SS 
79 
73 
61 
47 
55 

77 
71 
60 

50 

40 
46 

68 
58 
49 
30 
30 
32 

63 
49 
37 
15 
1 5 

25 

*  Chinese  Repository,  1848,  pp.  189-190. 
SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 

The  climate  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  is  healthful,  and  so  equable  that  the 
Hawaiians  have  no  word  for  weather.  Extreme  heat  and  cold  are  alike 
unknown.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Honolulu  is  75°,  and  the  daily- 
range  seldom  over  15°.  During  twelve  years  the  extremes  in  the  shade  were 
53°  and  90°.  Northeast  trade  winds  prevail  three  fourths  of  the  year.  The 
rain-fall  is  irregular.  One  year  it  fell  on  forty  days.  In  1870  it  was  59.51 
inches,  and  in  187 1,  40.09  inches  ;  but  the  porous  soil  absorbs  it  rapidly.  Rev. 
E.  Johnson  found  the  mean  temperature  of  Waioli,  Kauai,  72°;  highest  90°, 
lowest  54°  ;  amount  of  rain,  85  inches.  The  following  is  his  record  from  April, 
1845,  to  April,  1846  : 


RECORD  KEPT  BY  REV.   E.  JOHNSON,  AT  WAIOLI,  SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  FROM 
APRIL,  1845,  TO  APRIL,  1846. 


April  .  .  . 
May  .  .  . 
June  .  .  . 
July  .  .  . 
August  .  . 
September 
October  .  . 
November. 
December  . 
January  . 
February  . 
March   .    . 


AVERAGE. 


66.0 

75- 

69.6 

80. 

71.6 

82. 

72.0 

82. 

7. .6 

83. 

7'-4 

82. 

69.6 

78. 

66.7 

78. 

65.2 

75- 

62.0 

-I- 

63.3 

73- 

63-4 

75- 

62.0 

66.0 
66.0 

69.0 
67.0 

68.0 

64.0 
S7.0 
57-0 
540 

57.0 
56.0 


NORTHEAST  TRADES. 


VARIABLE. 


119 


RECORD  KEPT  BY  REV.  E.  JOHNSON,  AT  WAIOLI,  SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  FROM 
APRIL,  1845,  TO  APRIL,  1S46.— Concluded. 


FAIR. 

CLOUDY. 

SHOWERS. 

RAIN. 

.a 

MONTH. 

.5 

i 

< 

s 

a^ 

< 

■< 

S 

b; 

April 

9 

4 

4 

II 

10 

9 

7 

6 

17 

14 

0 

May 

II 

10 

5 

4 

14 

15 

' 

2 

10 

6 

0 

J 

16 

"7 

7 

3 
6 

3 
2 

4 
8 

July 

" 

7 

6 

9 

16 

21 

0 

August 

19 

15 

2 

5 

7 

8 

3 

3 

12 

5 

5 

September 

16 

12 

3 

4 

II 

13 

0 

I 

14 

5 

4 

October 

II 

10 

5 

3 

9 

10 

6 

8 

22 

18 

4 

November 

22 

19 

2 

4 

4 

4 

2 

3 

10 

5 

2 

December 

18 

10 

6 

5 

6 

6 

I 

I 

II 

5 

0 

January 

18 

"7 

8 

8 

I 

4 

4 

3 

10 

4 

6 

February 

16 

■4 

10 

10 

0 

I 

2 

3 

10 

3 

0 

March 

IS 

14 

6 

8 

4 

4 

6 

5 

16 

6 

6 

In  the  islands  June  is  the  warmest  month,  and  January  the  coldest  and 
rainiest.  Of  course,  the  mountains  are  colder.  At  Lahaina,  in  ten  years,  the 
range  of  temperature  was  from  54°  to  86°.  Three  thousand  feet  above 
Lahaina  the  mercury  ranges  from  40°  to  75°,  and  at  Waiamea  the  annual 
average  is  64°.  On  the  windward  side  of  the  islands  the  climate  is  more  try- 
ing, but  the  climate  of  Honolulu  and  Lahaina  is  well  adapted  for  invalids. 


SOUTH    AFRICA. 


In  South  Africa,  of  course  the  seasons  are  reversed,  June,  July,  and  August 
being  winter  there  ;  yet,  in  Natal  it  is  not  so  cold  as  in  New  England.  At 
noon,  toward  the  end  of  July,  Mr.  L.  Grout  speaks  of  a  temperature  of  68°. 
The  seasons  on  the  coast  are  not  well  defined.  In  midwinter  some  days  are 
as  warm  as  summer,  and  vice  versa;  and  sometimes  part  of  one  day  is  hot  and 
the  rest  cold,  the  mercury  falling  15°  in  an  hour,  and  even  40°  in  half  a  day. 
This  occurs  once  or  twice  in  August  and  in  September,  and  occasionally  at 
other  seasons,  in  connection  with  a  hot  wind  from  the  north.  One  day,  near 
the  end  of  September,  Mr.  Grout  found  the  mercury  at  47°;  two  or  three  days 
after,  it  was  102°.  Then  the  wind  changed  to  the  west,  and  it  fell  ten  degrees 
in  twenty  minutes,  and  in  thirty-six  hours  was  down  to  50°,  with  a  cold  rain. 
Yet  the  cold  is  not  intense.  At  Umsunduzi,  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
thirty  miles  north  of  Natal,  Mr.  Grout  scarcely  saw  frost  more  than  once  a 
year,  and  snow  or  ice  was  unknown  ;  though  up  toward  the  Kwahlamba  range 
both  are  found. 

The  mean  temperature  from  October  to  March,  at  Durban,  is  73°,  and  at 


THE  e;ly  volume. 


Maritzburg  70°;  from  March  to  October,  64°  at  Durban,  and  60°  at  the  capi- 
tal. At  Umsunduzi  the  mercury  ranged  during  the  year  from  50°  to  100°,  with 
an  occasional  excess  of  two  or  three  degrees  on  each  extreme.  For  several 
years  Mr.  Grout  had  no  fire  in  his  house,  except  in  an  outhouse  for  cooking. 
Rain  tempers  the  heat  of  summer,  and  sunshine  moderates  the  cold  of  winter. 
There  is  little  or  no  rain  from  May  to  August.  The  entire  rain-fall  for  the 
year  is  three  feet,  only  six  inches  falling  during  the  six  cold  months.  In  winter 
the  prevailing  wind  is  from  the  west  or  northwest,  morning  and  evening,  and 
generally  from  the  southeast  during  the  day.  The  prevailing  winds  in  summer 
are  the  dry  northeast  wind  and  the  wet  southwest.  The  hot  north  wind  in  early 
spring  is  powerful  and  parching,  and  blows  with  increasing  force  for  thirty-six 
hours,  v/ithering  plants,  warping  timber,  and  loosening  the  joints  of  wood-work. 
Then  follows  a  cold  west  wind,  with  thunder  and  rain.  Hail  is  not  uncommon 
in  Natal,  but  the  storms  are  severest  in  the  cold  uplands  toward  the  Kwah- 
lamba.  Against  the  gray  buttresses  of  this  mountain  jagged  masses  of  ice  as 
large  as  the  fist  are  hurled  with  the  force  of  a  tornado,  till  the  waters  pour 
down  on  all  sides  in  roaring  torrents. 

Thunder-storms  are  very  severe.  The  wind  is  generally  north  or  west  when 
they  begin,  and  then  turns  southeast.  The  air  is  not  very  moist,  but  the 
lightning  more  resembles  a  ribbon  than  a  line,  and  the  flash  lasts  while  one 
counts  two  or  three.  Its  forms  are  ver)'-  crooked,  and  as  diversified  as  a 
kaleidoscope,  and  so  are  its  colors,  from  a  dead  leaden  tinge  to  bright  rose ; 
now  delicate  pink  or  light  amethyst,  and  again  orange  or  pale  blue  or  pearly 
white,  reminding  one  of  the  colored  lights  caused  by  the  burning  of  different 
metals. 

When  the  winter  sky  is  not  clouded  by  smoke,  it  is  remarkably  clear,  and 
stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  rarely  seen  in  England,  are  distinctly  visible  ;  and. 
though  the  southern  heavens  do  not  present  so  many  bright  stars  as  the  north, 
in  places  they  blaze  with  a  brightness  unseen  north  of  the  equator,  with  gaps 
of  absolute  blackness,  appalling  to  the  eye.  The  southern  pole  is  marked  by 
no  star,  but  near  by  are  those  ghostly  spectra  of  far-off  star  kingdoms,  the 
"clouds  of  Mag;ellan."  ' 


WESTERN    AFRICA. 


In  western  Africa  the  climate  of  the  coast  is  not  ojDpressively  hot.  The 
daily  land  and  sea-breezes  moderate  the  temperature,  which  ranges  between 
70°  and  90°.  The  land-breeze,  damp  and  chilly,  begins  about  i  o'clock 
A.M.,  and  lasts  tills  10  a.m.  The  cool  sea-breeze  blows  from  noon  till  mid- 
night. The  only  seasons  are  the  dry  and  the  rainy.  The  rain  is  most  abun- 
dant where  the  sun  is  vertical,  and  so  prevails  at  different  places  at  different 
times.  Thus,  from  May  to  September  is  the  rainy  season  in  Senegambia,  and 
the  dry  season  at  the  equator.  Where  the  sun  is  vertical  twice  a  year,  there 
are  two  dry  and  wet  seasons,  but  they  are  shorter.  Near  the  equator  heavy 
showers  fall  mostly  at  night ;  but  near  the  tropics  it  rains  incessantly  for  weeks 
and  months,  and  tornadoes  prevail    every  four   or  five  days  when  the  rains 

•  L.  Grout's  Zuiu-Land,  pp.  39-47. 


METEOROLOGY    OF    WESTERN    AFRICA.  121 

begin  to  stop,  but  last  only  an  hour  or  two,  generally  in  the  afternoon  of  a 
sultry  day.  They  come  both  from  the  land  and  the  sea.  The  cloud  climbs 
the  horizon  like  an  arch  with  ragged  ends.  The  increasing  darkness  and 
silence  are  felt  alike  by  man  and  beast,  till  the  sudden  gusts,  increasing  in 
violence,  cause  the  trees  to  bend  and  creak  before  them.  They  stop  as  sud- 
denly as  they  begin,  and  cool  and  purify  the  air. 

The  Harmattan  wind  comes  from  the  Sahara,  and  prevails  in  Senegambia 
and  northern  Guinea  from  December  to  February,  blowing  three  or  four  days 
in  succession.  It  is  felt  three  or  four  hundred  miles  from  the  coast.  The 
atmosphere  is  dry  and  hazy.  Doors,  windows,  and  wooden  articles  of  furni- 
ture crack  and  split,  veneering  peels  off,  book  covers  curl  up,  and  lips  and 
hands  become  chapped.  The  sails  of  ships  are  discolored  by  dust  so  thick 
that  one  could  write  on  it.  Lieutenant  Maur}'  traces  this  dust  to  South 
America  as  its  source.  The  air  is  invigorating  to  Europeans,  but  the  natives 
are  chilled  by  it,  and  put  on  all  the  clothing  they  can  muster  while  it  lasts.^ 


NORTHWEST    COAST. 

Rev.  S.  Parker  speaks  of  the  greater  mildness  of  the  climate  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  than  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  He  says 
that  the  year  is  divided  into  the  wet  and  dry  seasons  ;  the  former  beginning  in 
November,  and  the  latter  in  May  ;  and  gives  a  very  elaborate  table  of  tempera- 
ture and  weather  from  October  4,  1835,  to  May  15,  1836,  filling  twelve  pages  ;''■ 
but,  as  during  half  that  time  he  was  constantly  moving  from  place  to  place,  and 
the  other  half  at  Fort  Vancouver,  opposite  the  present  city  of  Portland,  Oregon, 
this  brief  statement  may  sufifice  concerning  a  region  now  so  well  known. 

1  IVilsOT^ s  IVestern  A/rica,  pp.  27-30. 

'^  Ex  florins  Tour  Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  pp.  315-326. 


VI. 
NATURAL  SCIENCE. 


The  aid  which  foreign  missions  render  to  the  perfection  of  science  is 
recognized  by  none  so  cordially  as  by  those  who  are  engaged  in  scientific 
studies.  In  the  preface  to  Vol.  XVII  of  the  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge^  it  is  said  of  missionaries  that  there  is  no  class  of  men,  whether 
viewed  as  scholars  or  philanthropists,  who  have  earned  a  higher  reputation. 
Their  contributions  to  history,  to  ethnology,  to  philology,  to  geography,  and 
to  religious  literature,  form  an  enduring  monument  to  their  fame. 

"It  would  be  impossible,"  said  Prof,  Silliman,  "for  the  historian  of  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  to  ignore  the  important  contributions  of  American 
missionaries  to  science ; "  and  Prof.  Agassiz  testified  :  "  Few  are  aware  how 
much  we  owe  them,  both  for  their  intelligent  observation  of  facts  and  for  their 
collecting  of  specimens.  We  must  look  to  them  not  a  little  for  aid  in  our 
efforts  to  advance  future  science." 

These  are  very  flattering  testimonials,  for  which  missionaries  and  the 
friends  of  missionaries  may  well  be  grateful.  Yet  we  must  not  forget  that,  of 
necessity,  the  missionary  is  debarred  from  entering  into  the  lists  as  the  com- 
peer of  such  men  as  those  last  quoted.  Science  now  is  prosecuted  much  more 
thoroughly  than  formerly.  The  questions  discussed  lie  so  deep,  and  involve 
such  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  special  departments  of  investigation,  that 
no  missionary  has  time  to  master  them,  or,  even  if  he  mastered  them  to-day,  to 
keep  abreast  with  the  advance  of  knowledge  in  the  various  departments  toward 
which  he  may,  from  his  advantage  of  location,  be  able  to  afford  some  help. 
The  celebrated  Agassiz  could  always  learn  something  new  from  thoughtful 
fishermen  who  had  eyes  to  observe  the  habits  of  fishes  in  their  own  locality  ; 
and  though  the  aid  rendered  by  missionaries  may  be  more  intelligent,  as  their 
education  is  higher,  yet  we  must  not  be  so  blind  as  to  claim  for  missionaries  an 
equality  with  the  leaders  of  science,  simply  because  their  education  and  their 
position  give  them  such  excellent  facilities  for  observation.  The  generosity  of 
the  commendations  of  such  men  as  the  Americo-Swiss  scientist  must  meet  a 
corresponding  modest}?-  in  those  whom  lie  commends.  None  see  this  more 
clearly,  or  are  more  ready  to  confess  it,  than  those  missionaries  who  h.ave 
rendered  the  greatest  service  in  this  department.  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  writes 
thus:  "The  chapters  in  the  Middle  Kingdom  on  geography  and  natural  his- 
tory need  great  enlargement  and  corrections  to  adapt  them  to  the  present 
(122) 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


123 


time.  As  China  has  become  accessible,  experts  like  Baron  Richthopen,  Kings- 
mill,  Hanee,  and  others,  havQ  begun  to  examine  its  stones,  plants,  and  animals 
with  care  and  fullness,  so  that  missionary  work  has  been  in  a  large  measure 
superseded.  I  never  knew  a  missionary  who  was  a  thorough  naturalist  in  any 
branch,  but  I  have  known  several  with  general  knowledge  enough  to  obser\  e 
intelligently.  In  every  department  of  natural  history,  missionaries  in  China 
have  only  contributed  separate  papers,  but  most  have  lacked  that  accurate 
knowledge  and  detail  which  are  now  requisite.  Rev.  Armand  David,  of  the 
Lazarist  mission,  Peking,  has  done  more  in  zoology  than  all  other  missionaries 
in  China  put  together,  but  it  was  because  he  left  mission  work,  and  traveled 
extensively  in  the  pay  of  the  French  government.  It  is  impossible  to  attend  to 
both  departments  well.  Out  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  articles  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  North  China  branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  fifty-two  are  by 
Protestant  missionaries,  on'  a  great  variety  of  topics.  They  have  done  most 
valuable  work  in  Chinese  language,  history,  and  religion,  and  the  members  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society  have  excelled  all  others."  ' 

Natural  science  is  based  on  a  foundation  of  facts  that  must  be  built  up  by 
toilers  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  must  ransack  sea  and  shore,  observe  the 
atmosphere  and  the  heavens,  report  facts  and  phenomena,  and  gather  speci- 
mens and  principles.  The  observers  must  be  intelligent  and  accurate,  and 
such  are  our  missionaries. 

Unsettled  scientific  hypotheses  may  be  opposed  to  religion,  but  true  science 
and  religion  are  co-laborers.  The  facts  of  the  one  and  the  truths  of  the  other 
are  alike  from  God.  Many  tentative  theories  have  been  exploded,  and  many 
more  will  be  set  aside  ere  the  final  structure  shall  rise  in  majesty  on  its  eternal 
foundation. 

Dr.  John  Harris^  speaks  of  a  law  of  God  by  which  the  streams  of  benefi- 
cence sooner  or  later  revisit  their  source.  The  reflex  influence  of  missions  he 
specifies  as  an  illustration  of  this  law.  Geography,  geology,  statistics,  natural 
history,  philology,  and  ethnography  have  been  greatly  enriched  by  their  labors. 
They  have  rectified  mistakes  concerning  linguistic  affinities,  brought  to  light 
ancient  literary  treasures,  reduced  many  languages  to  writing,  and  laid  philol- 
ogists under  permanent  obligations  by  their  dictionaries  and  grammars.  In 
the  "  Oriental  Translation  Society  of  London,"  Sir  A.  Johnson,  former  chief 
justice  in  Ceylon,  moved,  and  Sir  W.  Ouseley  seconded,  a  vote  of  thanks  to  our 
mission  in  Ceylon  for  such  service  to  science.  Dr.  Harris  also  speaks  of  the 
value  of  the  aid  furnished  by  missionaries  for  proving  the  common  origin  of 
the  race  —  a  conclusion  endorsed  by  Schlegel,  the  French  Academy,  and  others. 

As  Dr.  Harris  has  alluded  to  the  contributions  of  missionaries  to  the  sci- 
ence of  language,  and  the  writer  does  not  wish  to  intrude  into  the  chapter  on 
Philology,  originally  prepared  by  another,  a  few  additional  items  in  that  depart- 
ment may  conveniently  be  inserted  here. 

Numerous  vocabularies  have  been  collected  by  our  missionaries  in  North 
America  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.     H.  Bingham,  Jr.,  has  an  unpublished 

1  Letter  of  Febniaiy  27,  1880.  *  Great  Commission,  pp.  198-199. 


124  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

vocabulary  of  more  than  five  thousand  words  of  the  language  of  the  Gilbert 
Islands,  Rev.  B.  G.  Snow  prepared  one  of  the  Kusaian  tongue,  and  Dr.  L.  H. 
Gulick's  Ponapean  vocabulary  is  published  by  the  American  Oriental  Society.^ 
Horatio  Hale,  philologist  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition  under 
Commodore  Wilkes,  acknowledges  indebtedness  to  Rev.  C.  S.  Stewart,  to  the 
vocabulary  of  Rev.  R.  Armstrong,  and  the  dictionary  of  Rev.  L.  Andrews,  con- 
taining 10,000  or  12,000  words;  also  to  his  "Notes  on  the  Hawaiian  Lan- 
guage,"^ and  to  an  article  of  Rev.  W,  P.  Alexander.^ 

It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  even  the  titles  of  works  in  this  depart- 
ment. Here  are  a  few:  Grammar  and  Vocabulary  of  the  Hakari  Kurdish,  hy 
Rev.  S.  A.  Rhea  ;*  Granit7tar  of  the  Modern  Syriac  of  Persia  and  Ku?-dista?i,  by 
Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard.' 

The  Tamil  and  English  dictionary  by  Dr.  M.  Winslow  "^  is  an  enduring  mon- 
ument of  missionary  scholarship  and  service  to  science.  The  work  was  begun 
in  1832,  by  Rev.  J.  Knight,  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  but  ill  health 
soon  compelled  him  to  abandon  it.  Rev.  Levi  Spaulding  then  took  it  up,  and 
in  less  than  a  i^ear  his  health  also  failed,  and  Dr.  Winslow  entered  into  their 
labors.  But  this  and  four  hours'  labor  every  day  on  the  revision  of  the  Tamil 
Bible  obliged  him,  also,  to  revisit  the  United  States  in  1855.  After  one  year's 
rest,  however,  he  resumed  the  work,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  completing  it 
in  1862  —  "a  book  of  prodigious  labor  and  of  great  value."  The  Madras 
Observer  said  that  "the  British  nation,  no  less  than  the  literary  world,  were 
deeply  indebted  for  it.  The  revered  author  has  greatly  promoted  the  spread 
of  divine  truth  and  of  civilization,  by  his  self-denying  efforts."  The  Madras 
Times  said  that  "to  the  missionary,  to  government  servants,  to  educated 
natives,  and  to  the  European  student,  it  was  a  boon  of  the  utmost  value." 
Next  to  the  Sanskrit  lexicon  of  Prof.  Wilson,  it  was  the  most  elaborate  diction- 
ary of  any  of  the  languages  of  India.''  Rev.  J.  L.  Dohne's  Zulu  Kaffir 
Dictionary^  a  literary  production  of  great  value,  deserves  mention  in  this 
connection. 

In  1842,  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  published,  at  Macao,  Easy  Lessons  in  Chinese, 
8vo,  pp.  287  ;  in  1844,  An  English  and  Chiiiese  Vocabulary  in  the  Court  Dialect, 
8vo,  pp.  440  — one  authority  says  pp.  536  ;  perhaps  a  later  and  enlarged  edition. 
In  1856  he  published  A  Tonic  Dictionary  of  the  Canton  Dialect^  which  is 
described  and  highly  commended  by  Rev.  W.  A.  Macy,  in  the  Jourfial  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society.^"  His  greatest  work,  however,  in  this  line  is  A 
Syllabic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language}^  This  cost  eleven  years  of  steady 
toil ;  contains  twelve  hundred  characters,  with  their  pronunciation  in  five  dia- 
lects, and  their  definitions.     Dr.  H.  Blodget  says  :  "  It  is  the  ripe  fruit  of  his 

"  Journal,  1872,  pp.  1-109.  ^Hawaiian  Spectator,  1S38.  ^Do.,  183S. 

■^Journal  0/  American  Oriental  Society,  1872,  pp.  11S-155. 
5 Do.,  1855,  pp.  !-i8oh. 

Prof.   Uocdiger,  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in   Semitic  lore,   praises  this  grammar    in   Zeitschrift  der 
.Detttschen  Morgen  Idndischen  Gesellschaft,  Zehnter  Band,  IV  Heft,  p.  760,  Liepsig,  1S56. 
8  Madras,  1862,  8vo,  containing  nearly  1000  pages,  and  defining  67,452  words. 
'  See  Dr.  Anderson's  India,  p.  232,  and  Missionary  Herald,  1863,  pp.  131-132. 

8  1857,  royal  Svo,  459  pp.  "  8vo,  pp.  832. 

WVI,  pp.  566-571.  "'874- 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


12^ 


life  studies;  a  treasury  of  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  Chinese  language  and 
affairs  which  no  student  can  dispense  with."  Dr.  A.  O.  Treat  adds :  "  It  is  ai 
work  of  prodigious  extent  and  research.  It  supersedes  all  previous  diction- 
aries, and  is  likely  to  be  a  standard  authority  for  a  long  time  to  come." 

Even  apostolic  missions  furnish  their  contributions  to  science.  The 
inspired  narrative  of  the  apostle's  voyage  to  Rome  has  both  geographical  and 
meteorological  interest,  to  say  nothing  of  the  light  it  throws  on  naval  antiqui- 
ties. Papal  missionaries  in  the  sixteenth  century  furnished  their  quota,  also. 
Jesuits  sent  home  observations  of  eclipses  from  America.  No  less  than  four- 
teen articles  in  the  first  nineteen  volumes  of  the  London  Quarterly  Review  v^ere 
based  on  the  "  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses"of  French  missionaries.  A 
History  of  the  New  World,  by  a  Spanish  missionary,  according  to  Dr.  Wm. 
Robertson,  contains  more  accurate  information  than  any  other  account  of 
remote  countries  in  that  age. 

Dr.  F.  Mason,  a  Baptist  missionary  in  Burmah  for  twenty  years,  has  written 
a  volume  of  nine  hundred  pages,  giving  an  account  of  that  empire.  While  his 
Karens,  on  a  journey,  were  preparing  their  evening  meal,  he  analyzed  flowers 
or  examined  the  fish  they  caught;  for,  as  he  says,  "The  barren  heath  with  its 
mosses  and  insects  becomes  a  paradise  to  the  careful  observer."  Thus  do  the 
spare  hours  of  missionaries  contribute  to  science. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  our  missionaries  give  much  information 
concerning  the  vegetable  productions  of  their  several  fields  of  labor.  Rev.  S. 
Parker  mentions  three  kinds  of  fir  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  also  the 
cedar,  yew,  tamarisk,  white  and  black  oak,  two  kinds  of  ash,  three  of  poplar, 
white  maple,  willow,  and  a  tree  called  the  strawberry  tree.  He  enumerates  a 
long  list  of  shrubs,  among  them  the  beautiful  Symphoria  racemosa,  and  berries ; 
the  sweet  pea,  a  red  clover  different  from  ours,  and  a  white  clover ;  wild  flax, 
sunflowers,  a  species  of  broom  corn,  and  a  wild  grain  partaking  of  the  proper- 
ties of  barley  and  rye.  Among  nutritive  roots,  he  describes  the  wappattoo,^ 
and  the  cammas,  in  the  form  of  an  onion,  which  is  roasted,  pounded,  and  made 
into  bread,  with  a  taste  like  licorice  ;  the  cowish,  or  biscuit  root,  the  racine 
amere,  and  onion. - 

Dr.  Williams  devotes  the  sixth  chapter  of  his  Middle  Kingdom  to  the  natural 
history  of  China.  He  describes  her  mineral  productions,  coal,  gypsum,  nitre, 
building  and  precious  stones  ;  her  metals  and  fossils  ;  her  hot  springs,  and 
other  things  of  that  sort.  Then  he  gives  an  account  of  her  vegetable  produc- 
tions. Among  these  he  specifies  the  Gigartina  tenax,  from  which  they  make 
glue,  Aspidiiu7i  harometz,  or  Tartarean  lamb  —  though  this  is  partly  artificial, 
gardeners  forming  it  into  a  shape  like  a  sheep  or  other  object  —  and  the 
Phragmites  lachryma,  whence  mats  are  made.  He  is  eloquent  in  praise  of  the 
bamboo.  No  other  plant  imparts  so  Oriental  an  aspect  to  a  garden  as  this, 
which  shoots  up  its  wavy  plumes  to  the  height  of  fifty  feet,  and,  swaying  in  the 
breeze,  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  It  is  applied  by  the  Chinese  to  so  many  uses 
that   it  may  be  called    their  national   plant.     Chinese  writers  mention  sixty 

'  Sagittaria.  ^  Exploring  Tour  Beyond  ihe  Rocky  Mountains,  pp.  200-204. 


126  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

varieties.  It  is  reared  from  shoots.  These,  when  four  or  five  inches  high,  are 
boiled,  pickled,  and  made  into  comfits.  The  roots  are  carved  into  fantastic 
images  of  men,  animals,  or  creatures  of  the  imagination,  cut  into  canes,  or  turned 
into  oval  divining-sticks.  The  tapering  culms  are  used  as  poles,  for  carrying, 
propelling,  or  measuring,  by  porters,  boatmen,  and  carpenters  ;  for  joists  of 
houses,  and  ribs  of  sails  ;  shafts  for  spears,  and  wattles  for  hurdles  ;  tubes  for 
aqueducts,  and  troughs  for  eaves ;  handles  of  umbrellas,  and  ribs  of  fans.  The 
barrel  of  the  organ  and  the  rod  of  the  lictor  —  one  to  make  music,  the  other  to 
elicit  cries  of  pain  —  are  alike  from  this.  The  hair-pin  and  hat,  the  paper  and 
pencil,  and  cup  to  hold  pencils,  the  cup  and  the  bucket,  the  bellows  and  the 
match  box,  the  bird  cage  and  crab  net,  the  fish  pole  and  water  wheel,  wheel- 
barrow and  hand-cart,  are  all  made  of  bamboo.  Its  leaves  form  cloaks  to  pro- 
tect from  the  rain,  and  thatches  for  dwellings.  Cut  in  various  ways,  the  wood 
is  wrought  into  baskets  and  trays,  twisted  into  cables,  plaited  into  awnings,  and 
woven  into  mats.  It  roofs  boats,  and  forms  a  wrapping  for  goods.  The  shav- 
ings are  picked  into  oakum,  and  stuffed  into  mattresses.  It  furnishes  bed  and 
sofa,  chop-sticks  for  eating,  a  pipe  or  a  plate,  a  curtain  for  the  door,  or  a  broom 
for  the  floor.  Table,  food,  and  fuel  are  furnished  by  it.  Ferrules  for  scholars, 
and  their  books,  are  alike  derived  from  this  most  serviceable  plant.  China 
could  not  be  governed  without  the  constant  application  of  the  bamboo.  It 
adorns  the  garden  of  the  prince,  and  shades  the  hut  of  the  peasant.  It  forms 
the  hedge  that  separates  fields,  and  feeds  the  cattle  that  plough  them.  The 
Chinese  paint  nothing  else  so  well. 

Pie  mentions  the  cocoanut,  the  fan-leaf  palm  {Cha7ncerops),  and  pandanus. 
Several  of  the  aroideai  are  cultivated  for  food,  chiefly  Caladium  cucidatinn, 
Arum  esculentum,  and  Indkutn.  The  tuberous  roots  of  the  Sagittaria  Sinensis 
contain  much  farinaceous  matter.  The  sweet  flag  {Calamics)  is  used  in  medi- 
cine. He  mentions  a  number  of  lilies,  many  alliaceous  plants,  and  the  red- 
leaved  iron-wood  {Dracoend).  The  yam  is  not  common,  though  the  custard- 
apple  has  been  introduced,  and  the  plantain  is  the  common  summer  fruit  in 
Canton.  Ginger  is  cultivated  through  all  the  interior.  There  are  nineteen 
genera  of  Onhidece^  among  them  the  air-plants  Vafida  and  Aerides.  The 
beautiful  Bletia  Arundina,  Spathogloiiis,  and  Cymbidium  are  common  near 
Macao. 

Many  species  of  the  pine,  cypress,  and  yew  furnish  a  large  proportion  of 
the  timber  and  fuel.  The  larch  and  also  Funis  massoniana  are  common 
on  the  hills.  The  roots  of  the  juniper  and  thuja  are  made  into  grotesque 
ornaments.  The  seeds  of  the  maiden-hair  tree  {Salisburia  adiantifolid) 
are  a  common  nut  in  north  China.  The  willow  grows  everywhere,  and 
is  sometimes  fifteen  feet  in  girth.  Oaks  furnish  galls,  acorns,  charcoal,  and 
bark  for  tanning.  The  chestnut,  walnut,  and  hazel-nut  are  natives  of  China. 
So  is  the  tack-fruit  {Artocarpus).  There  are  many  species  of  the  banyan,  or 
fig.  The  mulberry  (^Broussoneiid)  furnishes  good  paper  stock.  Hemp  is 
raised.  The  Dryandra  is  a  favorite  tree,  but  the  nuts  of  the  JatropJia  and 
Croton  yield  more  oil.  The  tallow  tree  (StiUirigid)  belongs  to  the  same  family 
(Euphorbiaccae).     The  seeds  of  the   Trapa  are  boiled  and  eaten.     The  betel 


NATURAL    SCIENXE, 


127 


pepper  is  cultivated.  The  flowers  of  the  jfasmine  inconspicuus  are  used  to 
scent  some  teas.  The  pitcher  plant  {A^epenthes)  is  found  near  Canton.  Many 
species  of  Rumicitice  are  cultivated  ;  among  them,  spinach,  green  basil,  and 
buckwheat.  The  rhubarb  plant  hardly  needs  to  be  mentioned.  The  fruits 
of  several  genera  of  Rhamneae,  of  the  order  Ilicince^  are  eaten.  The  Zizyphus 
yields  plums  resembling  the  jujube.  The  leaves  of  Rha?nnus  theezans  are 
used  by  the  poor  for  tea. 

Peas  and  beans  are  common,  and  a  condiment  called  soy  is  made  from  a 
species  of  dolichos.  The  bean  curd,  or  bean  jelly,  is  a  general  favorite.  The 
Erythrina  and  Cassia  are  among  the  finest  flowering  trees  in  the  country. 
The  ground-nut  abounds. 

Chinese  fruits,  such  as  pears,  peaches,  plums,  and  apricots,  are  inferior  and 
insipid.  The  Loqiiat  is  a  pleasant  acid.  The  pomegranate  is  valued  chiefly 
for  the  beauty  of  the  blossom,  but  the  guava  and  rose  apple  are  made  into 
jellies.  Twenty  species  and  many  varieties  of  roses  are  found.  The  privet, 
myrtle,  henna,  hydrangea,  passion  flower,  and  leek  are  among  their  garden 
flowers.  The  Lager  strcemia  is  beautiful  in  blossom  ;  so  is  the  Pride  of  India, 
and  Chinese  tamarisk.     The  cactus  and  cereus  grow  in  the  south. 

Melons,  cucumbers,  squashes,  tomatoes,  and  egg-plants  abound.  The 
Benincasa  Cerifera  is  noted  for  a  waxy  exudation  that  smells  like  rosin.  The 
dried  bottle  gourd  {Cucurhita  Lagetiaria)  is  tied  to  the  backs  of  children  on 
boats  to  keep  them  afloat  if  they  fall  overboard.  The  fruit  of  the  papaw  tree 
makes  the  flesh  of  old  hens  tender.  Ginseng  is  a  government  monopoly. 
Among  pinks,  Lychnis  corojiata,  Alihea  chinensis,  and  other  malvaceous  flowers 
may  be  mentioned.  The  cotton  tree  {Bofnbax)  is  common  at  Canton.  It  is 
often  seventy  feet  high.  The  Gossypium  hcrbaceum  and  Sida  tilioefoUa  are  cul- 
tivated to  make  cloth.  Okra  is  used  for  food.  They  have  thirty  or  forty 
varieties  of  Camellia  yaponica,  and  the  noon  flower  is  common  in  gardens. 

There  are  eight  species  of  magnolia.  The  spicy  seeds  of  the  star  aniseed 
are  much  sought  after.  The  tree  peony  is  called  the  king  of  flowers.  The 
clematis  and  foxglove  grow  there.  The  lotus  is  valued  more  for  its  edible 
roots  than  for  its  religious  associations.  Though  so  much  opium  is  used,  few 
poppies  used  to  be  cultivated,  but  now  they  are  raised  extensively,  and  the 
evil  grows  worse.     More  of  the  Cniciferce  are  eaten  in  China  than  elsewhere. 

Of  the  RutitKs  they  have  oranges,  shaddocks,  and  the  fragrant  murraya 
exotica  and  panicidata,  and  Aglaia  Odorata.  The  seeds  of  the  sapindus  are 
worn  as  beads,  for  they  say  demons  dread  that  wood.  They  have  the  plane 
tree  and  two  sorts  of  maple,  with  the  Pitto  sporum  tobira,  an  ornamental  shrub. 
Among  the  Rubiacinae  are  several  beautiful  honeysuckles  and  a  fragrant  Vibur- 
num. The  Serissa  takes  the  place  of  our  box  in  bordering  paths,  and  the 
Lxora  coccinea  is  quite  common.  Of  china-asters  countless  varieties  are  raised, 
and  chrysanthemums,  succory,  lettuce,  and  dandelion  are  eaten.  The  Labiatae, 
or  mints,  are  much  cultivated,  and  the  Solonaceae  are  represented  by  the  potato, 
tobacco,  stramonium,  and  several  kinds  of  capsicum.  They  have  many  beauti- 
ful varieties  of  Lp07}iea,  as  /.  quamoclit,  and  /.  maritima.  Convohnilus  reptans  is 
often  planted  round  pools.     The  order  of  ApocynecB  boasts  the  oleander  and 


128  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Plumeria,  while  the  yellow  milkweed  and  the  Vinca  rosea  are  less  conspicuous. 
Jessamine  is  a  great  favorite.  Gorgeous  azaleas  flourish  in  Chusan  and  near 
Ningpo. 

Dr.  Williams  gives  a  restitne  of  their  great  work  on  J7iateria  medica,  the 
Pun  tsau  or  Herbal,  by  Li  Shichin,  in  forty-two  volumes,  8vo,  but  we  can  only 
refer  the  curious  reader  to  his  pages. ^ 

TEA. 

Tired  of  this  dry  catalogue,  let  us  turn  to  a  more  practical  theme,  an  account 
of  the  tea  of  China,  as  set  forth  by  the  same  author,  on  the  authority  of  a 
Chinese  manuscript  written  by  one  of  the  native  dealers  in  the  article.^ 

Name.  The  English  tea  was  doubtless  meant  to  be  pronounced  like  the 
French  the,  in  accordance  with  the  Fuhkien  pronunciation  of  the  word.  The 
Turks  and  Arabs  call  it  tshy,  and  other  nations  cha,  or  some  modification  of 
that  sound. 

Original  Source.  The  Periplus  of  Arrian  mentions  a  wild  people  called 
Sesatae,  who  carry  great  burdens  in  mats  which  look  like  vine  branches.  The 
Sinnae,  then  drawing  out  the  stalks  and  fibers,  nicely  double  the  leaves, 
roll  them  into  a  circular  form,  and  thrust  into  them  the  fibers  of  the  reeds. 
Thus  three  kinds  of  malabathrum  are  formed  —  hadrosphaerum  from  the  larger 
leaf,  mesosphserum  from  the  middling  one,  and  microsph^rum  from  the 
smaller.  This  seems  to  describe  tea,  and,  if  so,  the  native  country  of  the  plant 
is  the  mountainous  region  of  Assam  and  Yunnan,  where  it  has  recently  been 
found  growing  wild,  and  the  Chinese  traded  with  the  wild  SesatEe  for  it,  before 
cultivating  it  themselves.^ 

Date  of  Origin.  Its  existence  in  China  cannot  be  traced  back  further  than 
about  A.  D.  350.  It  was  generally  known  in  A.  D.  800,  when  it  was  called  /«.* 
Chinese  accounts  place  its  introduction  in  A.  D.  315,  and  add  that  it  did  not 
come  into  general  use  till  the  Tang  dynasty,  which  reigned  from  A.  D.  618  till 
A.  D.  907,  when  it  is  also  mentioned  by  two  Arab  travelers.^  There  is  good 
reason  to  conclude  that  the  ancient  Chinese  used  tea  under  thename /'«  or  ^/«. 

Where  Grown.  Tea  grows  in  almost  every  part  of  the  provinces  of  China, 
in  Corea,  Japan,  Formosa,  Annam,  and  adjacent  regions.  The  plantations  in 
the  Piling  hills,  a  few  miles  north  of  Fuhchau,  are  of  recent  growth,  having 
been  commenced  since  that  port  became  open  to  foreign  commerce.^  It  grows 
best  in  a  rich  sandy  soil,  and  the  sides  of  hills,  with  a  good  exposure  and 
plenty  of  water,  yield  the  best  leaves.  The  most  of  the  tea  exported  is  grown 
in  Fuhkien,  Chehkiang,  and  Kiangsu,  between  the  parallels  of  25°  and  35° 
north.  Its  cultivation  has  extended  with  the  increased  demand  to  the  western 
parts  of  Kwangtung,  and  districts  in  Kwangsi.  Russia  is  supplied  from 
Sz'chuen  and  that  vicinity,  and  Burmah  partly  from  Yunnan.'' 

'^Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  pp.  276-290.  =  Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  127-137.  ^Do.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  421-422. 

4£)o.,  p.  127.  ^Do.,  p.  422.  ''Doolittle's  Social  Life,  etc.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  46-47. 

'>  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  p.  128. 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


T29 


Cultivatio7i.  It  is  raised  mostly  by  small  farmers,  who  cultivate  a  few  score 
of  the  shrubs  on  their  own  land.  There  are  few  large  tea  plantations.  The 
seeds  are  planted  in  beds,  and  when  the  plants  are  a  foot  high  they  are  trans- 
planted into  rows  four  feet  apart.  There  they  are  kept  down  from  three  to  six 
feet  high,  though  the  wild  plant  in  Assam  reaches  the  height  of  thirty  feet ;  and 
usually  they  present  a  dense  mass  of  foliage  growing  on  a  multitude  of  small 
twigs.  The  leaves  are  picked  when  the  plant  is  only  three  years  old ;  but  it 
does  not  attain  full  size  before  six  or  seven  years,  and  lives  from  fifteen  to 
twenty,  being  gradually  killed  by  the  frequent  picking  of  the  leaves. 

Three  crops  of  leaves  are  gathered  annually  :  one  about  the  middle  of 
April,  when  the  leaf  buds  begin  to  open  and  are  still  covered  with  a  whitish 
down  ;  these  yield  the  finest  tea  ;  but  no  tea  can  be  made  from  the  thin, 
scentless  petals  of  the  blossom.  The  second  harvest  is  in  the  beginning  of 
May,  when  the  leaves  are  of  full  size.  The  weather  has  great  influence  on 
their  quality  and  quantity.  At  this  time  the  whole  population,  men,  women, 
and  children,  are  busy,  picking  the  leaves  into  baskets  and  taking  them  to  the 
curing-houses.  An  average  pick  is  thirteen  pounds  a  day,  for  which  the  wages 
are  about  six  cents  ;  so  that,  even  though  the  plant  would  grow  in  the  United 
States,  we  could  never  compete  with  the  cheap  labor  of  China.  A  third  crop 
is  gathered  in  the  middle  of  July,  and  also  a  gleaning  in  August,  but  these  are 
mostly  used  by  the  poor  at  home.  A  pound  of  green  leaves  weighs  three  or 
foyr  ounces  when  dried. ^ 

The  camellia  and  the  tea  plant  have  the  same  name  in  Chinese.  Botanists 
call  it  Thea,  and  it  is  still  disputed  whether  the  different  sorts  are  distinct 
species  or  mere  varieties.  Perhaps  cultivation  in  different  soils  and  climates 
has  produced  the  changes  that  now  distinguish  the  plant  in  different  localities. 
DeCandolle  makes  three  species  —  bohea,  viridis  and  cochin  sinensis.  Mr.  For- 
tune found  Thea  Viridis  in  Fuhkien  and  Kiangsu,  and  Thea  Bohea  in  Canton  ; 
and  that  green  and  black  teas  were  made  from  either,  the  difference  in  color 
depending  on  the  mode  of  preparation.  Green  tea  can  be  changed  into  black 
by  the  application  of  greater  heat,  but  not  vice  versa. 

The  native  names  of  teas  are  significant.  Bohea  means  from  the  Bu-i  hills^ 
and  is  not  the  name  of  any  one  kind,  for  several  kinds  grow 'there;  though  the 
name  is  given  at  Canton  to  a  poor  kind  of  black  tea.  Sunglo  is  tea  grown  on 
the  hills  in  Kiangsu.  Among  black  teas,  Pecco^  or  "  white  hairs,"  so  named 
from  the  whitish  down  of  the  young  leaves,  is  one  of  the  best.  Orange  Pecco, 
called  Shanghiang,  or  "most  fragrant,"  differs  from  it  slightly.  Hung  muey, 
meaning  "  red  plum  blossoms,"  is  named  from  its  red  tinge.  "  Prince's  eye- 
brows," "Carnation  hair,"  "Sparrow's  tongue,"  "Dragon's  pellet,"  and 
"  Dragon's  whiskers,"  are  translations  of  other  names.  Souchong  means  "  little 
plant,"  Pouchong,  "  carefully  packed,"  Campoi,  "  carefully  fired."  Chulan  is 
scented  with  the  flower  of  that  name.  Gunpowder,  in  Chinese  Machu,  is 
"hemp  pearl."  Tachu,  "great  pearl,"  and  Chulan,  "pearl  flower,"  are  two 
kinds  of  Imperial.  Yu  tsien  means  before  "  the  rains,"  denoting  young,  tender 
leaves ;  it  is  also  called  Hichun,  "  flourishing  spring."     Twankcy  is  the  name 

1  Dooliule's  Social  Life,  etc.,  Vol.  I,  p.  4«.  '  Pekoe. 


T30  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

of  a  stream  in  Chehkiang.     Oolong,  "black  dragon,"  is  a  black  tea  with  the 
flavor  of  green,  brought  from  a  place  so  named. 

The  leaf  is  dark  green,  of  an  oblong  oval  form,  and  the  flowers  are  white, 
single  and  inodorous.  The  seeds  are  like  hazel-nuts  in  size  and  color.  One 
husk  contains  three.  They  yield  an  acrid  and  bitter  oil.  The  annual  produce 
of  a  large  plant  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  ounces  of  dried  leaves,  but  the 
common  average  is  not  over  six;  and  one  thousand  square  yards  contain  from 
three  hundred  to  four  hundred  plants.  There  is  so  much  difference  in  the 
flavor  of  plants  raised  in  adjoining  localities,  that  rich  Chinese  tea-drinkers  are 
as  particular  to  know  the  place  they  came  from  as  German  wine-drinkers  to 
know  the  name  of  the  vineyard  that  produces  their  supplies.  They  sometimes 
pay  $15,  or  even  $100  per  pound,  for  choice  kinds. 

Mode  of  Curing.  The  quality  depends  as  much  on  this  as  on  the  soil  or  the 
age  of  the  leaf.  The  flavor  of  some  sorts  is  quite  changed  during  the  process 
of  drying.  The  leaves  are  first  sorted,  and  the  useless  ones  thrown  away  ;  then 
they  are  spread  thinly  on  bamboo  trays,  and  dried  in  the  wind  until  they  grow 
soft.  They  are  now  rolled  and  rubbed  till  red  spots  appear  ;  from  the  labor  of 
this  process  it  is  called  Kiingfu,  or  worked  tea,  hence  the  name  Congo.  This 
process  is  omitted  in  some  of  the  cheaper  sorts.  They  are  now  sprinkled  on  a 
heated  iron  pan,  till  each  leaf  pops,  and  they  are  brushed  off  before  they 
become  charred.  One  man  turns  and  stirs  them,  while  another  tends  the  fire. 
The  heat  forces  out  the  oil,  and  the  leaves,  cracked  and  softened,  are  rolled  on 
tables  made  of  split  bamboo,  with  the  round  side  upward,  to  drive  out  the  oily 
green  juice.  They  are  now  shaken  out  loosely  on  basket  trays,  and  dried 
gently  in  the  air.  After  this,  they  are  thrown  in  larger  quantities  into  the  pans 
a  second  time,  and  subjected  to  a  lower  heat,  being  stirred  the  while,  that  all 
may  dry  alike,  and  none  be  scorched.  This  makes  them  curl  more  closely, 
and  as  they  grow  hotter,  they  are  stirred  and  tossed  up  till  completely  dry. 
This  usually  takes  an  hour.  Sometimes  they  are  placed  over  a  covered  fire  of 
charcoal,  and  dried  there  for  two  or  three  hours,  which  makes  the  leaves  darker 
than  when  rapidly  dried  in  pans ;  or,  instead  of  being  returned  to  the  pans  the 
second  time,  they  are  scattered  on  a  fine  sieve  held  over  the  fire,  and  slowly 
turned  over  till  thoroughly  dry.  Then  the  fine  and  coarse  leaves  are  separated 
by  a  larger  sieve.  This  mode  of  drying  leaves  them  with  a  greenish  hue,  but 
the  common  black  sorts  are  sometimes  left  in  the  sun  after  firing  for  a  longer 
time,  till  partial  decomposition  sets  in.  When  intended  for  exportation,  a 
longer  rolling  and  stirring  in  the  pans  is  required,  to  prevent  them  becoming 
mouldy  on  the  voyage,  than  when  they  are  to  be  used  at  home.  The  delicate 
flavor  of  Pecco  and  other  fine  kinds  would  be  spoiled  on  the  hot  pans  ;  so 
they  are  dried  in  baskets,  after  careful  rolling.  The  round  pellets  of  Gun- 
powder tea  are  rolled  up  singly  while  yet  clamp.  When  over  the  fire  for  the 
last  drying,  tuberoses,  jessamines,  olea,  aglair,  and  other  fresh  ilowers  are 
placed  on  a  basket  beneath,  and  the  tea  stirred  in  another  basket  over  them, 
so  as  to  impart  to  it  an  aromatic  flavor.  The  tea  must  be  packed  immediately 
to  preserve  it.     Only  the  finer  kinds  are  thus  treated.     Green  tea  is  cured 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


131 


more  rapidly  over  the  fire  than  black,  but  throwing  the  leaves  into  red-hot  pans 
and  then  exposing  them  to  the  sun,  and  drying  them  over  a  slow  covered  fire 
makes  them  black.  It  must  be  expected,  however,  that  when  so  many  men, 
over  so  wide  an  extent  of  country,  perform  this  w^ork  of  curing,  there  will  be 
considerable  variation  in  the  process. 

Packing.  The  finer  sorts  are  enclosed  in  canisters  or  small  paper  packa^-es, 
and  packed  in  boxes  lined  with  lead ;  but  the  common  kinds  are  packed 
simply  in  tubs  and  boxes.  At  Canton  the  tea  has  often  to  be  repacked.  In 
such  cases  it  is  fired  again — for  so  they  style  the  process  of  drying  it  over  the 
fire  —  and  put  up  in  chests  such  as  go  abroad ;  but  much  of  it  reaches  the 
interior  of  America  or  New  South  Wales  in  the  original  packages  that  started 
from  the  interior  of  China.  The  making  of  the  chests,  lining  them  with  lead,  and 
conveying  them  to  the  ship,  furnishes  employment  for  thousands  of  carpenters, 
painters,  plumbers,  printers,  boatmen,  and  porters,  besides  those  who  roll,  sort, 
and  cure  the  tea.  It  is  a  wonder  that,  after  so  much  labor  bestowed  on  it, 
some  of  the  cheaper  sorts  are  sold  to  the  foreign  merchant  at  Canton,  more 
than  one  thousand  miles  from  the  place  where  it  grew,  for  eighteen  cents  a 
pound. 

There  is  comparatively  little  adulteration.  In  selecting  teas,  the  color, 
clearness,  taste,  and  strength  of  the  infusion  are  the  principal  criteria.  Some 
have  thought  that  the  peculiar  effect  of  green  tea  on  the  nerves,  and  its  taste, 
were  owing  to  its  .being  cured  on  copper  ;  but  copper  is  never  used,  and  can- 
not contract  verdigris  over  the  fire,  even  if  it  were.  The  cause  is  more  likely 
the  larger  amount  of  oil  left  in  it,  but  it  may  be  due  more  to  an  artificial  color- 
ing used  to  give  uniformity  of  color  to  different  lots.  Tea  is  made  yellow  by 
being  sprinkled  in  the  pans  with  turmeric,  and  then  with  a  mixture  of  gypsum 
and  indigo,  or  Prussian  blue,  to  impart  a  bluish  tinge. 

Use  among  the  Chinese.  Mr.  Doolittle  says^  that  the  common  beverage  of 
the  Chinese  is  a  weak  decoction  of  black  tea.  It  is  said  they  do  not  use  green 
tea.  The  poorest  of  the  poor  must  have  their  tea,  looking  on  it  as  a  necessity. 
Neither  they  nor  the  Japanese,  says  Dr.  Williams,  ever  use  milk  or  sugar,  but 
always  take  it  clear,  and,  if  convenient,  as  hot  as  they  can  drink  it.  They 
pour  boiling  water  over  it  and  let  it  stand  covered  a  few  minutes.  One  would 
be  deemed  inhospitable  if  he  did  not  offer  a  caller  some  hot  tea  as  soon  as 
possible  after  his  coming;  so  that  tea  with  the  Chinese  takes  the  place  of 
coffee  among  the  people  of  western  Asia.  The  Mongols  press  the  tea  into  the 
shape  of  bricks,  and  so  carry  it  W'ith  them  in  their  wanderings.  In  Thibet, 
I^arley  meal  is  stirred  into  tea  before  it  is  drank,  making  a  thin  gruel.  The 
people  there  also  use  a  strange  mixture  of  water,  flour,  butter,  and  salt,  boiled 
with  the  tea.^ 

Dr.  Williams  says  that  the  general  use  of  tea  among  the  Chinese  is  not 
injurious,  and  the  idea  among  any  that  it  is  so,  is  caused  by  the  use  of  strong 
green  tea  ;  but  if  the  same  persons  will  adopt  a  weaker  infusion  of  black  tea, 
they  will  find  it  harmless."     The  opening  of  China  to  the  blessings  of  Christian 

'  Doolittle's  Social  Life,  etc.,  Vol.  I,  p.  46.      '-Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  p.  196.       '■'Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  137. 


132  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

civilization,  resulting  from  the  trade  in  this  article,  is  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing results  that  ever  flowed  from  commerce.' 

The  Flora  of  Japan  is  very  beautiful.  Mrs.  J.  D.  Davis  thus  describes  it :  ^ 
*'  Four  days  we  rode  over  mountain  passes  and  through  valleys,  among  the 
most  lovely  scenery  I  ever  saw.  Now,  at  the  end  of  October,  when  the  maples, 
sumachs,  and  many  other  trees  are  changing  their  color,  the  mountains  are  one 
continual  picture.  I  have  heard  much  of  New  England  scenery  in  autumn, 
but  I  think  the  colors  on  these  hills  surpass  it  in  the  proportion  of  evergreens, 
the  rich  dark  background  of  the  cedars  and  pines  setting  off  the  rich  varieties 
of  red  and  yellow  in  these  other  trees.  In  the  morning,  the  hills  seemed  a 
perfect  flower  garden,  and  for  four  days  our  eyes  were  almost  satiated  with  the 
diversities  of  color.  It  crowned  the  beauty  of  the  scene  when,  in  some  places, 
we  caught  glimpses  of  the  snow  of  the  higher  peaks  above  and  beyond  these 
glowing  hills. 

"I  enjoyed  the  valleys  also.  This  month  (September)  was  the  rice  harvest, 
and  the  country  was  golden  with  the  ripening  grain.  On  the  lower  levels  the 
women  were  cutting  it  and  setting  up  the  bundles  to  dry ;  still  further  down 
they  were  threshing  it,  drawing  the  stalks  through  something  like  a  coarse  comb, 
which  strips  off  the  kernels.  Then,  at  almost  every  farm-house  were  great 
undershot  and  overshot  water-wheels  for  working  the  heavy  rice-stampers  to 
crack  the  outer  husk  of  the  rice.  Up  in  the  colder  regions  was  less  rice, 
but  everywhere  millet,  and  beans  of  all  varieties,  which  form  a  large  part  of 
the  food  of  the  people.  The  beans  were  either  growing  or  cut  down  and  dry- 
ing in  the  fields,  or  shelled  and  drying  on  mats,  on  both  sides  of  the  road  in 
the  villages,  and  in  front  of  the  farm-houses." 

Among  the  trees  of  Borneo  are  iron-wood,  cocoanut,  and  the  tallow  tree, 
which  bears  a  nut  that  yields  very  good  tallow,  used  both  in  cooking  and  for 
light.  The  sugar  palm,  Sagiienas  Saccharifer,  called  also  Arejig,  yields  very 
good  sugar,  and  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees  flourish.  Rice  is  a  staple  production. 
Paddy  is  the  name  of  the  growing  rice  plant.  Munson  and  Lyman  found  the 
plantain,  the  pine-apple,  rose-apple,  shaddock,  lime,  durian  and  betel  palm 
among  the  fruits  of  Sumatra.  Oranges  grow  on  the  main  land,  but  not  on 
the  island  of  Nyas.  Potatoes  and  sago  are  cultivated  extensively.  The  sago 
groves  in  the  marshes  are  so  dense  as  to  make  it  dark  at  noon,  and  the  air  is 
like  that  in  a  cellar.  Sago  and  cocoanut  milk  form  the  principal  food  of  the 
Nyas,  and  making  cocoanut  oil  is  their  principal  business,  twelve  or  fourteen 
nuts  yielding  a  quart  of  oil,  worth  twenty  cents.  Rice  is  of  the  upland  species, 
and  is  planted  twelve  inches  apart,  in  May  or  June,  and  harvested  four  months 
later,  yielding  from  forty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty-fold.  The  best  yield  is  one 
ton  to  the  acre.  Sugar  cane  flourishes,  but  from  it  the  Nyas  make  molasses 
only.  Sweet  potatoes  are  plenty,  but  only  enough  of  coffee  is  raised  for  home 
consumption. 

In  the  spice  plantations  at  Bencoolen,  they  found  the  nutmeg  tree  resembled 

'  See  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  126-137  ;  and  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  46-50. 
^  Life  and  Light,  18S1,  p.  46. 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


^33 


the  apple  tree  at  home,  but  with  horizontal  branches,  and  a  more  acuminated 
top.  The  male  tree  yields  only  flowers.  On  the  female,  flowers  and  fruit  in 
all  stages  of  growth  were  found  at  the  same  time.  The  fruit  is  like  the  peach, 
and  when  ripe  bursts  open  and  exposes  the  nutmeg,  partially  covered  with  red 
mace.  An  acre  yields  about  two  hundred  and  sixty-six  pounds.  The  clove 
tree  is  most  elegant  in  form,  and  has  a  flower  of  most  exquisite  fragrance.  It 
yields  three  hundred  and  twenty-eight  pounds  per  acre.  Both  trees  were  intro- 
duced by  BrofT,  in  1798. 

Rev.  L.  Grout,  in  his  Zulu-Land,  gives  much  information  concerning  the 
Flora  of  that  region ;  and  as  it  lies  on  the  borders  of  the  tropics,  and  rises  to 
the  height  of  six  thousand  feet,  it  is  rich  and  varied  in  its  botany.  The  trees 
are  seldom  very  large,  and  do  not  grow  in  what  we  call  forests,  but  are 
scattered  and  small,  with  occasionally  a  tree  of  commanding  size.  Among 
trees  noted  for  their  wood  are  the  yellow-wood  {Taxus  elongata  —  a  species  of 
yew),  the  iron-wood,  and  a  laurel  {Laurus  bullata) — the  trunk  of  which  is 
sometimes  four  feet  in  diameter  and  eighty  feet  in  height,  and  gives  off  an 
irritating  dust  when  wrought ;  the  mangrove  grows  along  the  shores  and  fur- 
nishes a  durable  wood  for  building.  There  is  also  lance-wood,  of  which  asse- 
gais are  made  ;  milk-wood,  good  for  axles ;  the  tamboti,  used  for  gun-stocks, 
and  the  red-ivory  wood,  or  African  mahogany.  The  wood  of  some  is  hard,  and 
of  others  soft ;  of  these  tough,  and  of  those  brittle  ;  yet  the  leaves  of  most  are 
evergreen,  and  many  have  beautiful  blossoms,  as,  for  example,  the  Syringa. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  mimosas  ;  but  v/oe  to  the  garments  that  come  too 
near  the  branches  of  the  spring  mimosa,  or  thorn  tree. 

Of  fruit  trees,  the  banana  is  indigenous.  Its  fruit  used  to  be  called  the 
king's  food,  because  the  chiefs  made  it  a  capital  offense  for  any  to  taste  it 
without  leave.  The  tree  grows  twenty  feet  high,  with  leaves  two  feet  broad 
and  eight  or  nine  in  length,  with  panicles  of  fruit  weighing  thirty  or  forty 
pounds.  There  are  several  species  of  fig  trees.  Sometimes  the  seed  of  the 
Ficus  Africana  is  dropped  by  a  bird  in  the  cleft  of  a  species  of  Erythrina,  and 
the  roots,  reaching  down  to  the  ground,  gradually  enclose,  and  finally  strangle, 
the  original  tree ;  though  while  it  lives,  the  dark  green  foliage  of  the  fig  affords 
a  fine  contrast  to  the  scarlet  flowers  of  its  victim.  Orange  and  lemon  trees  are 
common.  Pomegranates  flourish,  but  apples  do  not  thrive  near  the  coast. 
Pine-apples  abound. 

The  tall,  stiff,  succulent-stemmed  Euphorbias  attract  the  notice  of  strangers, 
shooting  up  forty  or  fifty  feet  into  the  air.  They  yield  an  acrid,  milky  juice, 
yet  the  central  pith  is  edible.  The  castor  oil  plant  {Ricinus)  grows  in  old 
kraals  that  have  been  forsaken.  In  September  and  October,  the  south 
African  spring,  the  fields  are  covered  with  flowers  of  all  colors.  The  lilies  are 
well  represented,  so  are  the  Amaryllidce  and  the  iris  family.  The  aloe  projects 
its  orange  flowers  above  its  leafy  chevaux-de-frise.  There  are  three  species  of 
Cyrtanthus  of  surpassing  beauty.  One  Amaryllis  has  a  large,  almost  spherical 
bunch  of  scarlet,  fringed  with  white  stamens  ;  another  {Hemanthus)  looks  like 
a  huge  sunflower,  only  formed  of  a  multitude  of  blossoms  on  stalks,  surrounded 
by  an  involucre.     The  Natal  lily  {Amaryllis  Belladonna)  is  indeed  the  "  beauti- 


134  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

fu]  lady  "  of  the  bulbous  tribes,  and  south  Africa  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
AmarylUdie.  From  one  Hemanthus  the  natives  used  to  get  the  poison  for  their 
arrows.  The  gladioli  family  are  variegated  and  conspicuous,  but  the  pride  of 
the  Irids  in  Zulu-Land  are  the  Ixia^  unequalled  for  grace  and  elegance,  like 
pendulous  wood  grasses  bearing  fiowers.  One  species  on  Table  Mountain  is 
three  feet  in  height.  There  are  many  species  of  this  flat-flowered  sedge.  One 
exogenous  flower  has  a  large  petunia-like  white  blossom,  which  covers  itself 
with  black  lines  and  patches  as  it  withers,  till  it  merits  the  name  of  "  Ink 
plant." 

The  male  fern  (Lastrca  athamantica)  abounds,  and  is  among  the  Zulus  a 
remedy  for  the  tape  worm.  There  is  also  a  splendid  climbing  fern,  with  a  stem 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  hugging  the  bark  of  trees  to  the  height  of  forty  feet, 
throwing  out  at  intervals  of  a  foot  a  glossy  frond,  unequally  pinnate,  five  feet 
in  length,  and  with  twenty  or  more  pairs  of  smooth  lanceolate  leaflets  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  long.  Here,  too,  grows  the  beautiful  tree  fern,  Cyathea 
Arborea,  with  stem  ten  inches  through  and  ten  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  a 
tuft  of  thirty  similar  fronds  six  or  seven  feet  in  length.  The  fan  palm  grows 
along  the  coast,  producing  the  so-called  vegetable  ivory.  Mr.  Grout  gives  a 
curious  description  of  the  Strelitzia  Alba,  too  long  for  quotation.^  He  also 
describes  the  wild  date  and  the  wild  olive. 

Harvey  estimated  the  south  African  species  of  plants,  in  1838,  at  one  thou- 
sand eight3'-six  genera,  and  eight  thousand  five  hundred  species.  Now  it  will 
not  fall  short,  probably,  of  eighteen  thousand  species.  The  predominating 
family  is  the  compositcc,  constituting  one  sixth  of  the  whole,  or  one  hundred  and 
eighty-two  genera  and  one  thousand  five  hundred  and  ninety-three  species, 
many  of  the  former  and  most  of  the  latter  peculiar  to  that  land.  Next  to 
them  comes  the  LegumincE,  comprising  nearly  six  hundred  species,  two  thirds 
of  them  in  the  western  provinces.  Indigofera,  Psoralea,  and  Aspalathus  are 
its  prominent  genera.  The  third  great  family  is  the  Gramineae,  embracing 
ninety-five  genera  and  three  hundred  and  fifty-nine  species,  only  six  of  the 
genera  peculiar  to  south  Africa. 

Certain  plants,  however,  quite  limited  in  their  area  of  dispersion,  give  dis- 
tinctive physiognomical  features  to  the  country.  The  chief  of  these  are  the 
ProteacecB,  named  from  the  diversity  of  their  genera,  which  are  eleven,  with 
two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  species.  Their  favorite  habitats  are  dry,  stony 
mountain  slopes,  or  sandy  regions.  After  them  come  the  heaths,  amounting 
to  four  hundred  and  ten  species,  which  reach  their  limit  at  Natal.  Not  less 
characteristic  are  Mesembryace(P.  and  the  genus  Stapclici,  and  in  addition  the 
Buchu  family,  or  Diosmecc,  the  sorrel  tribe  and  the  rope  grasses. 

Advancing  toward  Natal,  Protcacece,  Ericas,  and  Restiacece.  become  rarer, 
and  make  room  for  families  which  merge  into  its  sub-tropical  Flora,  Every- 
where the  gigantic  Euphorbia  canariensis  is  seen,  with  thorny  acacias,  the  speck- 
boom  {Portulacaria  afra),  and  a  profusion  of  fleshy  plants.  These,  with  the 
Strelitzia  regi?ta  -Andjuncca,  the  Tecoma  capaisis,  the  elephant's  foot,  and  the  palm- 
like Lycadec?.,  or  Kafir  bread-fruit  trees,  give  character  to  vegetation.     Besides 


NATURAL    SCIENCE.  135 

grasses  and  composita;,  the  most  prominent  orders  are  Malvaceae,  Capparidcae, 
Celasirineae,  Sarindaceae,  Acanthaceae,  Euphorbiaceae,  and  Amaryllideae,  advanc- 
ing into  the  still  more  tropical  types  of  Rhizophoreae,  Anotiaceac,  Sienu/iaceae^ 
Malphigiaceae,  Connaraccae  and  Palms. ^ 

■  Missionaries  have  not  given  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  zoology,  yet  it  has 
by  no  means  been  neglected.  As  far  back  as  1824,  Rev.  J.  C.  Brigham  gives 
this  information  concerning  the  wild  cattle  and  horses  of  the  pampas  of 
Buenos  Ayres.^ 

The  cattle  farms  are  very  large,  some  persons  keeping  as  many  as  fifteen 
or  twenty  thousand  head  of  cattle.  A  large  corral,  or  yard,  enclosed  by  poles 
inserted  perpendicularly  in  the  ground,  is  formed  near  the  house.  At  night 
each  one  of  the  peons,  who  usually  number  from  eight  to  twelve,  places  his 
horse  in  the  corral,  ready  for  use  the  next  morning,  and  at  dawn  they  ride  off 
among  the  herd,  and  bring  a  portion  of  it  to  be  counted,  and  marked,  if  neces- 
sary. They  seem  to  know  every  animal  of  their  charge,  and  speak  of  hundreds 
of  them  in  the  course  of  an  evening,  calling  each  by  name.  They  know  a  horse 
also,  by  his  gallop,  at  a  great  distance.  Sometimes  the  horses,  in  the  exuber- 
ance of  their  spirits,  ran  for  leagues  by  the  side  of  the  coaches,  prancing  and 
snorting,  with  mane  and  tail  erect;  and  several  times  even  cattle  and  sheep, 
deer  and  ostriches,  joined  in  the  race,  though  the  bird  outstripped  them  all. 

The  best  of  the  horses  are  left  ungelded,  and  each  becomes  leader  of  a 
small  tribe  that  follows  him  alone.  Sometimes  a  bloody  battle  occurs  between 
two  of  these  leaders.  During  the  fight  their  respective  followings  look  on,  but 
(do  not  interfere,  and  after  it  is  over  both  parties  follow  the  victor.  Now  and 
then  the  vanquished  leader  renews  the  conflict  with  such  desperation  as  to 
conquer  the  conqueror.  In  that  case,  the  whole  company  follow  him  as  they 
had  done  the  other,  and  he  is  responsible  for  their  defense  from  tigers  and 
wolves. 

When  a  bull  becomes  old  he  follows  the  herd  for  a  time,  at  a  humble  dis- 
tance ;  and  when  he  becomes  too  infirm  to  do  even  that,  he  takes  up  his  abode 
near  a  spring  of  water,  and  spends  his  last  days  in  solitude,  sometimes  living 
thus  till  gray,  and  even  white,  with  age.  The  venados,  or  deer,  are  seen  in 
almost  every  estancia,  in  flocks  of  fifty  or  one  hundred,  very  little  shyer  than 
the  cattle  ;  for,  though  they  might  readily  be  killed  in  great  numbers,  cattle  are 
so  plenty  that  deer  are  seldom  disturbed.  The  avestruz,  or  ostrich,  is  quite 
common,  and  sometimes  is  domesticated.  Its  extreme  length  is  five  feet  ten 
inches  ;  length  from  tip  of  one  wing  to  the  tip  of  the  other,  when  extended,  five 
feet  four  inches  ;  length  of  its  legs,  two  feet  nine  inches.  Its  color  is  dark 
gray,  and  its  plumage  not  so  handsome  as  its  African  compeer.  Its  eggs  form 
a  pleasant  article  of  food.  There  are  two  kinds  of  partridges,  one  of  which  is 
often  tamed.  Wild  ducks  are  abundant,  but  the  variety  of  wild  birds  is  not 
great.  Mr.  Brigham  speaks  of  three  kinds  of  parrots ;  one  of  them  a  small 
green  species,  easily  domesticated,  but  seldom  living  more  than  three  years, 
while  the  others  live  almost  as  long  as  men. 

In  1833,  Rev.  T.  Coan  described  the  animals  of  Patagonia.''     The  principal 

^Zulu-Land,  pp.  270-2S8.  -Missionary  Herald,  1S26,  p.  ^6.  ^Missionary  Herald,  1834,  p.  380. 


136  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

one  is  the  guanaco,  a  species  of  llama,  larger  than  the  deer,  with  long  legs  and 
neck.  It  has  cloven  feet,  and  a  hump  like  the  camel.  Its  color  is  a  pale  red 
or  sorrel,  and  white.  Its  head  and  ears  resemble  those  of  the  horse,  and  it 
neighs  like  a  colt ;  but,  unlike  these,  it  wears  a  fleece  of  long,  fine  wool,  inter- 
spersed with  longer  hairs.  Generally  slow  in  its  movements,  when  hunted  it  is 
very  fleet,  and  hardly  seems  to  touch  the  ground.  Its  flesh  is  excellent,  and,  if 
domesticated,  the  animal  might  prove  as  useful  as  the  ox  and  cow.  It  is 
generally  taken  by  means  of  the  bolas.  This  consists  of  three  balls  covered 
w'ith  hide  and  attached  to  leather  thongs  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  which  are 
fastened  together.  One  ball  is  held  in  the  hand,  and  the  others  whirled  round 
the  head  till  sufficient  momentum  is  gained.  When  thrown  at  the  legs  of  the 
guanaco,  it  winds  around  them  and  entangles  it  till  the  hunter  comes  up  and 
despatches  it  with  his  knife.  The  ostrich  is  found  here  as  well  as  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Mr.  Coan  speaks  of  one  of  its  eggs  as  fourteen  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  tasting  very  much  like  those  of  the  hen.  Lions  are  also  found  here, 
and  the  Indians  use  their  flesh  for  food  when  they  can  get  it. 

One  chapter  of  Rev.  S.  Parker's  Tour  Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains'^  is 
devoted  to  zoology.  He  mentions  the  elk,  the  moose,  three  species  of  deer, 
the  antelope,  the  beaver,  land  and  sea-otter,  hairy  seal,  Rocky  Mountain  sheep 
and  goats,  the  panther,  tiger-cat,  wild-cat,  and  lynx  \  five  species  of  wolves, 
four  of  bears,  the  buffalo,  and  many  smaller  animals.  In  the  next  chapter, 
among  fish  he  describes  the  salmon,  sturgeon,  anchovy,  and  trout.  The  rock 
cod  made  its  first  appearance  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  while  he  was 
there.  Among  birds,  he  enumerates  the  white-headed,  and  golden  eagle,  three 
or  four  kinds  of  hawk,  two  species  of  jay,  the  magpie,  ravens,  and  crows;  two 
or  three  species  of  grouse,  and  a  species  of  water  ousel,  which  stays  under 
water  at  least  two  minutes,  moving  on  the  bottom  with  as  much  seeming  ease 
as  on  dry  land.  The  red-winged  blackbird  and  robin  remain  through  the  year; 
swans,  geese,  and  ducks  abound  in  autumn.  Black  cormorants,  and  other  birds 
of  that  genus,  are  common  on  the  Columbia,  among  them  one  splendid  species 
of  a  violet-green  color ;  with  gulls,  loons,  terns,  auks,  and  petrels.  Eleven  species 
of  warblers,  six  of  them  new,  add  to  the  charms  of  spring.  Six  species  of 
wrens,  three  of  titmice,  and  two  of  nut-hatches,  are  mentioned.  Of  seven 
species  of  thrush,  two  are  new  ;  of  eight  fly-catchers,  three  arc  new ;  and  of 
thirteen  finches,  three  are  an  addition  to  our  ornithology.  Four  new  species  of 
wood-peckers  occur  out  of  eight,  and  one  new  swallow  out  of  five.  He  also 
mentions  a  large  new  bulfinch,  and  describes  the  splendid  Nookta  humming- 
bird. 

The  only  quadrupeds  originally  found  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  were  hogs 
and  dogs,  a  small  lizard,  and  an  animal  between  a  mouse  and  a  rat.  As  early 
as  1823,  cattle  and  goats  had  been  introduced  from  America,  and  a  few  horses 
and  sheep.  Women  were  not  allowed  to  eat  the  flesh  of  swine,  but  in  1824 
some  missionaries  on  a  visit  to  Kau  noticed  an  illustration  of  natural  history 
not  usually  found  in  books.  A  good-sized  pig  formed  part  of  the  social  circle 
round  the  hearth  of  their  host.     At  supper  he  held  up  his  snout  and  icceived 

'pp.   19S-21  r. 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


137 


his  portion  from  the  sisters  of  the  master  of  the  house.  After  the  meal,  he 
drank  the  water  in  which  they  washed  their  hands  ;  and  when,  at  bed-time,  the 
young  ladies  lay  down  on  their  mats  in  the  same  clothes  that  they  had  worn 
through  the  day,  his  pigship  waited  till  they  were  in  place,  and  then  very  quietly 
stretched  himself  between  them.  So  far  from  resenting  the  intrusion,  one  of 
them  pulled  the  coverlid  over  him  up  to  his  ears,  with  her  head  on  the  pillow 
by  the  side  of  his.  The  comical  picture  was  too  much  for  the  politeness  of  the 
missionaries,  who  laughed  aloud ;  though  it  did  not  speak  much  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  woman  at  that  early  day.^ 

Dr.  A.  A.  Gould,  in  his  volume  on  mollusca  and  shells,  in  connection  with 
the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  acknowledges  indebtedness  to  Mrs.  C. 
Richards  and  Henry  Dimond  for  rare  and  valuable  shells. 

Prof.  J.  D.  Dana,  in  his  volume  on  geology,  in  connection  with  the  same 
expedition,  makes  frequent  acknowledgments  to  missionaries  "  for  many  valu- 
able facts,"  especially  to  Rev.  T.  Coan.  He  quotes  repeatedly  from  him,  and 
also  from  Rev.  L.  Andrews,  Dr.  G.  P.  Judd,  Rev.  S.  Dibble,  and  others. 
Spending,  himself,  only  five  days  in  the  islands,  he  appreciated  the  aid  of 
educated  missionaries  long  resident  there,  and  familiar  with  their  natural  his- 
tory. He  relies  on  Rev.  S.  Parker's  Exploring  Tour  Beyond  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains for  his  account  of  the  geology  of  Oregon. 

Rev.  L.  H.  Gulick,  M.D.,  writes^  on  Ponape,  describing  its  geology  and 
meteorology,  its  botany  and  zoology.  He  recorded  many  species  of  plants, 
and  gathered  one  hundred  species  of  shells. 

Rev.  J.  T.  Gulick,  of  North  China,  wrote  ^  "  on  the  variation  of  species  as 
related  to  geographical  distribution,  illustrated  by  the  AchatinelliiicE.  types  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  Hellecidcs.  The  Helliderella  was  discovered  and  described 
by  him.'*  He  also  published  a  paper  ^  "  on  a  diversity  of  evolution  under  one 
set  of  external  conditions,"  and  another,  conjointly  with  E.  A.  Smith,^  describ- 
ing some  species  of  the  Achati?iellincB,  their  habitats  and  affinities,  with  an 
account  of  a  new  species,  named  by  naturalists,  in  honor  of  him,  Apex  Gulickii. 
One  of  these  papers  was  republished  in  Germany. 

Rev.  O.  H.  Gulick,  of  Japan,  has  also  contributed  to  the  American  your- 
na/ 0/ Science'' a.  pzper  on  the  volcanoes  of  Kilauea,  Sandwich  Islands.  Rev. 
H.  Bingham  noticed  a  remarkable  shower  of  meteorolites,^  and  sent  home 
several  specimens.  Rev.  J.  Goodrich  wrote  four  papers  for  the  same  journal.* 
Rev.  C.  S.  Stewart  wrote  two  articles^" — one  of  them  was  reprinted  in  the 
Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal ^^^  and  Rev.  T.  Coan  wrote  as  many  as  twenty 
papers  for  the  American  Journal  of  Scictice.  Dr.  E.  R.  Beadle,  of  Syria,  was  a 
zealous  naturalist,  and  sent  home  valuable  fossils  from  Mt.  Lebanon.  His  own 
cabinet  was  very  rich,  and  noted  for  the  beauty  of  many  of  its  shells  and 
minerals.     Dr.  A.  Smith,  of  Aintab,  wrote  a  number  of  essays  on  scientific  sub- 

^  Bingham's  Sandwich  Islands,  p.  208.  -  Aino-icajz  Journal  0/ Sciejice,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  34-49. 

'^Nature,  Vol.  VI,  p.  262,  seg.  *Do.,  p.  406.  ^  J ournal  of  Linmean  Society,  1872,  pp.  496-505. 

^  Proceedings  o/tJte  Zoological  Society  of  Londoti,  1873,  pp.  73-89. 

'Vol.  XXXVII,  p.  416,  seq.  *Do,,  Vol.  XLIX,  pp.  407-40S. 

»Vol.  XI,  pp.  1-36;  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  345-350;  Vol.  XX,  p.  228,  seg.;  and  Vol.  XXV,  pp.  199-203. 
"Do.,   Vol.  XI,  pp.  362-376,  and  Vol.  XX,  pp.  229-248.  '» (New)  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  45-60. 


138  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

jects,  several  of  them  for  the  journal  of  Science.  Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson,  of 
Eeirut,  wrote,  in  the  journal  of  the  A?ncrican  Oriental  Society^  on  traces  of 
glacial  action  on  Mt.  Lebanon. 

In  his  great  work  on  China,  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  its 
zoology.  Under  Qiiadrinnani  he  specifies  Siniia  nc7noeus^  and  adds  a  descrip- 
tion. The  Fi  Fi,  Sing  Sing,  and  Haituh  are  set  before  us.  Bats,  bears,  lynxes, 
wild-cats,  and  several  species  of  deer  pass  in  review.  To  the  common  domestic 
animals  China  adds  the  buffalo,  or  water-ox.  The  cat  they  call  the  family  fox. 
Game  animals  are  enumerated,  and  fishes,  among  them  the  gold-fish.  Chinese 
birds  are  described  ;  fly-catchers,  grackles,  thrushes,  and  goat-suckers.  Larks 
are  called  the  hundred-spirit  birds,  and  $25  are  often  paid  for  a.  good  singer. 
The  swallow,  also,  is  a  favorite.  Sparrows  and  crows  are  common.  One  crow 
is  blue.  There  are  several  species  of  robins.  The  red-billed  magpie  is  beauti- 
ful, so  are  the  jays.  The  Chinese  call  the  cuckoo  kuku.  A  kingfisher  is 
mentioned,  no  larger  than  a  sparrow.  One  kind  of  parrot  is  a  native  of  China. 
Gold  and  silver  pheasants  are  not  now  found  wild  unless  in  the  interior.  The 
Fhasiamcs  superbus  is  a  magnificent  bird.  The  argus  pheasant  takes  that  name 
from  the  eye-like  coloring  of  wings  and  tail.  Then  tJiere  is  the  peacock 
pheasant  and  the  medallion  pheasant,  and  the  peacock.  The  Gallinaceous  order, 
as  partridges,  quails,  francolins,  and  woodcocks,  are  plenty.  Doves  are  reared. 
Snipes  and  many  kinds  of  waders,  or  grallatores,  are  common ;  so  is  the  orto- 
lan. The  jacana  is  a  native  bird.  The  stork  is  made  an  emblem  of  longevity. 
Many  water-fowl  are  mentioned,  among  them  the  mandarin  duck. 

The  Chinese  have  several  fabulous  animals.  Among  them  they  describe  the 
phcenix  as  a  kind  of  pheasant.  To  the  dragon  they  assign  the  head  of  a  camel, 
horns  of  a  deer,  eyes  of  a  rabbit,  ears  of  a  cow,  neck  of  a  snake,  belly  of  a  frog, 
scales  of  a  carp,  claws  of  a  hawk,  and  palm  of  a  tiger.  Its  breath  becomes 
sometimes  water  and  sometimes  fire,  and  its  voice  is  like  the  jingling  of  copper 
pans,  which  the  Chinese  count  excellent  music. 

Speaking  of  insects,  he  says  the  character  for  bee  means,  the  awl  insect; 
for  the  ant,  the  righteous  insect ;  and  for  the  mosquito,  in  view  of  the  marking 
of  its  wings,  the  lettered  insect. - 

In  Borneo,  the  orang-outang  is  found.  The  people  turn  out  en  jjiasse  to 
hunt  wild  hogs  when  they  make  their  appearance,  nor  rest  till  they  get  them 
into  the  caldron,  quite  undisconcerted  by  their  strong  odor.  They  eat  all 
kinds  of  reptiles  —  dogs,  rats,  and  snakes  —  without  squeamishness.  Singing 
birds  abound,  and,  among  insects,  mention  is  made  of  butterflies  and  ants. 
Mosquitoes  are  troublesome  where  there  is  water.  On  the  shore  of  Sumatra, 
Lyman  and  Munson  saw  sometimes  three  or  four  species  of  monkeys  at  once, 
iilling  the  solitude  with  their  shrill  babblings.  They  swarm  also  on  the  islands. 
Wild  hogs  are  common  ;  snakes  not  infrequent.  Deer  of  several  kinds  inhabit 
the  jungles.  Among  domestic  animals  are  hogs  and  fowls.  Buffaloes  have 
been  introduced  among  the  Malays ;  but  the  Nyas  prefer  swine,  and  as  pork  is 
a  sine  qua  nan  in  their  feasts,  it  is  said  they  can  neither  marry  the  living  nor 
bury  the  dead  without  it.     Goats  abound,  and  the  groves  are  full  of  birds  ; 

iVol.  X,  pp.  185-1S8.  ^  Middle  Klugdom,  \o\.  I,  pp.  2^j-2ys- 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


139 


among  them  a  small  green  parrot  and  Java  sparrows.  The  Nyas  eat  a  great 
deal  of  the  fish  and  shell-fish  that  abound  along  their  shores. 

Dr.  Allen  has  given  a  brief  notice  of  the  animals  and  other  productions  of 
India, ^  and  Rev.  F.  DeW.  Ward,  in  his  India  and  the  Hindoos  I'  has  done  the  same. 
He  passes  in  review  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  wild  boar,  camel,  bear.  Then 
he  describes  a  novel  bear-hunt  with  no  weapon  but  a  rope.  The  bear  started 
toward  some  men  near  the  edge  of  a  precipice,  and  almost  on  its  edge  stood  a 
young  and  very  elastic  tree.  One  of  the  men  sprang  up  this  tree,  followed  by 
the  bear.  Near  the  top  he  fastened  a  small  rope,  and  let  it  down  to  his  com- 
panion, who  drew  it  down  with  all  his  might.  The  weight  of  the  other,  added 
to  that  of  the  bear,  who  followed  close  after  him,  brought  the  tree  down  almost 
horizontally.  The  man  now  slid  down  the  rope,  which  was  securely  fastened 
to  another  tree  near  the  ground,  and  as  soon  as  the  bear  began  to  back  down 
the  rope  was  cut.  The  tree  instantly  swung  back  to  its  upright  position,  and 
hurled  the  baffled  enemy  over  the  cliff,  where  he  was  dashed  to  pieces  on  the 
rocks  below. 

Of  the  deer  tribe,  he  partially  describes  the  antelope,  musk  deer,  Ceylon 
deer,  Nepaul  stag,  Tamboo  deer,  spotted  axis,  hog  deer,  roebuck,  white  oryx, 
chira,  chickara,  nylghau,  and  the  Cashmere  goat ;  then  the  buffalo,  Indian  ox, 
Brahminee  bull,  and  wild  oxen,  such  as  the  ganjal,  arnee,  and  yak.  Horses, 
wild  asses,  mules,  and  the  dziggetai,  that  goes  in  droves  in  the  far  north,  follow 
monkeys,  the  gibbon,  entellus,  wanderer,  and  togul  ;  also  a  few  orang-outangs 
take  their  turn  ;  after  these,  bats,  porcupines,  the  sloth,  the  armadillo,  the 
mangoose,  the  Bengal  loris  ;  and  among  rats,  the  ratel.  Among  carniverous 
animals,  the  tiger,  lion,  panther,  leopard,  and  Nepaul  tiger-cat,  the  jackal, 
striped  hyena,  lynx,  caracal,  ounce,  Thibet  dog,  represent  that  species.  Also 
the  crocodile,  lizard,  gecko,  scorpion,  centipede,  tarantula,  cobra,  ticpolonga, 
whip-snake,  anaconda,  and  boa  constrictor  do  duty  for  the  reptiles.  He  men- 
tions a  tortoise  four  and  a  half  feet  long  and  fourteen  inches  high,  and  gives  a 
humorous  account  of  the  insects  to  be  guarded  against,  and  the  means  of  pro- 
tection. Thirty-five  species  of  birds  are  noticed,  and  twenty-four  kinds  of  fish. 
He  tells  of  the  herbarium  of  the  East  India  Company's  museum,  containing 
about  nine  thousand  species,  and  specifies  a  few  of  them,  also  some  of  the 
forest  and  fruit  trees  ;  and  alludes  to  the  mineral  wealth  of  India,  her  useful 
metals,  and  her  precious  stones. 

Rev.  S.  F.  Fairbanks,  D.D.,  of  Ahmednuggur,  a  devoted  missionary,  is  also 
a  zealous  naturalist.  He  is  both  an  observer  and  discoverer,  and  a  thorough 
botanist;  but  his  chief  contributions  have  been  to  ornithology  and  conchology. 
He  has  described  various  birds,  and  discovered  quite  a  number  of  shells. 
Conchologists  have  given  his  name  to  several  species.  Mainly  through  his 
labors,  the  number  of  species  in  one  genus  became  so  great  that  a  new  one 
was  formed,  to  which  the  name  Fairbankia  was  given.  He  wrote  papers  on 
the  Rotella,  in  the  Annals  of  the  Neza  York  Lyceum  for  1S53  and  1858.  He 
addressed  the  American  Oriental  Society,  in  187 1,  at  Boston,  in  reference  to 
his  collections  of  natural  history,  then  in  their  hands,  which  had  been  of  much 
use  to  the  scientists  engaged  in  the  geological  survey  of  India. 

^ India,  Ancient  and  Modern,  \>\).  14-17.  'PP-^?   >l 


I40  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

And  here  the  writer  cannot  refrain  from  making  some  extracts  from  a  letter 
just  received  from  Dr.  Fairbanks.  He  says  :  "  Natural  science  has  afforded 
me  all  along  the  most  restful  and  healthful  recreation,  and  if,  without  it,  I  had 
lasted  so  long,  I  surely  should  not  have  retained  such  cheerfulness  and  vigor. 
Several  years  ago,  feeling  the  need  of  rest,  I  gave  so  much  time  to  overhauling 
and  arranging  my  collections,  that  Mrs.  Fairbanks  asked  me  if  I  was  not  giving 
too  much  time  to  them.  Seeing  how  she  felt,  I  said,  '  Well,  dear,  if  you  think 
so,  I  will  not  touch  them  again  till  you  think  best.'  Three  weeks  had  not 
passed,  however,  before  she  brought  a  box  of  shells  to  me,  saying,  '  I  was  mis- 
taken, you  need  them ;  you  are  getting  run  down.  I  won't  complain  of  them 
again.'  She  often  went  with  me  in  search  of  ferns  on  the  Palani  hills.  Such 
excursions  made  us  strong. 

"  I  began  collecting  shells  for  Prof.  Adams,  of  Amherst,  in  1850.  First,  I 
sent  him  thirty-three  species  from  Bombay.  He  replied,  telling  me  how  to  find 
more ;  and  my  next  remittance  comprised  one  hundred  and  sixty  species.  I 
continued  to  collect  till  I  had  three  hundred  and  forty-one  species.  Pfieffer 
named  a  Bulimus  found  on  the  hills  near  Ahmednuggur,  B.  Fairhaiikii.  Then 
Benson,  long  the  prince  of  Indian  land  conchologists,  described  several  of  my 
new  shells  in  The  Annals.  W.  T.  Blanford,  his  successor,  published  an 
account  of  many  more  that  I  sent  him  from  the  Palani  hills.  Of  one,  Dipp/ofn- 
mati?ia  Fairbankii,  only  three  specimens  were  found,  and  two  of  those  were 
destroyed  by  the  breaking  of  a  vial  on  my  journey  home.  Blanford  also  named 
the  second  species  of  Opisthostoma  which  I  found  on  a  square  rod  of  the  hill- 
side at  Khandale,  O.  Fairbankii.  I  afterwards  obtained  it  alive,  and  Blanford 
and  I  saw  its  operculum.  Three  of  these  shells  would  lie  loose  in  a  mustard 
seed,  and  yet  it  is  of  a  most  remarkable  form,  like  a  scotched  snake  in  a  twist. 
The  first  species  of  the  genus  were  found  by  the  Blanfords,  on  the  Nilagiris, 
and  all  but  one  were  lost  by  the  foundering  of  the  ship  in  which  they  were  sent 
home.  Blanford  named  a  genus  of  estuary  shells  in  Bombay,  Fairhankia. 
Nevill  has  called  another  that  I  sent  him,  Mangelia  Fairbankii.  Though  I 
have  published  nothing  but  an  imperfect  list,  these  names  have  introduced  me 
to  the  students  of  Indian  conchology. 

"  My  attention  had  been  previously  given  to  the  botany  of  this  Presidency  ; 
and  though  I  still  find  new  plants,  I  know  the  names,  habits,  and  uses  of  the 
plants  of  the  Dakhan,  and  prepared  a  key  to  the  natural  orders  of  the  plants  of 
the  Presidency,  in  the  style  of  a  similar  key  in  Wood's  Botany  of  United  States 
of  America.  This  was  printed  by  the  government,  as  it  supplied  a  lack  in  Dal- 
zell's  Bombay  Flora.  On  the  Palani  hills  I  collected  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
species  of  ferns.  One  of  them  was  named  by  Mr.  Beddome,  the  author  of  The 
Ferns  of  India.,  Lastraea  Fairbatikii. 

"In  1864,  driven  for  three  months  to  the  Mahabuleshwar  Sanitarium,  I 
took  up  ornithology,  and  entered  with  interest  into  the  collection  and  study  of 
our  birds.  Since  then,  the  pursuit  of  birds,  mammals,  and  reptiles  has  prompted 
to  the  exercise  my  health  requires.  Five  years  since,  I  prepared  a  Popular  List 
of  the  Birds  found  in  the  Marathi  Country,  with  Short  Notes,  which  government 
published  in  the  Bombay  Gazetteer.     This  gave  the  English,  native,  and  scien- 


NATURAL    SCIENCE, 


141 


lific  name  of  each,  with  notes  on  locality,  habits,  song,  oology,  etc.  Afterwards 
my  strictly  scientific  lists  of  the  birds  of  this  district  were  published  in  Stray 
Feathers,  our  Indian  ornithological  journal.  On  the  Palani  hills  I  found  two 
new  birds,  Callene  Albi-vetitj-is^  and  Trochaloptero?i  FairbaJikii'} 

"  Two  years  ago  I  prepared  lists  of  our  reptiles,  and  of  those  of  Gujerat  and 
Sindh,  which  were  published  in  the  Boinbay  Gazetteer.  Then,  last  year,  while 
engaged  in  special  famine  duty,  I  described  the  thirteen  species  of  rats  and 
mice  of  this  region,  especially  those  in  the  fields,  which  that  year  de5tro3'ed  half 
the  crops  over  several  thousand  square  miles.^  So  my  recreations  resulted  in 
several  contributions  to  natural  science." 

Rev.  H.  J.  Bruce  has  made  a  complete  collection — eight  hundred  speci- 
mens—  of  our  birds,  and  presented  them  to  the  museum  in  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts ;  also  to  the  cabinets  of  Amherst  College,  Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary,  and 
Abbott  Academy,  Andover.  There  is  an  article  from  his  pen  on  Indian  birds, 
in  the  American  Naturalist^  Salem,  Massachusetts,  1S72  ;  but  his  greatest  con- 
tribution to  science  is  his  Anatotny,  Human  and  Comparative,  printed  first  in 
English  by  his  children,*  and  then  translated  into  Marathi,  Government  took 
most  of  the  edition  of  three  thousand  copies  for  the  libraries  of  its  public 
schools. 

Rev.  George  Champion,  of  South  Africa,  was  a  zealous  naturalist.  He 
writes  in  Silliman's  your7ial^  on  the  scenery,  topography,  botany,  and  geology 
of  that  region;  and  Rev.  L.  Grout  ^treats  with  some  fullness,  besides  these, 
of  the  zoology,  ornithology,  entomology,  and  herpetology  of  Natal. 

The  lion  is  found  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  leopard  is  more  com- 
mon near  the  coast,  disposed  to  retire  if  he  sees  one  coming,  but  a  terrible  foe 
if  only  wounded  by  his  assailants.  They  are  taken  in  traps  and  pitfalls.  The 
tiger-cat,  though  nearly  as  tall,  is  not  more  than  half  as  heavy,  and,  like  the 
leopard,  loves  fowls.  The  civet  cat,  or  genet,  has  the  same  taste  for  chick- 
ens. A  kind  of  fox  prowls  at  night,  and  so  does  the  howling  hyena,  who  acts 
as  scavenger  for  lordlier  beasts,  though  sometimes  he  kills  his  own  game.  The 
cattle,  when  attacked  by  wild  beasts,  form  a  ring,  with  the  weaker  in  the  center 
and  the  boldest  on  the  outside  of  the  circle.  The  wild  dog,  called  by  different 
names,  as  Hyena picta,  Canis  pictus,  Hyena  venatica,  Lycaon  tricolor,  is  a  savage 
brute,  with  a  large  blackish  head,  a  white  ring  round  the  neck,  and  a  shaggy, 
mottled  body.  They  go  in  packs,  and  make  sad  havoc  among  cattle.  The 
buffalo  is  found  in  the  mimosa  forests  and  jungles.  The  elephant  is  still 
found  in  Zulu-Land,  though  so  mercilessly  hunted ;  also  two  species  of  rhinoc- 
eros, one  white,  the  other  black  and  the  larger  of  the  two,  with  two  horns. 
The  hippopotamus  finds  a  home  in  some  of  the  rivers.  There  are  two  species 
of  wild  hogs,  very  destructive  in  maize  fields,  and  caught  in  pitfalls  ;  also  an 
earth-pig,  or  ant-eater,  who  thrusts  his  long  snout,  and  longer  tongue,  into  ant- 
hills, and  swallows  the  inmates  at  his  leisure.  The  porcupine  {Hystrix  cristata) 
is  no  stranger  here,  and  rats  and  mice  rejoice  in  the  absence  of  the  cat.  Mon- 
keys and  baboons  inhabit  the  jungles. 

'Fairbanks.  -  Blanford.  ^  Af/Vi/'owcry //^ra/a?,  1879,  pp.  3S9-390, 

*  i2mo,  264  pp.  ®  Vol.  XXIX,  pp.  230-236.  ^ Ztdu-Lattd,  Philadelphia,  1865,  pp.  351. 


142'  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

There  are  many  species  of  the  antelope.  There  is  a  blue  buck  scarcely- 
larger  than  a  rabbit,  and  the  oribi,  or  ourebi,  weighing  about  thirty  pounds,  and 
making  good  venison ;  also  an  eleotragus,  of  a  reddish  fawn  color,  with  long 
ears,  large  eyes,  black  horns  a  foot  in  length,  curved  forward  and  annulated, 
hair  long  and  tail  bushy  ;  it  weighs  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  pounds.  Another 
red  buck  is  a  little  larger,  and  a  large  dark  brown  one  of  similar  size.  Along 
the  coast  is  a  small  red  bush  buck,  also  the  graceful  steinbuck,  and  now  and 
then  the  blesse  buck.  Then  there  is  the  harte  beest,  the  eland,  and  the  kudu 
{Strepsiceros  capensis).     The  gnu  sometimes  visits  Zulu-Land  in  winter.' 

The  rivers  are  too  rapid  to  contain  tnany  fish,  but  reptiles  abound.  The 
alligator  occupies  some  of  the  rivers,  as  Mr.  John  A.  Butler  found  to  his  cost, 
when  one  seized  him  by  the  thigh  in  crossing  the  Unkomazi  ;  and  though  the 
victim  held  on  to  the  horse's  mane  with  a  death-grip  till  he  floundered  into 
shallow  water,  where  the  natives  speared  the  assailant,  yet  he  carries  the  m.arks 
of  five  of  the  teeth  of  the  reptile  to  this  day.  A  foot  square  of  flesh  and  skin 
was  torn  from  the  flanks  of  the  horse.  The  iguana  is  a  monstrous  aquatic 
chameleon,  two  feet  long,  with  a  tail  of  three  feet.  There  is  a  land  animal  of 
the  same  stamp,  said  to  milk  the  cows. 

Of  snakes,  the  python  {Hortulia  Natale7isis)  is  the  largest ;  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet  in  length,  able  to  swallow  a  goat  entire.  The  imamba,  though 
much  smaller,  is  more  dangerous.  Its  bite  is  fatal.  Yet,  when  one  was  slowly 
crawling  through  a  hole  in  the  wall  of  the  house,  one  of  the  missionary  ladies 
held  it  by  the  tail  while  her  husband  went  round  outside  and  broke  its  head. 
One  of  them  advanced  to  attack  Mr.  Grout  on  horseback,  who  by  a  free  use  of 
the  whip  escaped.  There  is  a  flame-colored  serpent  seven  feet  in  length,  with 
a  fin-like  crest,'-^  said  to  be  very  venomous,  and  a  kind  of  cobra  di  capello. 
Then  the  vipera  caudalis  will  lie  in  the  path,  and  notify  you  of  his  presence  by 
his  hissing.  A  smaller  one  is  echidna  inornata.  The  dark  glossy  umanjinge- 
lana  sometimes  creeps  into  beds,  as  well  as  houses.  Besides  these,  he  men- 
tions the  inyandezulu,  a  slender  green  snake,  the  umzinganhlu,  the  ivuzamanzi, 
a  black  water  snake,  the  ifulwa,  a  green  water  snake,  the  ukokoti,  long  and 
yellow,  the  inkwakwa,  reddish,  and  the  umhlwazi,  long  and  greenish  brown. 
Mr.  Grout  gives  a  description  of  the  poison  and  poison  fang,  and  the  remedies 
for  those  who  are  bitten  ;  also  a  list  of  lizards,  and  an  account  of  the  cha- 
meleon, with  a  native  tradition  of  the  fall,  in  which  that  animal  has  a  prominent 
part.^ 

In  describing  the  insects,  he  mentions  among  the  Orthopterous :  locusts, 
grasshoppers,  the  phasmidae,  or  specter  insects,  crickets,  butterflies,  cicadas, 
bees,  and  ants;  the  white  ant  holding  a  position  between  orthopterous  and 
hymenopterous  insects;  the  common  brown  ant,  from  which  nothing  is  safe  that 
is  not  isolated  by  tar;  ticks,  spiders,  moths,  and  the  ant  lion  {tnyrnickoti). 

Among  birds  he  specifies  pheasants,  partridges,  quails,  teal,  wild  ducks  and 
geese,  wild  bustard,  koran.  Guinea-fowl,  snipes,  storks,  cranes,  and  pelicans  ; 
a  large  black  eagle,  falcons,  kites,  hawks  —  among  them  insect  hawks  —  and 
owls ;  two  species  of  vulture,  and  the  crow.     In  the  bush  are  parrots,  toucans, 

^Zulu-Land,  pp.  28t;-3o4.  =The  inhlonhlo.  ^Zulu-Land,  pp.  305-3 '9- 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 


145 


lories,  king-fishers,  wood-peckers,  the  sugar-bird  and  canary,  and  the  lono--tailect 
Kafir  finch.  The  secretary  bird  is  described,  and  the  honey-bird,  and  a  beauti- 
ful crescent-necked  dove,  called  ijuba.^ 

Rev.  J.  L.  Wilson  affirms  that  no  richer  field  for  the  study  of  natural  history 
exists  than  western  Africa.  The  most  common  wild  animals  are  :  the  ele- 
phant, buffalo,  tiger,  wild  boar,  many  varieties  of  monkeys,  apes,  orang-outangs, 
or  chimpanzees,  antelopes,  gazelles,  jackals,  the  genet,  civet  cat,  porcupine, 
hippopotamus,  crocodile,  boa  constrictor,  and  many  other  reptiles.  The  woods 
abound  with  birds  of  every  variety  and  of  the  richest  plumage  ;  among  them, 
the  grey  parrot,  the  green  parrakeet,  whydah  bird,  flamingo,  crown  bird,  trumpet 
bird,  wild  pigeon,  ringdove,  quail,  wild  hen,  and  Guinea  fowl.  The  rivers  and 
bays  teem  with  a  great  variety  of  fish,  and  the  field  of  entomology  is  unlimited 
in  extent  and  variety. 

The  Pangwes  destroy  whole  droves  of  elephants  by  enclosing  them  with  a 
vine  which  they  dislike  exceedingly,  and  then  scattering  poisoned  plantains 
among  them.  The  elephants  will  not  break  over  the  vine,  and,  when  weakened 
by  the  poison,  are  killed  with  spears. .  Sometimes,  some  of  the  hunters  are 
killed  in  the  encounter.  The  flesh  of  elephants  is  not  only  eaten  fresh,  but 
dried  also,  and  is  highly  esteemed.  They,  at  some  seasons,  destroy  large  fields 
of  plantains  and  bananas  in  one  night,  and  the  natives  are  glad  to  frighten 
them  away  by  beating  old  brass  pans,  rather  than  run  the  risks  of  a  battle. 
African  elephants  are  never  tamed,  but  one  hundred  tons  of  ivory  are  exported 
annually  from  the  Gaboon,  involving  the  slaughter  of  about  eleven  thousand 
elephants. 

The  xAfrican  tiger,  or  leopard,  is  very  formidable,  and  is  held  in  superstitious 
dread  as  another  form  of  wicked  men,  who  have,  power  to  transform  them- 
selves into  this  animal.  Women  are  frequently  killed  by  them,  children  carried 
off,  and  whole  villages  abandoned  by  the  people  in  their  terror. 

More  formidable  still  is  the  njena,  or  troglodytes  gorilla.  This  animal  was 
first  discovered  by  Mr.  Wilson.  In  1846  he  found  the  skull  of  one,  which  he 
saw  at  once  belonged  to  an  undescribed  species.  After  some  search  he  found 
another  ;  the  natives,  he  learned,  were  familiar  with  the  animal,  and  described 
its  size,  its  ferocity,  and  some  of  its  habits,  and  promised  in  due  time  an  entire 
skeleton.  The  information  obtained  awakened  great  interest  among  natural- 
ists. Since  then,  perfect  skeletons  have  been  taken  both  to  England  and 
f  ranee,  as  well  as  our  own  country.  It  belongs  to  the  chimpanzee  family,  and 
is  the  largest  and  most  powerful  species  known.  Its  aspect  is  hideous,  and  its 
muscular  power  amazing.  Its  face  is  intensely  black  and  savagely  ferocious. 
Large  eyeballs,  a  crest  of  long  hair,  which  projects  forward  when  angry,  an 
immense  mouth,  full  of  terrible  teeth,  and  large,  protruding  tusks,  make  it 
thoroughly  frightful.  The  natives,  even  though  well  armed,  avoid  it.  The 
skeleton  Mr.  Wilson  presented  to  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Boston  is  five 
and  a  half  feet  high,  and  is  not  far  from  four  feet  across  the  shoulders.  The 
animal  invariably  attacks  a  man  when  he  appears  alone.  It  will  wrench  a  gun 
out  of  his  hands  and  cru&h  the  barrel  between  its  jaws.     Mr.  Wilson  saw  a  man, 

^Zulu-Land,  pp.  320-331. 


144  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

the  calf  of  whose  leg  was  bitten  off  by  one  of  them,  and  who  would  have  been 
torn  to  pieces  had  not  his  companions  come  to  his  help. 

The  boa  constrictor  is  found  throughout  western  Africa,  especially  in  thick 
jungles  along  the  streams.  Mr.  Wilson  has  seen  one  twenty-five  feet  long,  and 
they  are  said  to  grow  much  larger.  He  once  helped  to  extricate  a  favorite  dog 
from  the  folds  of  one  of  them,  and,  though  no  bones  were  broken,  it  took  a 
week  or  two  to  get  rid  of  the  varnish  with  which  the  reptile  had  covered  the 
dog,  preparatory  to  deglutition.     Some  tribes  eat  the  flesh  of  this  serpent. 

Mr.  Wilson  gives  an  interesting  account  of  two  species  of  African  white 
ants.  One  builds  turreted  domes  of  clay,  eight  or  ten  feet  in  diameter  and  ten 
or  twelve  feet  high,  surrounded  by  half  a  dozen  conical  turrets,  apd  with  a 
wonderful  arrangement  of  recesses  and  cross  streets  in  the  interior.  Near  the 
center  is  the  palace  of  the  queen,  who  is  ten  times  larger  than  the  rest,  and 
almost  incapable  of  locomotion,  but  is  well  guarded  by  faithful  soldiers.  The 
mound  must  be  demolished  with  great  haste,  or  she  is  carried  off.  The  ants 
are  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  very  sharp  pincers,  and  their  bite 
seldom  fails  to  draw  blood.  They  are  very  pugnacious  if  their  dwelling  is 
invaded.  Break  off  one  of  the  turrets,  and  instantly  one  mounts  the  breach, 
surveys  the  damage,  and  in  two  or  three  hours  the  injury  is  repaired  by  several 
hundreds  of  laborers,  who  deposit  their  mouthfuls  of  clay  with  geometric  pre- 
cision. There  is  no  opening  above  ground  ;  all  their  movements  are  subter- 
ranean. 

The  other  species  are  not  so  bellicose,  but  prey  on  furniture,  clothes,  books, 
and  the  wood  of  buildings.  They  are  smaller  than  the  others,  and  have  no 
weapons  apart  from  the  disagreeable  odor  they  give  out  when  disturbed.  They 
build  no  mounds,  but  make  their  nests  under  ground,  and  from  these  they  issue 
at  night  on  their  forays.  Entering  a  box  of  clothing,  they  first  cut  holes 
through  the  whole  mass  from  top  to  bottom,  as  if  to  render  it  useless  in  the 
shortest  time  possible.  Sometimes  they  feed  on  the  inner  edge  of  books  for 
days,  before  their  presence  is  suspected.  No  box  of  books  or  clothing  is  safe 
on  the  floor  for  a  single  night;  it  must  be  insulated  by  water  or  pitch.  They 
build  a  covered  arch-way  to  the  point  they  wish  to  attack,  at  the  rate  of  two  or 
three  inches  an  hour.  Break  it  down,  and  they  immediately  rebuild.  Do  this 
twenty  times,  and  twenty  times  they  will  renew  it.  Their  perseverance  is 
indomitable.  Nothing  but  arsenic  will  compel  them  to  desist ;  even  then,  they 
sometimes  build  another  tunnel  along-side  of  the  poisoned  one.  A  wooden 
post  is  sometimes  eaten  entirely  hollow  by  them,  while  the  outer  surface 
remains  unbroken. 

There  are  also  black,  or  dark  brown,  ants,  called  "  drivers  "  {termes  bclli- 
cosa\  which  attack  every  living  thing  that  comes  in  their  way.  They  move  by 
day  and  night,  in  trains  sometimes  half  a  mile  in  length,  when  they  change 
their  abode  or  go  in  quest  of  food.  Pioneers  are  sent  forward  to  explore  and 
give  note  of  danger.  That  given,  the  soldiers  instantly  rush  to  the  spot,  while 
the  rest  stop  or  turn  back ;  and  when  the  danger  is  past,  all  move  on  again. 
When  about  to  cross  a  path,  the  soldiers  form  an  arch  of  their  bodies,  under 
which  the  rest  cross  in  saf'ety.     The  arch  is  made  by  interlocking  feet,  one  ant 


NATURAL   SCIENCE. 


145 


Standing  upright  on  one  side,  another  on  the  other,  and  a  third  stretched  acrcss 
between  them,  and  so  extending  indefinitely.  Mr.  Wilson  has  often  raised 
sections  of  the  arch  from  the  ground  by  inserting  the  point  of  his  cane ;  and 
though  they  held  together  for  a  time,  when  they  saw  how  matters  were,  instead 
of  dropping  to  the  ground,  they  made  for  his  fingers  at  the  other  end  of  the 
cane.  When  disturbed  in  this  way,  the  soldiers  attack  the  intruder,  and  bite 
unmercifully,  so  that  a  horse  can  scarcely  be  forced  through  the  swarm  ;  and  a 
dog  clears  them  with  a  bound,  glad  if  even  so  he  does  not  get  them  on  his  feet, 
and,  in  trying  to  detach  them  thence,  feel  their  pincers  on  his  lips. 

If  they  find  a  dead  body,  they  do  not  leave  it  till  every  morsel  is  consumed, 
even  though  it  be  an  elephant,  and  furnish  them  work  for  several  days.  They 
even  attack  living  animals ;  and  a  horse  or  cow  in  a  stable  would  be  harassed 
to  death  in  a  few  hours,  and  its  bones  be  clean  in  less  than  forty-eight  hours. 

They  ransack  every  nook  and  crevice  of  a  house,  and  no  insect,  however 
small,  eludes  their  search.  Mice  are  overpowered  by  their  numbers,  and  noth- 
ing is  left  but  a  little  hair  and  some  bones.  The  family  may  have  to  flee,  but 
in  a  few  hours  they  may  return  and  find  their  house  empty,  if  not  swept  and 
garnished,  and  the  floor  strewed  with  the  wings  of  cockroaches.  Even  men,  if 
unable  to  move,  and  there  is  no  one  to  move  them,  are  sometimes  devoured. 
Mr.  Wilson  has  seen  them,  in  crossing  a  small  stream,  where  the  current  would 
have  swept  them  away  singly,  fasten  themselves  together  into  rafts,  and  con- 
trive to  cross  so  as  to  strike  some  projecting  point  on  the  opposite  shore,  where 
the  living  raft  broke  itself  up  and  joined  the  column  as  it  re-formed  for  the 
march. 

Rev.  H.  J.  Van  Lennep,  D.D.,  in  his  Bible  Lands,^  gives  much  valuable 
information  on  the  geography  and  natural  history  of  western  Asia,  arranged  as 
follows  :  Physical  characteristics  of  the  country  ;  water  —  life  upon  it  and  in  it ; 
cereals,  horticulture,  vineyards ;  trees,  flowers,  fruits ;  domestic  animals  ;  wild 
animals ;  scavengers,  both  beasts  and  birds  ;  birds  of  passage ;  reptiles  and 
insects.     The  following  beautiful  description  is  taken  from  page  250  : 

"  We  have  repeatedly  taken  our  stand  on  some  isolated  cliff  at  the  edge  of 
a  plain,  to  study  the  varied  sights  and  sounds  of  an  Oriental  summer's  eve. 
The  day  may  have  been  still ;  even  the  voice  of  the  birds  hushed  by  the  heat, 
and  only  the  monotonous  concert  of  the  '  cicada  '  heard  from  the  shady  groves. 
This  also  grows  silent  as  the  mountain  shadows  lengthen  and  the  sunlight  dies 
away.  The  rays  of  the  moon  are  hardly  perceptible  ere  the  song  of  the  cricket 
begins.  The  cry  of  a  solitary  jackal  sounds  from  the  edge  of  the  wood,  and  is 
answered  first  by  one,  then  by  another  and  another  of  his  companions,  till  the 
grand  chorus  echoes  from  the  hills.  The  fox  barks  close  by  ;  the  owls  screech, 
and  the  great  owl  in  the  wood  utters  its  mournful  cry,  as  it  watches  for  the  hare 
darting  through  the  shadows.  We  can  hear  the  steps,  and  now  and  then  catch 
a  glimpse,  of  a  herd  of  wild  boars,  hastening  from  the  woody  coverts  of  the 
mountain  to  wallow  in  the  mire  of  the  marsh  or  dig  among  the  roots  of  the 
plain,  it  seems  as  if  nature  were  keeping  Ramazan  — fast  asleep  all  day,  and 
waking  at  eve  to  spend  the  night  in  revelry.     But  when  a  panther  is  in  the 

'  New  York,  1S75,  bvo,  pp.  832. 
10 


146  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

vicinity,  it  is  as  if  the  scent  of  blood  filled  the  air,  telegraphing  the  danger 
to  every  creature.  The  evening  may  be  even  more  beautiful,  but  as  the  song 
of  the  cicadaclies  away,  and  that  of  the  cricket  succeeds,  the  liorses  and  cattle 
hasten  home,  and  those  without  shelter  gather  together  in  anxious  groups.  No 
wild  hog  liastens  to  luxuriate  in  the  marsh  •  no  jackal  or  fox  utters  a  cr}^  ;  not 
a  sound  breaks  the  stillness.  All  seem  resolved  to  fast  rather  than  by  any 
movement  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  common  foe,  who  they  well  know  is 
stealthily  seeking  whom  he  may  devour." 

Dr.  Van  Lennep's  valuable  collections  in  natural  history,  and  manuscript 
lectures  on  natural  science  in  Armenian,  were  burned  with  the  mission  house 
in  Tocat,  March,  1859. 

We  are  indebted  to  Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.,  for  an  interesting  account 
of  the  locust.  In  1837,  on  the  hill-side  not  far  from  Ain  el  Barideh,  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  he  noticed  something  very  unusual,  and, 
on  riding  up  to  see  what  it  was,  to  his  amazement,  the  whole  mass  began  to 
stir  and  roll  down  the  declivity.  His  horse  was  so  terrified  that  he  had  to  dis- 
mount. It  was  a  swarm  of  locusts  too  young  even  to  jump.  They  looked  like 
minute  grasshoppers,  in  countless  numbers,  and,  in  their  efforts  to  get  out  of 
his  way,  rolled  over  and  over  like  a  layer  of  semi-fluid  lava,  an  inch  or  two  in 
thickness. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  1S45,  they  appeared  along  the  lower  spurs  of  Leba- 
non, on  the  western  side.  Having  laid  their  eggs,  they  disappeared  ;  but  the 
people  looked  forward  with  fear  to  the  time  when  they  would  be  hatched. 
Toward  the  end  of  Ma}^  millions  of  them  were  on  their  march  up  the  mountain, 
and  at  length  they  reached  the  lower  edge  of  Abeih.  Summoning  all  the  men 
he  could  muster,  Dr.  Thomson  advanced  to  turn  them,  if  possible,  from  the 
village.  He  had  often  passed  through  clouds  of  them  in  the  air,  but  these 
were  without  wings  —  about  the  size  of  grown-up  grasshoppers.  The  whole 
surface  was  black  with  them.  On  they  moved  like  a  living  deluge,  setting  the 
laws  of  gravitation  at  defiance  ;  for  it  -lowed  uphill,  and  struck  the  beholder 
with  a  vague  terror.  They  dug  trenches  and  dragged  timbers  along  the  bot- 
toms of  them,  crushing  all  in  the  trenches ;  they  kindled  fires  to  burn  them  ; 
they  beat  them  with  poles ;  but  all  in  vain.  The  living  wave  poured  up  the 
rocks  and  walls,  covering  everything,  those  behind  filling  the  places  of  the  slain 
as  fast  as  they  were  vacant.  After  a  long  contest,  he  went  down  the  mountain 
to  see  how  long  the  column  was,  but  he  could  see  no  end  to  it ;  so,  tired  and 
discouraged,  he  abandoned  the  struggle.  Next  morning  the  column  had 
reached  his  own  premises,  and,  hiring  half  a  score  of  men,  he  resolved  at  least 
to  defend  his  garden,  and,  by  dint  of  great  exertion  and  constant  fires,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  a  measure;  but  it  was  appalling  to  watch  that  living  river  How  up  the 
road  and  climb  the  hill.  At  length,  worn  out  with  ceaseless  toil,  he  gave  up 
the  battle,  and,  carrying  the  choicest  flower-pots  into  the  parlor,  he  surrendered 
the  rest  to  the  enemy,  and  for  four  days  they  moved  in  solid  phalanx  up  the 
mountain. 

In  early  spring  they  deposit  millions  on  millions  of  eggs  in  the  warm  soil. 
This  done,  they  vanish  like  morning  mist,  and  in  six  or  eight  weeks  the  very 


NATURAL    SCIENCE, 


147 


dust  seems  to  become  alive  and  begin  to  creep.  Soon  they  assume  the  form  of 
grasshoppers,  and,  moving  with  one  impulse  in  the  same  direction,  begin  their 
destructive  march.  In  a  few  days  their  voracity  ceases,  and,  like  the  silk-worms, 
they  fast,  and  repeat  their  fast  four  times  before  they  assume  their  wings.  Yet 
when  they  eat,  they  devour  every  green  thing.  A  large  vineyard  in  Abeih  was 
green  in  the  morning,  at  night  it  was  naked  as  a  new-plowed  field.  The  noise 
made  in  marching  and  devouring  is  like  the  noise  of  a  heavy  shower  among 
the  trees. 

Joel  says,^  "  He  hath  laid  my  vine  waste  and  barked  my  fig  tree.  He  hath 
made  it  clean  bare  ;  the  branches  thereof  are  made  white."  They  strip  the 
vines  of  every  leaf  and  berry,  even  of  every  green  twig.  Many  large  fig 
orchards  were  "  clean  bare,"  not  one  leaf  remaining  ;  and,  as  the  bark  of  the  fig 
tree  is  silvery  white,  their  bare  branches  were  "  made  white  "  under  the  burning 
sun.  Joel  says,'  "Is  not  the  meat  cut  off  before  our  eyes?"  and  here  whole 
fields  of  grain  disappeared  like  the  shadow  of  a  dissolved  cloud,  and  the  hope 
of  the  husbandman  vanished  like  smoke.  The  prophet  says,  "  The  herds  are 
perplexed  ;  the  flocks  are  made  desolate."  ^  This  is  literally  true.  Not  even  a 
goat  can  find  a  green  thing  in  such  a  desolation.  "  The  land  is  as  the  garden 
of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate  wilderness ;  yea,  and  nothing 
shall  escape  them,"  *  are  words  that  involuntarily  rise  to  our  lips  when  we  look 
on  such  desolation.  "  They  shall  climb  the  wall  like  men  of  war ;  and  they 
shall  not  break  their  ranks."  ^  When  the  head  of  the  column  reached  the  wall 
of  the  castle  of  the  Emir,  they  did  not  go  round  it ;  they  marched  right  over  it ; 
and  so,  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts,  they  climbed  straight  up  the  walls  of  the 
residence  of  Dr.  Van  Dyck,  and  passed  over  the  roof  with  unbroken  ranks. 
"They  shall  enter  in  at  the  windows  like  a  thief."  ^  It  was  only  untiring  vigi- 
lance that  saved  the  contents  of  the  flower-pots  carried  into  the  house. 

Some  find  difficulty  in  Nahum  (iii :  17),  but  in  the  cool  evenings  at  Abeih  they 
literally  camped  in  the  hedges  and  walls,  covering  them  like  a  huge  swarm  of 
bees;  and  when  the  morning  sun  grew  warm,  they  resumed  the  march.  One 
day  was  unusually  cold,  and  then  they  scarcely  left  their  camps;  indeed,  many 
did  not  move  at  all  till  the  following  day ;  those  that  did  seemed  cramped  and 
stiff,  but  in  the  heat  their  movements  were  brisk  and  lively.  So  cool  days  pro- 
long their  stay,  but  under  the  hot  sun  they  literally  "  flee  away."  Even  those 
that  have  no  wings  manage  to  disappear.  Yesterday  the  whole  earth  seemed 
in  motion  ;  to-day  there  is  not  a  locust  to  be  seen. 

David  complains  that  he  was  "  tossed  up  and  down  as  the  locust," ''  These 
flying  squadrons  are  tossed  up  and  down  and  whirled  about  by  the  changing 
currents  of  the  mountain  winds.  Solomon  says,^  "They  have  no  king,  yet  go 
forth  all  of  them  by  bands ;"  and  nothing  about  them  is  more  striking  than  the 
common  instinct  with  which  all  of  them  pursue  the  same  line  of  march.  Moses 
said  to  Pharaoh,'*  "They  shall  cover  the  face  of  the  earth  so  that  one  cannot 
see  the  ground ; "  and  that  picture  was  so  stamped  on  the  brain  of  Dr.  Thomson 
that  for  nights  he  could  not  close  his  eyes  without  seeing  the  whole  earth  in 
motion,  and  could  not  rid  himself  of  the  unpleasant  image.'" 

''1:7.         -i:i').         "  i :  iS.         *  ii :  3.         ^ii:?.         ''ii:g.  '^  Psalms  cix  :  23.  '  Proverbs  xxx  :  27. 

"  Exodus  X  :  5.  '"  The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  1 1,  p.  102-108. 


VII. 
ARCHEOLOGY. 


Among  the  benefits  which  missions  have  rendered  to  science  are  their  con- 
tributions to  archaeology.  This  may  be  defined,  the  science  of  antiquities, 
including  in  that  all  remains  of  ancient  times,  whether  ruins,  inscriptions,  coins, 
or  literary  productions.  All  missionaries  cannot  contribute  to  this  science,  for 
some  labor  among  nations  without  history  or  ancient  monuments.  Only  those 
having  both,  possess  materials  for  such  contributions.  Moravian  missions  could 
add  little  to  archceological  lore,  but  the  American  Board  has  labored  among 
some  of  the  most  celebrated  nations  of  antiquity.  Its  field  of  operation 
includes  the  primeval  Paradise  and  the  mountains  of  Ararat.  It  has  had  one 
mission  at  Nineveh,  another  in  Jerusalem,  and  a  third  in  Athens.  It  has 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Antioch,  has  a  theological  seminary  on  Lebanon,  and 
relighted  more  than  one  of  the  candlesticks  of  the  seven  churches.  It  has 
labored  at  the  home  of  Zoroaster  in  Persia,  and  among  the  ancient  civilizations 
of  India  and  China. 

The  intelligence  of  our  missionaries  qualifies  them  for  such  investigations, 
while  their  permanent  residence  among  these  relics  of  the  past,  and  familiarity 
with  the  languages  of  these  countries,  give  them  great  advantage  over  the  pass- 
ing traveler.  They  can  obtain  accurate  information  on  the  ground,  about 
discoveries  made  by  others.  When  gold  coins  of  Philip  and  Alexander  were 
dug  up  at  Sidon,  in  1853,  specimens  were  sent  home  by  our  missionaries. 
When  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Phoenician  king,  Ashmunazer,  was  discovered, 
January  20,  1855,  they  sent  transcripts  both  to  American  and  German  savants} 
At  Mosul  they  not  only  described  the  excavations  of  Messrs.  Botta,  Layard, 
Rawlinson,  and  Loftus,-  but  filled  the  Assyrian  rooms  at  Amherst,  New  Haven, 
Williamstown,  and  elsewhere,  with  specimens  of  sculpture  and  inscriptions 
from  ancient  Nineveh,  which  we  may  study  for  ourselves. 

An  ancient  Assyrian  seal  is  described  in  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Ncs- 
torians ;^  also  an  earthen  vase  and  Assyrian  copper  bust  found  by  Dr.  Grant 
in  Salaberka.*  Dr.  Justin  Perkins  gives  an  account  of  Nimrud  and  Khoyunjik,"' 
and  of  Susa,  or  Shushan.*'     Dr.  Henry  Lobdell  makes  us  acquainted  with  Mr. 

'  Joitrjial  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  V,  pp.  228-230;    The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  I,  pp.  198-202. 
-  i\Tissio7iary  Herald,  1S45,  pp.  40-42  ;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S4.S,  pp.  14S-154. 

^  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Ncstorians,  pp.  289-290.  ■*  Do.,  p    1S6. 

^  Missionary  Herald,  1850,  pp.  57-59  ;  Journal  American  Oriental  Society,  \i<[.  1 1 .  jip.  1 12-119. 
•-Do.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  490-491. 
(148) 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


149 


Loftus's  excavations  at  Khoyunjik,  Warka,  and  Mugheir.^  He  speaks  of  his 
journey  from  Arbeel  to  Herir  as  the  first  made  by  a  Frank;  but  Dr.  Grant 
passed  over  the  same  route  twelve  years  before,-  and  saw  both  the  Assyrian 
pillar  at  Sidek  and  the  kelishin  ^  at  the  top  of  the  mountain  beyond,  on  June 
II,  1842.'' 

Rev.  D.  O.  Allen's  account  of  the  mode  of  building  a  temple  at  Kaygaum, 
in  the.  Marathi  countr}^,  shows  how  missionary  observation  may  illustrate  archce- 
ology.^  An  inclined  plane  of  earth  was  made  to  follow  the  walls  as  they  rose, 
and  the  interior  was  filled  up  in  the  same  way.  Up  this  slope  two  or  three 
hundred  men  drew  one  stone  at  a  time,  in  a  low  car  with  wheels  of  solid  wood. 
So  mound  and  wall  rose  together,  till  the  top  stone  was  put  in  its  place,  and  then 
the  mound  was  cleared  away,  disclosing  the  perfect  temple.  Was  this  the  way 
that  the  huge  blocks  in  Nineveh  and  Baalbec  were  raised  to  their  places  ? 

Missionaries,  however,  can  only  attend  to  antiquities  in  the  intervals  of 
leisure  from  more  important  duties.  Dr.  Lobdell  writes  to  his  teacher  and 
biographer,'^  "  It  is  only  as  a  recreation  from  severe  missionary  labor  that  I 
can  justify  myself  in  exploring  the  geography,  history,  and  effete  religions  of 
Assyria.  I  never  regret  that  God  has  cast  my  lot  in  Mosul  as  a  missionary 
rather  than  as  an  antiquarian."  These  sentences  occur  in  the  preface  to  his 
notes  on  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  that  fill  twenty-four  pages,  describing  the  cities, 
arms,  dress,  and  customs  of  the  people,  the  modes  of  travel,  measures  of  dis- 
tance, and  modes  of  crossing  streams ;  making  his  personal  acquaintance  with 
modern  Assyria  illustrate  the  description  of  it  by  the  Greek  historian  twenty- 
two  hundred  and  eighty  years  ago. 

Prof.  W.  S.  Tyler,  in  his  introduction  to  the  notes  on  the  Anabasis,  after 
stating  that  classical  and  sacred  geography,  history,  and  antiquities  are  greatly 
indebted  to  missionaries,  and  giving  some  reasons  for  the  superior  accuracy  of 
their  knowledge,  goes  on  to  say  that  Dr.  Lobdell  added  to  these  peculiar  per- 
sonal qualifications  of  his  own  a  quick  eye,  an  almost  intuitive  sagacity,  a 
curiosity  never  sated,  an  activity  that  never  tired,  and  a  marvelous  power  of 
concentration,  that  enabled  him  to  carry  on  many  labors  at  the  same  time. 

The  quarries  that  furnished  the  limestone  blocks  for  the  palaces  at  Nimrood 
were  discovered  by  him,  and  he  prepared  forty-seven  boxes  of  archaeological 
specimens  with  his  own  hands,  to  be  sent  to  this  country.  These  spoils  from 
ancient  Nineveh  will  instruct  our  educated  youth  in  archaeology  through  com- 
ing ages.  Even  the  sight  of  them  kindles  an  enthusiasm  in  young  men  for 
such  studies  ;  so  that  Dr.  Lobdell  could  not  in  any  other  position  have  done 
so  much  for  this  branch  of  science.  Just  before  his  last  sickness,  he  was  pre- 
paring to  write  for  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  a  full  account  of  his  journey  from 
Nineveh  to  Babylon  and  back. 

Missionaries  lack,  also,  the  learned  and  costly  books  of  reference  needful  to 
the  highest  attainments  in  archeology.     Nor  are  dissertations  on  such  themes 

>Do.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  472-4S0;  Vol.  V,  pp.  26S-270. 

-Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  pp.  219-225.  'Green  pillar. 

*  For  a  further  account  of  it,  by   Rev.  D.  W.  Marsh,  see  Missionary  Herald,  1S50,  p.  4"i>  and   by  Dr.  Per- 
kins, Journal  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  II,  p.  76;  also  by  Dr.  A.  H.  Wright,  Do.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  262-263. 
^Missionary  Herald,  1S36,  p.  302.  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S57,  p.  231. 


150  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

suited  for  the  pages  of  a  missionary  periodical,  though,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
journals  of  learned  societies  eagerly  avail  themselves  of  contributions  to  their 
pages  from  missionary  pens. 

The  popular  nature  of  this  volume  limits  us  to  the  briefest  mention  of  some 
of  the  more  interesting  of  these,  though  this  brevity  may  make  them  still  less 
adapted  for  general  reading,  while  they  must  fail  in  that  minuteness  of  detail 
which  scholars  require  in  such  matters.  To  remedy  this,  references  will  be 
given  to  the  original  sources  of  information. 

Rev.  Isaac  Bird^  gives  an  account  of  a  tower  in  the  island  of  Jerba,  ofif  the 
southern  coast  of  Tunis,  where,  after  a  battle  on  the  12th  of  May,  1560,  in- 
which  eighteen  thousand  Spanish  soldiers  were  slain,  their  bones  were  gathered 
by  the  Moslems  and  built  up  with  mortar  into  this  grim  trophy  of  their  victory. 
He  also  gives  brief  descriptions  of  the  grand  reservoir  of  ancient  Carthage,^ 
consisting  of  seventeen  cisterns  side  by  side,  with  vaulted  roofs,  and  covering  a 
space  of  four  hundred  and  twenty  feet  by  fifty-four,  with  a  depth  of  twenty  feet, 
which  were  filled  by  an  aqueduct  fifty  miles  in  length  from  Mount  Zguan.  He 
had  previously  described  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  subterranean  corn  magazines 
of  Tripoli,  mentioned  by  classic  writers.^ 

Messrs.  Fisk  and  King  give  an  account  of  the  ruins  of  Luxor,  Karnac,  and 
Burnou,  in  the  Missmiary  Herald,  1823,  pp.  347-350.  There  is  a  description 
of  Jerusalem,  by  Messrs.  Fisk  and  King,  in  the  Missionary  Herald,  1824,  pp. 
40-42.  The  cedars  of  Lebanon  are  described  by  Mr.  Fisk,  Missionary  Herald^ 
1824,  p.  270  ;  and  the  ruins  of  Baalbec,  pp.  271-272. 

Dr.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  gives  some  Armenian  traditions  about  Ararat.*  On 
the  east  is  a  district  called  Arnoiodn,  i.  e.,  at  Noah's  foot,  for  here  he  stepped 
out  from  the  ark.  Farther  east  is  the  town  of  Marant,  /.  <?.,  the  mother  is  there, 
for  here  his  wife  is  buried.  Nakhchevan  means  "the  first  resting-place  ;"  that 
is,  the  first  settlement  after  the  flood.  It  is  called  Naxuana  by  Ptolemy,  and, 
fifty  years  before  him,  Josephus  wrote  that  the  Armenians  gave  that  name  to 
the  place  where  the  ark  rested.^ 

The  same  writer  gives  a  list  of  Armenian  writings  previous  to  the  seventeenth 
century.^  It  contains  the  names  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  authors,  and 
more  than  three  hundred  and  ninety-four  books.  Among  the  authors  are 
Gregory  the  Enlightener,  Moses  Chorensis,  Mesrob,  the  inventor  of  their 
alphabet  and  translator  of  the  New  Testament,  and  Nerses  Shunorhali. 
Seventy-six  of  the  works  are  translations,  mostly  of  Greek  authors,  from  Plato 
and  Aristotle  down  to  Cyril  and  Eusebius. 

Rev.  R.  Anderson,  D.D.,  in  his  Observations  on  the  Pelopontiesus  a?id  Greek 
Islands,  published  in  1830,^  gives  a  better  and  more  distinct  map  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  eastern  coast  of  Malta  called  St.  Paul's  Bay  than  is  given  in  the 
American  edition  of  Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
published  in  1854,  besides  a  view  of  the  traditional  scene  of  the  shipwreck  of 
the  apostle.  Dr.  Anderson  also  gives  a  detailed  explanation  of  the  place  in 
connection  with  that  event. 

'  Missio7i,iry  Herald,  1830,  p.  276.  -  Do.,  p.  338.                    ^  Dq.,  p.  209.                    *  Mount  Masis. 

^jfournal  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  V,  pp.  rgo-igi.  Compare  Smith  and  Dwight's  Researches  in 
Armenia,  Vol.  II,  p.  60. 

"Do.,  VoL  111,  pp.  2^3-288.  'pp.  26-27. 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


151 


The  Researches  of  Rev.  E.  Sitiith  and  Rev.  H.  G.  O.  Dwi^-Jit  in  Armenia 
furnish  a  full  account  of  the  Armenian  and  Nestorian  churches,  and  present  a 
vivid  picture  of  their  character  and  condition,  besides  a  description  of  their 
ancient  cities,  monasteries,  and  churches,  such  as  Echmiadzin,  the  ecclesiastical, 
and  Vagharshabad,  the  civil  capital,  the  convent  of  Khor  Virab,  and  the  city 
of  Ardashad,^  founded  by  Hannibal,  the  ruined  castle  of  Mejengerd,  with 
chapels  hewn  out  of  detached  rocks,  and  the  column  of  Shamkor,  one  hundred 
and  eighty  feet  high. 

Rev.  Dr.  Coleman's  Ancient  Christia?iity  Exeinplified  is  indebted  to  Dr. 
Dwight  for  its  account  of  the  Armenian  church,^  and  to  Dr.  Perkins  for  the 
chapter  on  the  Nestorian  church.^ 

In  March  and  April,  1835,  Rev.  E.  Smith  and  Dr.  Dodge  made  a  tour  in 
the  Hauran,  of  which  we  have  only  some  brief  notices  from  the  pen  of  Dr. 
Dodge.*  Dr.  Smith  several  years  later  gave  an  account  of  the  Bedaween  in 
Mount  Sinai,  the  desert  of  Tih,  the  country  east  of  the  Arabah  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  distinguishing  the  characteristics  of  each  tribe  with  his 
accustomed  accuracy;^  and  adds,  "  But  for  the  misfortune  —  a  shipwreck  on  the 
coast  of  Caramania'^ — that  deprived  me  of  the  notes  of  a  former  journey,  I 
could  add  a  fifth  division,  the  Hauran ;  but  that  left  me  with  only  a  list  of  some 
thirty  tribes  and  a  few  indistinct  recollections." 

Dr.  J.  L.  Porter''  says  that  Mr.  Graham  is  the  only  traveler  since  Burck- 
hardt  who  had  traversed  eastern  Bashan,  yet  his  map  shows  the  route  of 
Messrs.  Smith  and  Dodge  in  many  points  identical  with  his  own.  True,  there 
is  a  difference  in  the  spelling  of  names,  and  some  errors  of  the  press;  but  the 
identity  of  the  places  is  beyond  dispute. 

Dr.  Dodge  rode  for  two  hours  thx^ough  a  region  covered  with  rocks ;  traveled 
part  of  the  time  on  Roman  roads,  mentions  many  ruins,  describes  a  temple  at 
Zoweida,  forty  feet  by  fifty,  surrounded  by  a  row  of  Corinthian  pillars,  and  a 
church  two  hundred  by  ninety-five  feet,  divided  into  three  aisles  by  similar 
columns.  East  of  the  Kelb  el  Hauran  he  found  seventy-four  deserted  villages 
in  a  district  forty  miles  by  twelve.  He  dwells  repeatedly  on  the  great  hospi- 
tality of  the  people.  At  Salkhat  he  saw  a  castle  towering  conspicuous  among 
other  magnificent  ruins ;  at  Bozrah,  a  tank  four  hundred  and  ninety-nine  feet 
by  three  hundred  and  eight,  with  walls  eight  feet  thick ;  also  a  castle  contain- 
ing an  amphitheatre  with  many  of  the  seats  yet  entire.  In  the  villages  he 
lodged  in  spacious,  lofty  rooms,  v»-ith  ceilings  of  flat  stones  reaching  from  sup- 
ports in  the  walls  to  an  arch  that  ran  across  the  middle  of  the  apartment ;  and 
in  Edrei  he  found  a  splendid  Roman  ruin  altered  into  a  mosque. 

Everywhere  they  were  perfectly  safe  under  the  energetic  rule  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  so  that  even  at  Edrei,  where  Mr.  Porter  fared  so  hard,  the  whole  place 
trembled  before  them,  fearing  that  they  were  agents  of  the  government. 

In  regard  to  the  capacity  of  the  desert  of  Sinai  to  support  the  many  thou- 
sands of  Israel,  Dr.  E.  Smith  judged  it  impossible  without  a  miracle.^     Only  two 

1  Artaxata.  "PP- 555-5^3.  '  PP-  564-579.  ^7)//«/i?7z«rj' .^^ra/^/,  1836,  pp.  92-97  and  124-127. 

''Do.,  1839,  p.  SS.  '^Memoirs  of  Mrs.  S.  L.  Smith,  p.  324.  '•  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  p.  83. 

^Missionary  Herald,  1S39,  p.  82. 


is: 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


showers  of  rain  had  fallen  for  two  years  previous  to  his  visit.  He  saw  no  run- 
ning stream,  and  only  one  plat  of  arable  land,  a  few  rods  square.  No  cattle 
were  kept  by  the  Arabs  ;  only  a  few  camels  and  donkeys,  with  some  sheep  and 
goats.  The  few  springs  were  more  like  nature's  ulcers  than  living  fountains, 
and  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Sinai  did  he  find  j^ure  water.  Many  camels  had 
recently  starved  to  death,  and  two  of  those  he  hired  died  on  the  way.  In  five 
days'  journey  he  found  neither  well  nor  spring  ;  neither  grass  nor  arable  land. 

Dr.  E.  Robinson  was  with  him  on  this  journey,  preparing  for  his  celebrated 
Biblical  Researches .  Till  the  recent  investigations  of  the  English  Palestine 
Exploration  Society,  little  has  been  added  to  the  discoveries  of  Messrs.  Robin- 
son and  Smith  ;  and  what  has  been  done,  if  we  take  the  testimony  of  intelligent 
scholars  on  the  ground,  has  confirmed  the  views  advanced  in  their  work. 

The  temple  of  Deir  el  Kulah,  near  Beiriit,  is  described  by  Dr.  E.  Smith,* 
and  the  Greek  inscription  to  Baal  markos  (the  Lord  of  sports)  found  there  was 
sent  after  his  death  to  Dr.  Robinson  in  New  York. 

H.  A.  DeForest,  M.  D.,  of  Beirut,  has  contributed  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  antiquities  of  northern  Syria."  Dr.  W.  M,  Thomson,  author  of  The  Land 
and  the  Book,  has  done  much  for  the  archseology  of  Syria.  He  describes  the 
ruins  of  Caesarea,^  the  antiquities  of  Larnica,*  Cerenea,  Buffa  Vento,  and  Fama- 
gousta  ^  in  Cyprus.''  He  gives  an  account  of  the  castles  of  Banias,  of  Hunin, 
and  the  celebrated  fortress  of  Esh  Shukeef.''  If  any  one  would  form  a  vivid 
conception  of  the  populousness  of  the  very  roughest  and  rockiest  portions  of 
ancient  Galilee,  let  him  read  Dr.  Thomson's  communication  in  Bihliotheca 
Sacra,  1855,  pp.  822-833.  The  column  Hhamsin,  there  described,  is  engraved 
in  the  Land  and  Book,  Vol.  I,  p.  476.  So  is  Um  el  Awamid  ;^  but  that  remark- 
able castle  on  the  wild  cliffs  of  Wady  el  Kurn,  in  four  parts,  the  lowest  three 
hundred  feet  up  the  cliff,  and  the  highest  at  an  elevation  of  six  hundred  feet, 
on  the  top  of  the  narrow  triangular  point  between  that  and  another  gorge  that 
comes  in  from  the  east,  is  nowhere  pictured,  though  it  must  be  exceedingly 
picturesque,  clinging  to  the  rocks  among  the  trees.  The  natural  surface  had  to 
be  made  broader  by  a  wall  built  up  from  below,  so  as  to  afford  room  for  the 
upper  castle,  only  thirty  feet  square,  the  smallest  of  the  four,  which  were  all 
connected,  though  each  capable  of  a  separate  defense.^  His  descriptions  of 
ruins  in  northern  Syria  are  the  most  interesting.  He  introduces  us  to  the  noted 
ruins  of  Ain  el  Hyeh  (Fountain  of  the  serpent),^"  and  gives  a  full  account  of 
Ruad,**  the  Arpad  of  2  Kings  xviii  134  —  the  Aruadda  of  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions—  a  rocky  island  one  thousand  five  hundred  paces  in  circumference,  and 
two  miles  from  shore.  Its  massive  walls,  of  immense  stones,  are  built  some- 
times on  the  edge  of  the  rock,  and  sometimes  in  the  sea.  Some  parts  of  them 
are  still  forty  feet  high.  Several  hundred  cisterns  honey-comb  the  island. 
Two  thousand  sailors  and  ship-builders  now  occupy  the  ancient  buildings.  Sev- 
leral  castles  are  still  serviceable,  and  two  harbors,  opening  to  the  northeast, 

^  Robinson's  Later  Researches,  p.  15. 

-  Journal  American  Orie7ital  Society,  Vol.  II,  pp.  235-247,  and  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  3411-366. 
^Missionary  Herald,  1835,  p.  368.  ■'Do.,  p.  401.  •'Do.,  pp.  446-44S. 

'6  Cyprus  is  Vatnana  in  Assyrian.  '  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1846,  pp.  193-207. 

^  Land  and  Book,  Vol.  I,  p.  46S.  '^V)a.,  Vol.  I,  p.  457-459.  '^''Missionary  Herald,  1S41,  p.  97. 

»Do.,  p.  98. 


ARCHiEOLOGY.  1 53 

are  protected  by  massh^e  walls.  Many  columns  are  found  with  Greek  inscrip- 
tions.^ 

The  castle  of  Tortosa,^  with  Phoenician  foundations  and  Roman  walls,  five 
hundred  feet  by  four  hundred,  and  on  the  east  side  not  less  than  sixty  feet 
high,  is  the  most  interesting  relic  of  Phoenician  fortification  in  Syria.  In  this, 
a  building  thirty-eight  paces  long,  with  walls  of  immense  thickness,  was  once 
covered  with  a  vaulted  roof  supported  by  pillars  of  Syenite  granite.  In  this 
city  an  ancient  church  a  hundred  and  thirty  feet  by  ninety-three,  and  sixty-one 
feet  high,  had  a  groined  roof  resting  on  two  rows  of  Corinthian  pillars,  with  a 
magnificent  central  arch.^ 

The  famous  Sabbatical  river  of  Josephus  was  identified  by  Dr,  Thomson 
with  a  large  intermitting  fountain  near  the  convent  of  Mar  Jirjis  and  the  castle 
EI  Husn,  north  of  Lebanon.* 

The  walls  and  church  of  Balanea  are  described.^  The  theater  at  Gabala,® 
three  hundred  feet  in  diameter,  is  still  nearly  perfect;  and  no  wonder,  for  its 
walls  are  nearly  fifteen  feet  thick  at  the  top.  Ladakeea,^  built  or  repaired  by 
Seleucus  Nicator,  bears  many  traces  of  Phoenician  work,  and  tombs  and  sar- 
cophagi without  number.  Near  this  place  is  an  artificial  mound  about  forty 
feet  high,  covered  with  ruins ;  a  deep  ditch  cut  in  the  rock,  one  hundred  feet 
wide  and  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circuit,  extends  round  the  sides  not  bordered 
by  the  river.  The  mountains  around  abound  in  ancient  castles  with  Jewish 
names.  Daphne  is  described  by  Dr.  Thomson,^  and  by  Rev.  E.  R.  Beadle,^ 
and  Antioch  by  the  same  pens.^"  Rev.  H.  B.  Morgan  copied  a  Greek  inscrip- 
tion of  forty-three  lines,  in  Daphne,  written  probably  A.  D.  149."  The  road 
from  this  to  Aleppo  is  crowded  with  ruins  —  often  a  dozen  in  sight  at  once  ^^ 
—  aqueducts,  tombs,  castles  and  towers,  arches  of  peculiar  architecture,  and 
Cyclopean  walls  of  huge  stones. 

Dr.  Thomson  gives  an  account  of  another  tour  to  Aleppo  in  1845-6.  He 
describes  the  temples  at  Fukra  and  Afka,  in  Lebanon,^^  an  inscription  in  Wady 
Feidar,"  ruins  at  Jebeil  '^  and  at  Tripoli,'^  and  the  ruined  temple  of  Venus  at 
Area,''  on  a  mound  a  mile  in  circumference  and  two  hundred  feet  high.  Just 
below  the  temple  is  an  opening  in  the  face  of  the  cliff,  whence  issued  a  water- 
fall supplied  by  an  aqueduct  carried,  now  on  arches,  and  now  through  tunnels 
in  the  rock.  The  scene  must  have  been  one  of  rare  beauty  when  temple  and 
waterfall  were  in  all  their  glory. 

The  castle  of  Safeeta  ^^  covers  the  top  of  a  hill  conspicuous  from  afar. 
Massive  walls,  built  up  in  some  places  for  forty  feet,  form  a  level  surface  about 
four  hundred  and  sixty-four  feet  in  circumference.  On  this  stands  a  tower  one 
hundred  and  one  feet  ten  inches  long,  fifty-nine  feet  three  inches  wide,  and 

1  For  some  of  the  inscriptions,  see  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S48,  pp.  252-253. 

"^Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  gg.  ^Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  pp.  247-249. 

*Silliman's  J  our  nal  0/  Science,  November,  1846.  ^  Missionary  Herald,  1S41,  p.  101. 

••  Do.,  p.  102.  '  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  260. 

^  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  236;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S48,  pp.  454-455. 

^Missionary  Herald,  184:,  p.  207.  '^'^V>o.,  1841,  pp.  208,237  ;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  pp.  455-458. 

1'  See  Prof.  Hadley's  rendering  of  it,  Journal  A  vtericaft  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  550-555. 
'^^  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  2  3g.  ^3  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  184S,  pp.  3-5. 

"Do.,  p.  6.  i^Do.,  pp.  7-g.  "5  Do.,  pp.  10-13.  "Do,  pp.  15-16.  '"^V>o.,^.m. 


154  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

Still  eighty-two  and  a  half  feet  high.  The  basement  seems  to  have  been  a 
magazine ;  the  first  story  is  a  church,  with  groined  roof  and  clustered  pillars, 
and  a  circular  stair  in  the  southern  wall  leads  to  a  large  room  above  that. 
East  of  this  artificial  summit  are  some  massive  foundations  and  walls  built 
probably  by  the  Arvadites,  with  the  Phoenician  bevel,  and  narrow  windows  that 
taper  to  a  point  at  the  top.  There  is  an  account  of  Safeeta,  with  an  engrav- 
ing, in  the  Missionary  Herald,  1868,  pp.  73-75. 

The  castle  of  Markub  ^  covers  a  triangular  summit  of  trap-rock  about  one 
thousand  feet  high,  joined  to  the  main  range  by  a  low  ridge  fortified  by  a  fosse, 
and  a  tower  seventy  feet  high,  with  walls  of  basalt  sixteen  feet  thick.  The 
vaults  of  the  castle  could  hold  half  of  the  grain  of  Syria.  Two  thousand 
families  might  live  in  it,  besides  half  that  number  of  horses. 

The  ruins  of  Seleucia  Pieria,  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  extend  from  the 
Nebaa  el  Kebir  (Great  Fountain)  two  miles  to  the  sea.  Its  inner  harbor  was 
enclosed  by  heavy  walls  with  towers  and  gates.  The  entrance  was  cut  through 
a  spur  of  the  coast  range.  Another  harbor,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  paces 
from  this  entrance,  was  built  out  into  the  sea  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe,  with 
overlapping  sides.  To  protect  the  inner  harbor  from  a  mountain  torrent,  a 
massive  wall  was  built  across  its  bed  to  the  mountain ;  then  a  passage  twenty- 
two  feet  wide  was  cut  in  the  mountain,  till  the  sides  rose  to  the  height  of  one 
hundred  feet ;  then,  from  this  point  a  tunnel  was  cut,  twenty-one  feet  square, 
for  a  hundred  and  ninety-six  paces,  whence  it  again  continued  open  to  the  sea. 
Through  this  the  torrent  still  flows,  and  alongside  of  it  is  the  public  highway. 

The  ruins  on  Mount  St.  Simon"  are  towns  and  temples,  castles  and  cities, 
built  of  hewn  stones,  often  ten  feet  long  by  two  in  width,  without  mortar. 
Many  of  the  private  houses  are  spacious,  with  porticoes  above  and  below,  sup- 
ported by  columns  of  a  peculiar  pattern.  The  principal  ruin  is  called  El  Kalah 
(the  castle),  though  it  was  a  temple,  and  more  recently  a  church.  It  is  cruci- 
form, two  hundred  and  fifty-three  feet  and  a  half  long  on  the  inside,  by  seventy- 
six  feet,  with  an  octagonal  area  in  the  center,  eighty-nine  feet  six  inches  in 
diameter.  Two  Corinthian  columns  adorn  each  of  the  eight  angles,  and  from 
their  entablatures  spring  eight  arches  thirty-two  feet  high,  which  support  the 
dome.  Eight  shorter  columns  stand  above  the  first  row.  Above  these,  again, 
were  niches  for  statues,  and  the  interior  surface  of  the  dome,  eighty  feet  from 
the  ground,  was  elaborately  ornamented.  A  pedestal  of  rock,  directly  under  the 
center,  may  have  held  the  famed  pillar  of  Simon  Stylites,  though  some  place  it 
on  a  mountain  east  of  Suadeea.  The  southeast  transept  has  been  transformed 
into  a  church.  The  rock  beneath  contains  vast  cisterns,  still  resorted  to  by 
neighboring  shepherds.  In  all  this  region  no  arch  is  found  in  the  most  ancient 
ruins,  and  the  Phoenician  bevel  does  not  cross  the  coast  range.  The  antiquities 
of  Aleppo,  Zobah,  and  Khanasir^  are  also  described. 

Dr.  Thomson  found  many  ruins  in  Jebel  el  Aala,  at  Kurk  burj  *  (forty 
towers),  and  at  BehiyQ,  where  the  pillars  taper  at  both  ends  like  a  barrel ;  also 
at  Bshindelayeh,   where    among  temples  and  tombs  was  a  square  monolith, 

"^ Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  loi  ;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  pp.  253-254. 

- Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S48,  pp.  462-466.  »Do.,  pp.  466-461)  and  475-4S0.  -"Do.,  pp.  667-66S. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


155 


twenty-five  feet  high,  with  niches  for  statues,  and  a  cistern  forty  by  eighty 
feet,  which  never  fails  in  the  driest  seasons.  But  we  cannot  go  into  details, 
when  this  mountain  contains  twenty  times  as  many  Greek  and  Roman  antiqui- 
ties as  all  Palestine,  massive,  unique,  and  in  a  wonderful  state  of  preservation. 
Similar  ruins  abound  in  Jebel  Armenaz,  all  the  way  to  Edlip  and  Riha.  The 
whole  region  lies  as  much  outside  the  routes  of  modern  travel  as  of  the  line  of 
march  followed  by  ancient  conquerors. 

El  Bara,'  however,  deserves  special  mention.  Here,  as  in  Pompeii,  many 
palaces,  mansions,  temples,  tombs,  and  churches  are  nearly  perfect.  For  three 
hours  Dr.  Thomson  could  only  run  from  one  structure  to  another,  unable  to 
settle  down  to  any.  Some  buildings  had  served  as  a  quarry  for  the  castle, 
whose  builders  had  left  immense  arches  all  around,  which  they  did  not  dare  to 
pull  down  with  the  rest  of  the  walls.  Dr.  DeForest  describes  one  structure 
which  needed  only  a  new  roof  and  floor  to  be  ready  for  occupancy.  It  had  a 
veranda  in  front  and  an  addition  behind,  with  out-buildings,  garden,  and  sum- 
mer-house. Flat  arches  crossed  the  principal  room,  and  on  these  lay  smooth 
slabs  of  stone  accurately  fitted  together  for  a  ceiling,  while  a  gable  roof  had 
surmounted  all. 

Dr.  Thomson  had  time  to  examine  only  one  church,  a  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  by  a  hundred,  with  outer  and  inner  colonnade  of  Corinthian  columns. 
The  city  is  without  inhabitants,  but  the  scratches  {gmphitce)  of  idle  boys,  with 
their  rude  drawings,  are  yet  visible  on  the  walls.  Chambers,  baths,  kitchens, 
and  tombs  tell  of  ancient  lives,  with  their  fleeting  enjoyments  and  their  end. 

At  Maarat-Hermel  ^  was  another  picture  of  the  past.  Surly  shepherds  were 
drawing  water  for  their  flocks.  Two  of  them  drew  up  the  leathern  bucket 
hand-over-hand  from  the  deep  well,  to  a  monotonous  song,  and,  when  thirsty, 
each  man  pulled  away  a  sheep  from  the  stone  trough,  and  thrust  his  own  head 
into  the  vacancy.  Yet,  not  even  for  money  would  they  give  water  to  Dr. 
Thomson,  or  let  his  horse  drink  ;  fit  men  to  drive  others  from  the  well  (Exodus 
ii:i7),  or  even  toss  them  into  the  nearest  pit  (Genesis  xxxvii:24),  of  which 
several  were  within  reach. 

At  Kefr  Tob^  —  is  this  the  land  of  Tob  (Judges  xi)  1  or  the  "Ish-tob  "  of  2 
Samuel  x:6  ?  —  a  life-size  monolith  of  an  enthroned  goddess,  in  black  basalt, 
lies  mutilated  on  the  ground.  Dr.  Thomson  makes  Khan  Sheikhoon  the  She- 
hoa  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  which  his  translator,  Mr.  Asher,  says  is  a  mistake 
for  Riha,  a  place  two  days  from  Hamah,  instead  of  half  a  day,  as  this  is,  and 
as  Rabbi  Benjamin  says  that  it  is. 

He  describes  Hamah  *  and  Salemiyeh  ^  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  DeForest, 
Hums,*^  and  Zephron,^  one  of  the  landmarks  of  Canaan  (Numbers  xxxiv),  but  we 
pass  them  all  to  reach  Apamea,^  a  city  grander  but  more  ruined  than  El  Bara. 
The  northwest  corner  of  the  wall  is  well  preserved,  and  the  north  gate  is 
almost  perfect.  A  grand  avenue  extends  from  this  for  more  than  a  mile  to  the 
south  gate.  It  is  lined  on  both  sides  with  a  Corinthian  colonnade  about  thirty 
feet  high,  composed  of  about  eighteen  hundred  columns  only  six  and  a  half  feet 

^Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  pp.  674-677.  2  Do.,  p.  678.  ^  Do.,  p.  679. 

«Do.,  1S48,  p.  680.  =  Do.,  p.  682.  6 Do.,  p.  6S3  '  Do.,  p.  684.  «  Do.,  p.  685. 


156  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

apart.  The  sidewalks  were  twenty-four  feet  wide,  and  the  roadway  sixty-nine  ; 
and  the  columns,  being  three  feet  in  diameter,  made  the  avenue  a  hundred 
and  twenty-two  feet  wide  in  all.  The  shafts  for  a  certain  portion  of  the  way 
were  plain,  then  for  a  like  distance  fluted,  then  double  fluted,  or  both  convex 
and  concave,  then  spiral,  and  again  with  a  square  rib  between  the  flutings,  but 
all  in  regular  order.  Here  and  there  large  squares  on  the  avenue  were  lined 
with  a  peristyle  of  larger  pillars,  and  the  cross  streets  had  smaller  ones.  Occa- 
sional groups  of  columns  among  the  ruins  point  out  the  sites  of  temples, 
palaces,  agorae,  and  the  other  public  buildings.  One  wanders  from  square  to 
square,  till,  sated  and  weary,  he  ceases  to  note  details.  In  18 12  Kulaat  el 
Madyook,  the  only  inhabited  part  of  the  city,  was  occupied  by  a  rebel  chief,  so 
that  Burckhardt  could  not  enter  it,  and  thus  failed  to  see  the  most  remarkable 
ruins  in  northern  Syria,  The  city  was  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  named 
in  honor  of  his  wife,  Apamea. 

Riblah,  the  scene  of  Zedekiah's  sufferings,  and  where  Jehoahaz  was 
imprisoned,  is  described,^  and  the  kamoa  of  Hermel,  a  solid  structure  thirty 
feet  square  and  eighty  feet  high,  with  a  pyramidal  apex,  adorned  on  the  lower 
portion  with  hunting  scenes  in  alto  rilievo? 

Dr.  B.  Schneider^  describes  some  tombs  in  Oorfa,  excavated  in  the  hill-side, 
where  the  visitor  enters  first  an  apartment  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  square  and 
about  eight  feet  in  height,  with  loculi  on  three  sides,  each  side  having  one  large 
enough  for  an  adult.  Sometimes  other  rooms  opened  out  of  this,  each  with  its 
three  loculi.  One  of  them  had  been  recently  opened,  and  the  remains  of  bones 
were  still  to  be  seen  ;  also  fragments  of  glass  lachrymatories.  In  Cyprus  he 
had  seen  them  of  alabaster. 

He  was  interested  especially  in  a  groove  just  outside  the  threshold  and 
extending  to  the  left,  large  enough  to  receive  a  round,  flat  stone,  of  the  size  and 
thickness  of  a  millstone,  which  evidently  closed  the  entrance  when  rolled 
directly  in  front,  and  opened  the  tomb  when  it  was  rolled  in  the  groove  to  the 
left.  In  one  case  this  stone  hindered  his  going  in,  because  it  was  not  rolled 
away,  and  it  was  too  heavy  for  him  to  move  alone. 

He  uses  these  to  illustrate  the  mode  of  closing  the  sepulcher  of  our  Lord, 
and  does  not  wonder  that  the  women  felt  unequal  to  rolling  away  the  stone  from 
its  door.  (See  Matthew  xxvii :  60,  and  Mark  xvi  :  3-4.)  He  says  the  stone 
must  be  rolled  away,  not  raised  or  lifted.  He  refers  also  to  the  appropriateness 
of  the  expression  "  entered,"  /.  e.,  on  a  level,  and  not  going  down,  as  though 
excavated  beneath  one's  feet  instead  of  in  the  hill-side ;  also  of  the  "  young 
man  sitting  at  the  right  side"  (Mark  xiii:5),  just  as  one  might  have  done  in 
these  tombs.  He  also  points  out  the  appropriateness  of  the  word  "  rolled 
back"  (Matthew  xxviii :  2),  which  could  not  be  true  save  of  precisely  such  a 
stone,  and  situated  in  the  groove  as  these  are.  The  only  difficulty  is  in  the 
angel  sitting  upon  it,  but  this  he  says  might  be  simply  leaning  against.*  He 
also  describes  the  supposed  site  of  the  famous  school  of  Edessa,  with  some  of 

'  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  693. 

2  Do.,  p.  69s  ;  The  Land  and  the  Book,  by  W.  M.  Thomson,  D  D.,  Vol.  I,  p.  362;  Bible  Lands,  by  H.  J- 
Van  Lennep,  D.D.,  p.  255.     In  both  of  these  is  an  engraving  of  it. 

3  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1862,  p.  849.  *  See,  nlso,  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S79,  pp.  553-555- 


GATEWAY   AT   SIVAS. 


ARCHiEOLOGY.  I -7 

the  ancient  wall  still  standing,  and  remains  of  marble  pillars  scattered  about, 
but  above  all  a  tower,  which  seems  to  have  been  built  for  a  belfry,  though  now 
used  as  a  Moslem  minaret. 

The  engraving  opposite  is  the  gate-way  of  a  college  built  in  Sivas,  the 
ancient  Sebaste,  for  the  study  of  the  Koran.  There  are  three  or  four  such 
ruins  in  the  city,  witnessing  both  to  the  wealth  and  architectural  skill  of  their 
builders.  They  are  much  injured  by  time  and  by  the  spoliation  of  the  Turks, 
who  make  them  quarries  for  the  materials  of  their  meaner  structures.  The 
stone  is  a  white  marble,  grown  dingy  by  long  exposure.  The  coarser  parts  of 
the  structure  are  built  of  the  red  sandstone  that  underlies  the  gypsum  of  this 
region.  The  style  is  Saracenic,  in  distinction  from  the  Moorish  architecture  of 
Spain.  The  ornamentation  may  be  deemed  excessive,  but  not  more  so  than 
some  specimens  of  Gothic.  The  tracery  is  so  delicate,  and  the  patterns  so 
exquisite,  that  one  cannot  help  enjoying  them.  So  far  Rev.  Edward  Riggs 
describes  it,  but  the  writer  cannot  forget  how  he  stood  a  long  time  in  the  deso- 
late court,  enjoying  the  sight  of  this  relic  of  the  past,  in  the  year  1842.  The 
upper  center  of  the  front  has  fallen.  The  line  of  Arabic  inscription  below  the 
fracture  is  still  legible,  and  gives  a  good  idea  of  that  style  of  writing.  Another 
similar  line  is  seen  running  round  the  bottom  of  the  conical  recess  above  the 
door.  Still  another  is  seen  over  the  opening  in  the  tower  to  the  right  of  the 
man  standing  in  the  door.^ 

Rev.  S.  Wolcott,  D.D.,  diligently  improved  every  opportunity  to  carry  out 
the  work  begun  by  Dr.  Robinson,  who  calls  him  "an  active  and  intelligent 
observer  of  men  and  things,""  and  says  that  "the  results  of  his  investigations 
were  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  laid  before  the  public."^  Ritter  also  quotes 
him  with  commendation.*  He  discovered  a  vaulted  passage  under  the  Mosk 
El  Aksa,  in  Jerusalem,  and  introduced  Mr.  Tipping,  an  English  artist,  there.^ 
He  also  first  explored,  at  no  little  risk,  the  dragon  well  (Hamam  Esh  Shefa'), 
near  the  Haram  connected  with  the  subterranean  water-courses  of  the  ancient 
city.''  He  discovered  and  explored  the  portion  of  the  aqueduct  from  Solomon's 
pools  within  the  city.''  He  first  identified  the  valley  of  Berachah  (Wady 
Bereikut)  ;^  also  Beth  zur  (Beit  sur)  ;^  also  Beth  anoth  (Beit  Ainun).^"  He  first 
visited  Sebbeh,  and  verified  Dr.  Robinson's  conjecture  that  it  was  the  ancient 
Masada."  He  also  identified  Caparcotia  with  Kefrkud,^-  and  visited  and  con- 
firmed Dr.  Robinson's  identification  of  Lejjun  with  Megiddo.^^  He  disproved 
James  Ferguson's  identification  of  Mt.  Zion  with  Mt.  Moriah,"  opposed  Mr. 
Grove's  location  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  north  of  the  Dead  Sea,^^  and  replied 
to  Dean  Stanley's  attempt  to  identify  Moriah  with  Gerizim.^'' 

Some  writers  had  made  the  river  Sajour  empty  into  the  Euphrates,  and 
others  into  the  Coik.  Rev.  A.  T.  Pratt,  by  personal  examination,  found  that 
its  natural  channel  flowed  into  the  former,  but  an  artificial  channel  carried  a 

'  Missiotiary  Herald,  1873,  p.  104,  and  H.  J.  Van  Lennep's  Bible  Lands,  p.  788. 

^  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  P-  '7-  ^Dq.,  p.  ,0. 

*  Geography  0/ Palestine,  Vol.  II,  p.  163,  and  Vol.  IV,  p.  331.              "Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  pp.  17-22. 

''Do.,  1S43,  pp.  24-28,  and  Hackett's  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary,  sub  voce. 

''  Bibliotlieca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  31.                         'Do.,  p.  43.                        ODo.,  p.  56.  i<>Do.,  p.  57. 

"Do.,  p.  62.                     "]3o.^p  .76.                >=Do.,p.  77.                     "Do.,  1866,  p.  684;  1867,  p.  116. 

15  Do.,  186S,  p.  112.  10  Do.,  p.  765. 


158  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

part  of  its  waters  to  the  Coik,  passing  through  rocky  tunnels  and  crossing 
other  streams  on  aqueducts,  thus  confirming  the  idea  of  Carl  Ritter.' 

There  are  many  brief  notices  of  antiquities  in  the  Missionary  Herald.  Rev. 
Drs.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  and  W.  G.  SchaufBer  describe  the  antiquities  of 
Saloniki.^  They  correct  Butler's  classical  Atlas  in  its  location  of  Mount  Olym- 
pus, Mount  Ossa,  the  rivers  Echedorus  and  Axius,  and  the  lake  of  Pella,'^  and 
describe  the  ruins  at  Philippi.* 

Rev.  G.  W,  Leyburn  describes  the  scenery  of  Laconia,  Sparta,  and  the 
tombs  of  Scandia.^  J.  King,  D.D.,  narrates  his  ascent  of  Parnassus  and  visit 
to  Delphi.^  Rev.  J.  B.  Adger,  D.D.,  furnishes  glimpses  of  Magnesia  and 
Hermas,  Sardis  and  Philadelphia,  Thyatira,  Pergamos,  and  Nice.''  Rev.  J.  O. 
Barrows  describes  some  curious  stone  structures  in  Cesarea.  They  are  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  high,  and  octagonal,  though  two  or  three  are  round,  but 
all  with  conical  roofs.  Some  have  only  one  door,  on  the  east  or  northeast ; 
others  have  another  opposite  to  that  one,  and  there  are  a  few  with  four  doors. 
They  were  probably  Turkish  tombs.  In  all  is  a  stone  floor,  several  feet  above 
the  ground  and  on  a  level  with  the  door-sill.  The  bodies  probably  lie  below 
this.     One  of  them  is  seen  in  the  view  of  Cesarea,  p.  77.^ 

Rev.  O.  P.  Allen,  of  Harpoot,  describes  the  ruins  at  Farkin  (Mia  Farekin  ?).* 
It  was  once  a  large  city.  The  wall  is  broken  down  in  only  a  few  places.  At 
the  southeast  corner  is  a  stately  pile  of  ruins,  said  to  have  been  built  by  St. 
Marutha  over  the  martyrs  slain  by  Shapoor,  king  of  Persia.  Its  outside  walls, 
with  some  of  the  pillars  and  arches,  are  still  standing.  A  few  polished  columns 
of  porphyry  had  fallen.  Their  capitals,  resembling  a  basket  of  wicker-work, 
were  carved  from  a  softer  stone.  The  ground  around  is  paved  with  grave- 
stones. There  are  many  inscriptions,  but  none  very  ancient.  An  extensive 
ruin  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the  city  seems  to  have  been  a  palace.  Much  of 
the  space  inside  is  now  cultivated.  At  the  west  is  a  beautiful  mosque,  built  in 
624  A.  H.  (12 13  A.  D.),  by  Modhuffer  ed  Dunghazi,  nephew  of  Salah  ed  Din 
(Saladin).  The  ruins  of  a  church  are  much  older.  Its  walls,  three  feet  thick, 
were  built  of  large  hewn  stones.  Three  of  its  walls  are  standing,  and  the 
gables  show  that  it  had  a  slanting  roof.  There  was  a  semicircular  apse  at 
the  eastern  end,  which  seemed  to  have  been  frescoed  ;  above  this  was  a  beauti- 
fully carved  cornice.  The  interior  width  was  seventy-five /eet ;  the  length  one 
hundred  and  eight ;  and  the  height  to  the  eaves  thirty  feet.  There  is  a  watch- 
tower  outside  the  walls  of  the  city,  one  hundred  feet  high,  overlooking  a  valley. 
The  present  ruins  are  more  recent  than  the  Christian  era,  but  some  mounds 
and  scattered  stones  point  to  an  earlier  date.  Some  suppose  it  to  be  the 
ancient  Carcathiocerta. 

Charran,  Harran,  or  Haran,  is  situated  not  far  from  Oorfa,  to  the  southeast, 
on  an  irregular  platform  nearly  half  a  mile  square,  with  an  average  height  of 
twenty-five  feet  above  the  plain.  This  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  of  hewn  stone, 
about  forty  feet  in  height;  the  stones  in  the  upper  courses  weigh  from  a 
quarter  to   half   a   ton    each.     Outside  this  was  a  wide  moat.     It  is  strange 

'  Erdkunde  Theil,  Vol.  X,  p.  1034.  -  Missionary  Herald,  1836,  p.  246.  ''Do.,  p.  2S6. 

^Do.,p.  333.  8 Do.,  1839,  p.  1 7g.  "Do.,  1840,  p.  360. 

"Do.,  1839,  pp.  206,226;   1S44,  p.  55 ;  1858,  p.  108.  8  Do.,  1S71,  p.  258.  "Do.,  1869,  p.  30. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


159 


that  a  wall  like  this  should  have  been  built  twenty-five  miles  from  the  nearest 
quarry.  More  thorough  search  may,  however,  reveal  one  much  nearer.  If 
not,  its  location  at  the  junction  of  two  great  highways,  from  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia to  Palestine  and  Asia  Minor,  making  it  a  strategic  point  of  great  impor- 
tance, may  account  for  so  great  an  outlay.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions 
of  Tiglath  Pileser  I,  B.  C.  11 00. 

Conspicuous  among  the  ruins  is  a  tower  seventeen  and  a  half  feet  square  at 
the  base  and  one  hundred  and  two  high,  visible  fifty  miles  distant.  The  stairs 
inside  have  fallen.  Perhaps  it  was  connected  with  the  Temple  of  the  Moon, 
or  with  the  worship  of  that  luminary,  for  this  was  a  noted  center  of  Sabianism. 
The  pointed  roofs  are  comparatively  modern,  though  the  foundations  of  the 
walls  may  be  older.  The  broken  column  in  the  engraving  is  fourteen  feet  five 
inches  in  circumference.  It  is  of  white  marble  streaked  with  red.  Broken 
monolithic  columns  lie  around,  and  a  beautiful  octagonal  stone  fountain  is  still 
perfect.  A  castle  at  the  southeast  corner  has  a  number  of  small  rooms  in  an 
inner  core,  like  the  cells  of  our  state  prisons.  The  ancient  name  was  Carrhae. 
Here  Caracalla  was  assassinated,  217  A.  D.,  and  here  Crassus  suffered  his 
famous  defeat  by  the  Parthians,  B.  C.  51.     Now  it  is  empty  and  desolate.^ 

The  Bible  student  will  be  interested  in  the  accompanying  view  of  ancient 
Derbe,  which  is  thus  described  by  Rev.  L.  H.  Adams.^  Derbe,  now  called 
Divle,  lies  in  a  deep,  winding  ravine,  at  the  western  base  of  the  Karamanian 
Taurus.  The  ravine  is  nearly  level,  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  in  width,  is 
finely  watered,  and  abounds  in  trees.  Its  sides  are  limestone  cliffs  from  one 
to  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  full  of  caves  and  winding  passages.  The 
population  is  Moslem,  and  numbers  about  four  thousand  five  hundred. 
Though  there  are  few  ruins,  yet  scholars  recognize  it  as  Derbe,  because  it  is 
the  only  place  that  could  sustain  a  large  population  between  Karaman  and 
Eregli.  It  lies  very  near  the  ancient  road  from  Tarsus  to  Lystra.  It  is  nearly 
in  sight  of  this  last  place,  and  only  eleven  hours  from  it,  by  an  easy  road,  and 
Paul  would  more  naturally  flee  towards  his  friends  in  Tarsus  than  to  his 
enemies  elsewhere  ;  then,  the  many  caves,  where  a  fugitive  could  easily  defy 
pursuit,  suggest  that  the  apostle  was  as  shrewd  in  retreat  as  he  was  bold  in 
advancing  on  the  kingdom  of  Satan. 

We  are  able,  also,  to  furnish  a  view  of  Lystra,  the  other  city  of  Lycaonia 
mentioned  in  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  the  Acts,  from  the  pages  of  the  Herald^ 
and  a  description  based  on  a  communication  from  the  same  missionary  pen. 
Kara  dagh  *  stands  alone  on  a  great  plain  between  Koniyeh  and  Karaman.  It 
is  fifteen  miles  long,  six  miles  in  width,  and  three  thousand  five  hundred  feet 
high,  lying  north  and  south.  On  the  western  side,  in  a  large  valley  opening 
out  to  the  northwest,  on  the  plain  of  Koniyeh,  stands  the  modern  town  of 
Maaden  Shehr,^  called  in  the  vicinity,  also,  Bin  bir  kineeseh.'^  This  is  the 
modern  representative  of  ancient  Lystra.  Its  ruins  cover  a  space  a  mile  in 
length  and  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  They  date  back  only  to  the 
eighth  century,  when  an  Armenian  king  established  a  theological  school  in  the 

1  Rev.  L.  H.  Adams,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1874,  pp.  377-379-  "^Missionary  Herald,  1871,  p.  225, 

31871,  p.  193.  *  Black  mountain.  0  Mine  city.  0  Thousand  and  one  churches. 


l6o  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

place.  Besides  countless  ordinary  buildings,  twenty  large  structures  may  be 
distinguished,  some  of  them  little  injured.  They  are  circular,  oblong,  octag- 
onal, and  square,  with  wings,  porticoes,  arches,  and  some  with  bay  windows. 
The  friezes,  cornices,  and  mouldings  show  great  beauty  of  design.  The  material 
is  a  hard,  brown  stone,  cut  and  polished  exquisitely.  Many  of  the  walls  are 
perfect.  A  beautiful  tomb,  twenty  by  fifteen  feet,  and  twelve  feet  in  height, 
attracts  attention.  Its  polished  walls  are  uninjured.  Some  distance  out  on  the 
plain  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  structure  on  an  eminence.  Was  this  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  "that  was  before  their  city?"^  The  structures  now  standing  were 
erected  from  the  ruins  of  a  more  ancient  city  of  great  splendor.  The  view 
across  the  plain  to  Iconium  is  very  picturesque,  and  Timothy  had  only  to  climb 
the  cliffs  above  his  home  to  enjoy  a  magnificent  view  of  Lycaonia  and  part  of 
Cappadocia. 

Some  make  Latik,  a  poor  village  near  Antioch,  represent  ancient  Lystra ; 
but  would  the  apostle,  fleeing  from  his  persecutors  in  Iconium,  go  back  into  the 
jaws  of  his  enemies  at  Antioch,  from  whom  he  had  just  escaped  ?  Would  he 
not  rather  go  on  twelve  hours  across  the  plain  in  the  direction  of  his  home  ^ 
Besides,  Latik  is  built  of  mud,  with  little  to  intimate  antiquity.  Lystra  seemed 
empty  and  desolate ;  but  a  few  bandit-looking  fellows  emerging  from  holes 
under  ground,  and  pertinaciously  dogging  his  steps,  induced  the  missionary  to 
leave  the  place  almost  as  expeditiously  as  the  apostle. 

Mr.  Adams  gives  an  account  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Soli  —  whence  our 
word  solecism,  because  they  used  barbarous  Greek,  They  are  on  the  shore, 
five  miles  west  of  Mersin.  The  city,  founded  by  the  Achasans  and  a  colony 
from  Rhodes,  was  the  port  of  entry  for  Iconium,  and  was  greatly  enlarged  when 
Pompey,  B.  C.  69,  conquered  the  pirates  of  Pisidia  and  Cilicia,  and  compelled 
them  to  settle  here,  changing  its  name  to  Pompeiopolis.  Forty  out  of  two 
hundred  columns  are  still  standing,  most  of  which  appear  in  the  engraving,  and 
in  1859  a  splendid  Roman  theater  stood  here,  nearly  perfect.  It  was  built  of 
white  marble,  with  wreaths  and  tragic  masks  in  alto  rilievo  on  the  cornice,  and 
in  the  center  of  the  structure  were  the  broken  fragments  of  a  statue  of  Venus ; 
but  the  Turks  then  ruined  it,  making  it  a  quarry  to  supply  stones  for  a  mosque 
in  Mersin.^ 

Mr.  Adams  also  describes  some  Roman  ruins  half  an  hour  southwest  of 
Kharnu  in  the  Giaour  Dagh.  The  space  enclosed  by  strong  walls  of  black 
basalt  was  on  the  west  side  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  on  the 
east  one  thousand  five  hundred,  and  north  and  south  each  one  thousand  one 
hundred  and  sixty-seven.  The  walls  were  twenty  feet  high  and  six  feet  thick. 
Those  of  the  inner  citadel,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  feet  square,  were 
much  more  massive.  The  upper  story  of  the  castle  had  fallen,  and  the  lower 
one  rested  on  strong  brick  arches.  Underneath  were  vaults,  that  seemed  to 
have  been  finished  yesterday. 

North  of  Kharnu,  the  Dul  Dul  Dagh  rises  eight  thousand  five  hundred  feet. 
In  a  deep  gorge  here  the  Romans  commenced,  high  up  on  the  face  of  the  cliff, 
to  cut  a  deep  channel  in  the  solid  rock,  building  up  massive  piers  where  neces- 

•Acts  v:  13.  ^  Jifissionary  Herald,  1871,  p.  129. 


ARCHiEOLOGY.  l6i 

sary,  till  they  brought  out  a  large  stream  of  water  at  a  great  elevation  above 
the  plain.  The  aqueduct  is  still  in  use  ;  and  in  like  manner  Aintab  lives  by 
an  old  Roman  aqueduct  twenty  miles  in  length,  that  seems  good  for  a  thousand 
years  to  come.' 

In  addition  to  these  antiquities  described  by  Mr.  Adams,  we  cannot  refrain 
from  alluding  to  a  more  ancient  profile  which  he  describes.^  He  was  journey- 
ing north  from  the  monastery  of  Sis,  up  among  the  mountains.  After  crossing 
the  eastern  branch  of  the  Seihoun,  he  turned  sharply  to  the  west  and  climbed 
the  opposite  declivity.  Here,  two  miles  or  more  to  the  west,  the  sun  seemed 
to  shine  through  a  hole  in  the  mountain.  More  wonderful  yet,  the  profile  of 
a  Grecian  face  appeared,  as  perfect  as  a  painter  could  draw  it,  with  only  a 
slight  defect  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chin.  It  must  have  been  from  two 
hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  just  before  it,  on  a 
pedestal  of  rock,  stands  a  smaller  image,  leaning  its  head  against  th^e  end 
of  the  huge  nose  above  it.  It  was  through  the  hole  thus  formed  that  the 
sun  was  shining. 

Rev.  Henry  J.  Van  Lennep,  D.D.,  has  given  some  interesting  accounts  of 
antiquities  in  his  Travels  m  Asia  Minor?  He  describes  the  ancient  wells,*  or 
cisterns,  at  Amasia  and  Tocat,  running  down  into  the  rock,  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees,  to  a  depth  of  about  seventy  feet,  with  steps  down  to  the  bottom  ;  also^ 
the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  Pontus  at  Amasia,  and  an  aqueduct  cut  in  the  rock 
above  that  city,  about  five  feet  in  width  and  the  same  in  depth,  for  a  distance 
of  three  miles.  He  gives  us  a  view  of  the  traditional  cell  of  St.  Chrysostom,^ 
among  the  ruins  of  Comnena  Pontica,  near  Tocat ;  ^  and  a  description  of  the 
foundations  of  the  treasure  house  of  Mithridates,  on  the  summit  of  Yooldooz 
Dagh,^  half  way  between  Tocat  and  Sivas.  Two  miles  east  of  Boghas  Keuy,* 
not  far  from  Yozghat,  is  Yazile  Kaya,'"  where  the  faces  of  large  rocks,  enclosing 
an  irregular  space,  have  been  smoothed  with  the  chisel  and  covered  with  sculpt- 
ures in  bas-relief  that  seem  to  commemorate  the  introduction  of  the  Assyrian 
gods  into  Pontus.  The  whole  is  carefully  delineated  by  the  facile  pencil  of  Dr. 
Van  Lennep,  and  forms  a  valuable  accession  to  our  antiquarian  treasures." 
A  few  hours  to  the  north  of  this,  near  Karahissar,  are  the  remarkable  structures 
of  Euyuk,  composed  of  a  black,  hard  granite.  Here  a  passage  eleven  feet  four 
inches  broad  and  thirty  feet  eight  inches  in  length  is  terminated  in  front  by 
two  huge  blocks  fifteen  feet  high  and  seven  feet  square,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  passage,  with  a  large  sphinx  carved  on  their  front  faces,  as  bulls  or  lions 
stand  on  each  side  of  the  entrances  of  the  palaces  at  Nineveh.  A  block  that 
has  fallen  in  front  of  this  has  six  men,  one  behind  the  other,  in  the  same 
marching  attitude  and  wearing  the  same  dress.  On  the  outer  walls  that  extend 
at  right  angles  on  both  sides  are  sculptures  representing  the  image  of  a  bull 
on  a  pedestal,  with  an  altar  in  front,  and  priests  with  offerings  of  a  goat  and 
oxen  ]  a  woman  and  other  figures,  one  climbing  a  ladder,  another  blowing  a 
wind  instrument,  and  another  striking  a  lyre,  etc.     These  are  on  one  side,  and 

^ MissioKUry  Herald,  1867,  p.  244.  *Do.,  1870,  p.  405. 

'Two  vols.,  !2mo,  pp.  343,  330.     New  York:   1S70.  *  Vol.  I,  p.  88.  "p.  90. 

*p.  323-  '  Vol.  II,  p.  70-75.  *  Star  mountain.  »  Village  of  the  Pass. 

"The  inscribed  rock.  "  Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  pp.  112-128. 

II 


1 62  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

a  figure  seated  on  a  throne,  with  three  priests  facing  it,  occupies  the  other.  In 
front  of  these  last  is  a  large  block,  representing  a  lion  seizing  a  sheep  in  his 
fore  paws,  the  rest  of  his  body  still  retaining  the  attitude  of  the  leap  that 
reached  his  victim.  Dr.  Van  Lennep  considers  the  structure  and  bas-reliefs 
the  work  of  Egyptian  artists.'  An  inferior  lion  and  other  sculptures  are  found 
at  Yozghat.  The  Euyuk  antiquities  are  illustrated  in  detail,  as  well  as  the  lion 
at  Yozghat.  Another  lion  at  Angora,  and  a  temple  of  Augustus  there,  are 
described,-  with  a  solitary  marble  column.  The  remains  of  the  theater  at 
Pessinus,  now  Balahissar,  with  an  antique  carving  from  the  temple  of  Bacchus 
there,  are  also  delineated,"^  besides  an  elaborately  ornamented  door  at  Bagh 
luja.*  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  antiquity  described  in  these  volumes  is 
the  statue  of  Niobe,  carved  out  of  the  living  rock,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Mt. 
Sipylus,  four  hundred  feet  above  the  plain,  near  Smyrna.  Homer  sang  of  this 
{Iliad,  xxiv,  614):  "And  now  among  the  rocks  and  solitary  cliffs  of  Sipylus, 
where  they  say  are  the  couches  of  the  divine  nymphs,  who  dance  upon  the 
banks  of  Acheloiis,  Niobe,  though  turned  to  stone,  still  broods  over  the  jDain 
inflicted  by  the  gods."  Pausanias  said  of  it:  "Close  by,  the  rock  does  not 
show  to  the  spectator  the  form  of  a  woman,  but  if  you  stand  off  a  little,  you  think 
you  see  a  woman  weeping."  Dr.  Van  Lennep  found  the  rock  cut  smooth  to 
the  top,  fifty  feet  overhead  ;  an  outer  niche  thirty-five  feet  high  and  over  six- 
teen feet  wide  contains  an  inner  and  deeper  one,  in  which  the  bust,  eight  feet 
high,  rests  on  a  pedestal  twelve  feet  in  height;  the  shoulders  are  nine  feet  wide, 
and  the  head  four  feet  two  inches  high.  It  is  so  arranged  that  the  dripping  of 
the  rain  from  the  rock  above  pours  down  the  face,  which  is  discolored  as  if  by 
channels  of  tears.  One  dark  blue  vein  pours  from  the  right  eye  over  the  lower 
part  of  the  face,  drops  on  the  breast,  and  thence,  falling  on  the  pedestal,  flows 
in  two  broad  streams  to  the  foot.  Ovid  says  :  "  There,  fastened  to  the  cliff  of 
the  mountain,  she  weeps,  and  the  marble  sheds  tears  yet  even  now."  {Met.  ii, 
p.  310.)  For  fuller  details  the  reader  must  go  to  the  pages  of  Dr.  Van  Len- 
nep/'^ 

He  also  describes  an  image  of  Sesostris  on  Mount  Tmolus,  the  southern 
wall  of  the  plain  of  Smyrna,  not  far  from  an  ancient  palace  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  The  face  of  the  limestone  is  smoothed  forty-five  feet  high  and  sixty 
feet  broad,  and  is  best  described  in  the  words  of  Herodotus:  "It  represents  a 
man  four  cubits  and  a  spithame  in  height,*^  holding  a  spear  in  his  right  hand 
and  a  bow  in  the  left,  with  the  rest  of  his  costume  also  half  Egyptian  and  half 
Ethiopian.  Across  his  breast,  from  one  shoulder  to  the  other,  is  an  inscription 
in  Hieratic  characters:  '  I  by  my  shoulders  gained  possession  of  this  country.'  " 
{Herodotus,  Book  II,  Section  106.)^ 

Rev.  J.  W.  Parsons  describes  the  excavations  of  Mr.  Wood  at  Ephesus, 
ibringing  to  light  the  quay,  the  wool  market,  the  Odeon,  and  other  buildings  of 
great  magnificence,  the  theater  mentioned  in  Acts  xxix  :  31,  and  an  inscription 
that  put  him  on  the  track  of  the  Temple  of  Diana,  which  he  has  since  discov- 
ered.* 

^  Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  \o\.\.\.,^V.  iz^-iA,^.  =pp.  190-191.  ^pp,  2,2-213.  ''p.  220. 

Spp.  300-317.  «  Six  and  a  half  feet.  "^  Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  Va\    11,317-325- 

*  Missionary  Herald,  1S69,  p.  179. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


16-^. 


Rev.  N.  Benjamin  describes  Thermopylae/  and  Rev.  E.  M.  Dodd,  Berea  and 
Larissa.^  Mr.  Dodd  also  gives  an  account  of  some  ancient  buildings  in  Thes- 
salonica,  now  used  as  mosques,  but  originally  Pagan  temples,  and  after  that 
churches.  One  of  them  is  sketched  in  the  Missionary  Herald  for  July,  1836. 
In  the  yard  of  one  is  an  ancient  be77ia,  or  pulpit,  cut  from  a  single  block  of 
marble,  and  in  another  is  one  cut  from  a  solid  block  of  verd-antique.  He 
describes,  also,  a  Roman  aqueduct  from  Mount  Khortiateh,  still  in  use,  and 
many  fragments  of  ancient  architecture  in  the  city.^ 

Rev.  H.  N.  Barnum,  of  Harpoot,  describes  some  Assyrian  antiquities  near 
the  source  of  the  eastern  Tigris.*  The  river  flows  out  of  a  cavern  directly 
under  the  mountain,  in  a  stream  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide  and  a  foot  deep;  but 
a  third  of  a  mile  above,  the  same  stream,  apparently,  enters  the  mountain  in  a 
cavern  about  one  hundred  feet  high  and  sixty  feet  wide,  grander  than  the  arch 
of  a  cathedral.  Mr.  Barnum  followed  it  in  some  two  hundred  feet,  as  it  dashes 
among  rocks  fallen  from  above.  On  the  face  of  the  rock,  fifteen  feet  above  the 
exit  of  the  stream,  is  a  cuneiform  inscription,  which  Col.  Rawlinson  once  read : 
"This  is  the  third  time  that  I,  Belshazzar,  king  of  Assyria,  have  conquered  this 
region."  This  must  be  one  of  the  earlier  tejitative  readings,  for  we  have  no 
record  of  any  Assyrian  king  by  that  name ;  but  Tiglath  Pileser,^  on  his  third 
invasion  of  Nahiri,  the  Assyrian  name  of  this  region,  "  set  up  a  tablet  by  the 
sources  of  the  Tigris,  recording  his  conquests,  which  remains  there  to  this 
day."^  Shalmaneser  II"  also  went  to  the  sources  of  the  Tigris,  and  carved  a 
tablet  in  the  rock  near  the  town  of  Egil,  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of  his 
triumph  over  Benhadad,^  B.  C.  845.  He  went  again  to  Nahiri,  and  in  a  cave 
from  which  the  Tigris  issues,  carved  another  memorial  of  his  conquests.^ 
Tugulti  Ninip  11,"^  891-8S5  B.  C,  "set  up  a  commemorative  tablet  at  the 
sources  of  the  Tigris." 

Near  the  river  Mr.  Barnum  traced  the  wall  of  an  ancient  fort,  with  the 
foundations  of  towers  here  and  there  in  it,  enclosing  about  eight  acres.  The 
wall  was  carried  to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  where  a  cistern  was  cut  in  the 
rock,  and  near  it  stairs,  also  cut  in  the  face  of  the  rock  for  several  hundred  feet, 
ending  in  a  door-way  to  two  rock-hewn  passages  leading  down  to  the  cavern 
through  which  the  river  flows.  The  road  to  Erzrum,  which  must  have  been 
the  highway  from  Nineveh  to  Armenia,  passes  a  few  rods  distant.  This  must 
have  been  an  Armenian  stronghold,  and,  in  capturing  it,  the  king  of  Assyria 
captured  the  region.  By  the  side  of  the  inscription  is  an  Assyrian  figure  with 
a  staff  (or  mace)  in  his  right  hand,  and  his  left  hand  pointing  to  the  tablet. 
There  were  two  other  large  caves,  one  of  them  fortified  at  the  entrance  and 
extending  far  into  the  mountain.  A  mile  and  a  half  in,  a  cistern  was  filled 
with  water  from  the  roof,  and  another  beyond  that. 

Dr.  J.  Perkins  gives  an  account  of  Elkosh  and  the  convent  of  Rabban 
Hormuz  ; "  also  of  an  ancient  tomb  in  Geogtapa,  where  a  skeleton  was  found 

1  Do.,  1S41,  p.  411.  =  Do.,  1S52,  p.  236.  ^ Bibliotkeca  Sacra,  1S54,  pp.  831-S32. 

*  Missionary  Herald,  1870,  pp.  128-129.  •'  >  120-1100  B.  C. 
'''  Ancient  History  of  Assyria.     By  George  Smith.     New  York,  1876,  p.  32.  '  860-825  B.  C. 

*  Ancient  History  of  A  ssyria,  pp.  51-52.  "Do.,  p.  53. 
^"Do.,  p.  35.                                                "  Missionary  Herald,  1850,  p.  84;  Bihliotheca  Sacra,  1852,  p.  642. 


164  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

with  copper  spikes  driven  into  its  skull ;  and  of  another  skeleton  in  an  earthen 
sarcophagus,  with  a  pot  of  silver  coins,  found  about  twelve  miles  from  there. ^ 
He  also  describes  an  ancient  sculpture  on  an  isolated  cliff  in  the  plain  of 
Salmas.^  Rev.  D.  W,  Marsh  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  an  ancient  convent  in 
Jebel  Tur.^  Rev.  T.  C.  Trowbridge  corrects  some  mistakes  about  the  rock  at 
Van.*  A.  Grant,  M.  D.,  describes  an  ancient  church  in  Jeloo,^  gives  an  inter- 
esting account  of  the  ancient  usages  of  the  Nestorians,"  and  furnishes  valuable 
information  about  the  Yezidees.^  Further  information  about  that  strange 
people  is  given  by  the  writer*  and  by  Rev.  H.  Lobdell,  M-D.**  The  Ansairiyeh 
in  northern  Syria  are  described  by  Dr.  Thomson  ^"  and  Rev.  E.  R.  Beadle."  Dr. 
C.  Hamlin,  of  Constantinople,  has  translated  an  essay  by  Dr.  Paspati,  of 
Greece,  on  the  language  of  the  gypsies  in  Turkey. ^^ 

In  India  Dr.  D.  O.  Allen  mentions  inscriptions  in  the  rock  temples  of 
Joonnur;'^  he  also  describes  some  of  the  magnificent  structures  of  Shah  Jehan, 
at  Delhi.^*  The  Jumma  Musjid,  or  royal  mosque,  cost  half  a  million  of  dollars. 
This  may  seem  incredible ;  but  a  court-yard  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  square, 
paved  with  granite  inlaid  with  marble,  and  the  mosque  itself,  two  hundred  and 
sixty-one  feet  in  length,  with  three  domes  of  white  marble,  and  two  graceful 
minarets,  the  whole  interior,  floor,  walls,  and  ceiling  covered  with  white  marble, 
may  explain  how  so  vast  a  sum  could  be  expended. 

The  gardens  of  Shalemar,  with  baths,  fountains,  and  statues,  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference, cost  more  than  four  millions.  When  the  Mahrattas  stripped  off 
the  silver  ceiling  of  the  audience  hall  of  the  palace,  the  money  coined  from  it 
amounted  to  $800,000.  The  splendor  of  this  palace  may  be  inferred  from  one 
part  of  the  royal  throne,  which  resembled  the  expanded  tail  of  a  peacock,  its 
brilliant  colors  imitated  by  sapphires,  emeralds,  rubies,  and  other  precious 
stones,  giving  variety  to  a  mass  of  diamonds  and  other  brilliant  gems. 
Tavernier,  who  saw  it,  and  was  himself  a  jeweler,  estimated  the  value  of  this 
alone  at  thirty  millions  of  dollars. 

The  Taj  Mahal, ^^  the  mausoleum  of  the  favorite  wife  of  Shah  Jehan,  who 
died  163 1  A.  D.,  exceeded  in  splendor  all  his  other  buildings.  It  occupies  the 
center  of  a  spacious  park  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna,  which  was  most  elabo- 
rately adorned  and  kept  in  perfect  order.  The  entrance  is  by  a  gate-way  of  red 
sandstone,  inlaid  with  mosaic  and  inscriptions  from  the  Koran  in  white  marble. 
The  central  avenue,  seen  in  the  engraving,  contains  eighty-four  fountains,  with 
a  marble  reservoir  in  the  center,  forty  feet  square,  containing  five  large  jets  of 
water,  and  bordered  by  rows  of  cypress  trees.  Birds  sing  in  the  shrubbery, 
while  roses  and  orange  blossoms  perfume  the  air.  In  the  center  of  this  beauty 
and  fragrance,  the  Taj,  built  of  white  marble,  stands  on  a  terrace  of  marble 
thirty  feet  in  height,  with  a  minaret  at  each  corner.     The  dome,  shining  like 

1  Missionary  Herald,  1S3S,  \t.  458-  '  Biblioiheca  Sacra,  1852,  p.  229. 

'Missionary  Herald,  1S52,  p.  109.  ••Do.,  1859,  p.  48.  ^T)o..,  1842,  p.  217. 

^  The  Nestor ians,  or  the  Lost  Tribes.     London  and  New  York:   1841. 

'  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  1 17  ;   1S42,  pp.  310-318.  «  Biblioiheca  Sacra,  1848,  pp.  i54-i7i- 

'^ Missionary  Herald,  1S53,  p.  109;  Memoir,  by  Prof.  Tyler,  pp.  213-226. 

^°  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  lo^.  "  Do.,  1S41,  p.  206. 

^"i  Journal  American  Oriental  Society ,  Vol.  VII,  i>p.  143-270-  '^'^  Missionary  Herald,  1836,  p.  63. 

»« India,  A  nc  ient  atid  Modern,  p    1 34.  '"  Crown  of  the  world. 


ARCH.t:OLO(;V.  i5e 

burnished  silver,  is  seventy  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  structure  is  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  from  the  terrace  to  the  golden  crescent  at  the  top  of  the 
spire.  The  whole  of  the  Koran  is  said  to  be  inlaid  on  the  building,  in  black 
marble  outside  and  in  precious  stones  within.     Three  thousand  eio-ht  hundred 


=^j^       -  I  |f^'''^r'lHTl''i''i^?^^^'-^^^P 


TAJ     MAHAL. 


and  seventy  pounds  of  opals,  four  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-four  of 
rubies,  eight  thousand  three  hundred  and  forty-two  of  emeralds,  twelve  thousand 
four  hundred  and  seventy  of  sapphires,  seventy-seven  thousand  four  hundred 
of  carnelian,  twenty  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty  of  turquoise,  thirty-seven 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty  of  lapis  lazuli,  and  forty-three  thousand  of 


l66  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

agate  and  onyx  were  used  in  its  inscription,  besides  immense  quantities  of  less 
valuable  material.  In  the  center,  under  the  dome,  is  the  tomb,  enclosed  by  an 
open  screen  of  white  marble  inlaid  with  mosaic.  The  walls  of  the  cenotaph 
itself  are  of  snow-white  marble,  inlaid  with  flowers  that  look  like  embroidery  on 
white  satin.  Thirty-five  different  kinds  of  carnelian  are  used  in  one  leaf  of 
a  carnation,  and  in  one  blossom  not  larger  than  a  dollar,  twenty-three  different 
gems  may  be  counted.  A  single  flower  is  said  to  contain  three  hundred 
different  stones.  The  name  and  virtues  of  the  queen  are  recorded  in  the  same 
costly  manner.  Tavernier  tells  us  that  the  building  of  this  edifice  occupied 
twenty  thousand  men  for  twenty-two  years.  It  was  finished  not  far  from  1650, 
and  cost  nearly  $16,000,000  in  gold.' 

Perhaps  the  best  description  of  this  marvel  of  architecture  is  that  given  by 
Rev.  W.  Butler,  D.D.,  in  the  third  chapter  of  his  Land  of  the  Veda.  He  gives 
the  name  of  the  queen  in  whose  memory  it  was  erected,  Moomtaji  Mahal,"  and 
the  architect,  who,  it  seems,  was  a  Frenchman,  Austin  de  Bordeaux,  and  who 
also  built  the  palaces  at  Agra  and  Delhi. 

He  is  eloquent  in  his  description  of  the  whole  structure,  and  '  speaks  of  the 
echo  of  the  dome  as  "more  pure,  prolonged,  and  harmonious  than  any  other  in 
the  world."  One  writer  is  quoted  as  saying  that,  "of  all  the  complicated  music 
ever  heard  on  earth,  that  of  a  flute  played  softly  in  the  vault  below,  where  the 
tombs  are,  as  the  sound  rises  to  the  dome,  amid  a  hundred  arched  alcoves,  and 
descends  to  the  floor  above  in  heavenly  reverberations,  is  perhaps  the  finest  to 
an  inartificial  ear.  We  feel  as  if  it  were  from  heaven  and  breathed  by  angels. 
It  is  to  the  ear  what  the  building  itself  is  to  the  eye."  Then,  on  another  page  ^ 
he  tells  us  that  "on  the  end  of  the  tomb,  facing  the  entrance,  are  the  words  : 
'And  defend  us  from  the  tribe  of  unbelievers' — Kafirs;  the  word  being  a 
bitter  term  of  contempt  for  Christians  and  all  who  reject  Mohammed."  And 
he  adds  :  "  Heaven  would  not  answer  this  fanatical  prayer,  but  has  placed  the 
shrine  itself  in  the  custody  of  those  she  hated,  who  enter  the  building  freely, 
and  smile  with  pity  at  the  impotent  bigotry  which  asked  heaven  to  forbid  their 
approach."  He  himself,  "with  a  band  of  missionaries,  in  the  presence  of 
these  words,  sang  the  Christian  doxology,  while  the  echo  sweetly  repeated 
from  above  the  praise  to  '  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.' ''  This,  no  doubt, 
forms  a  very  pretty  tableau;  but  one  is  led  to  ask  whether,  after  all,  the  Indian 
queen  meant  any  more  by  the  words  el  kafireeii  than  a  good  Methodist  woman 
would  mean  by  the  term  Calvinists.  The  word  Kafir  means  one  who  covers  and 
hides,  and,  as  he  says,  is  applied  especially  to  one  who  does  not  believe  in  the 
dogmas  of  Mohammed.  Now,  we  do  not  believe  in  them,  and  are  not  ashamed 
of  our  unbelief;  why,  then,  should  we  be  offended  by  the  title.''  Then,  though 
the  means  of  verifying  it  are  not  at  hand,  the  probability  is  that  the  sentence, 
as  it  stands,  is  a  quotation  from  the  Koran,  and  is  a  general  prayer  for 
deliverance  from  unbelievers,  and  not  any  special  prohibition  from  approach  to 
that  building.  Indeed,  such  a  prohibition  would  not  be  necessary ;  for  Moslems 
do  not  allow  Christians  access  to  their  holy  places,  either  in   Mecca,  Hebron, 

^  Dr.  W.  Butler  and  Col.  Anderson,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1874,  pp.  201-202. 

2  Ornament  of  the  palace.  -  Land  of  tlie  Veda,  \^.  m.^;.     ■  <  Do.,  p.  147. 


ARCHAEOLOGY.  1 67 

or  elsewhere.  No  doubt  that  music,  as  its  liquid  echoes  floated  down  on 
those  listening  ears,  was  very  sweet.  Sweetest  of  all  was  the  thought  that  the 
Lord  Jesus  was  here  worshiped  for  the  first  time,  amid  so  much  that  was 
beautiful  to  the  eye  and  grateful  to  the  ear.  Still,  we  cannot  help  remembering 
that  the  rightful  guardians  of  the  place,  had  they  known  it,  would  not  have 
consented  to  the  act.  Was  it,  then,  obeying  the  injunction  to  "be  courteous," 
to  take  such  an  advantage  of  the  permission  given  to  enjoy  its  beauty  ?  It 
may  be  replied  that  Christ  is  rightful  Lord  of  all.  True,  but  his  way  is  to 
stand  at  the  door  and  knock  till  they  that  are  within  open  it  for  his  admission  ; 
and  we  believe  that  he  is  much  more  glorified  by  waiting  till  the  rightful  own- 
ers sing  his  praise  with  their  own  lips,  as  they  will  one  day,  than  to  have  his 
people  thus  use  the  property  of  others  contrary  to  their  wishes.  When  David 
would  erect  an  altar  on  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah  the  Jebusite,  though  he 
did  it  at  the  express  command  of  God,  he  first  bought  the  property  from  its 
proba:bly  heathen  owner,  and  paid  the  money,  before  he  used  it  as  a  place  for 
the  worship  of  God. 

Dr.  Allen  describes  a  similar  mausoleum  erected  by  Aurungzebe  for  his 
favorite  wife,  at  Aurungabad,  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Nizam's  do- 
minions. The  spacious  park,  the  aqueducts  watering  the  shubbery,  the  elevated 
terrace,  the  marble  structure,  lofty  dome,  cenotaph,  and  marble  screen  around 
it,  are  all  there,  only  on  a  much  cheaper  scale,  as  the  cost  was  only  $400,000.' 

Dowlutabad  is  also  described  by  Dr.  Allen  ^  and  Dr.  Burgess,  eight  miles 
northwest  of  Aurungabad.  It  is  mentioned  by  the  historian,  Arrian,  under  the 
name  of  Tagara,  two  thousand  years  ago.  Its  present  name  is  Mohammedan. 
The  area  of  the  walled  city  is  nearly  covered  with  ruins.  The  fort  was  origi- 
nally a  granite  mountain  five  or  six  hundred  feet  high.  One  third  of  the  way 
up  it  is  scarped  so  as  to  present  on  every  side  a  perpendicular  clifE  of  a  hun- 
dred and  forty  feet.  At  the  base  of  this  a  deep  ditch,  twenty  feet  wide,  is 
excavated  in  the  rock.  The  only  ascent  is  by  a  long,  dark,  winding  tunnel, 
from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  long  and  ten  or  twelve  feet  square,  hewn  also 
in  the  rock.  This  is  fortified  by  towers  at  its  entrance  near  the  base  of  the 
cliff,  and  comes  out  near  its  upper  edge.  So  many  side-ways  turn  off  from  it 
that  a  guide  is  needed  for  the  ascent.  The  labor  expended  on  this  huge  mass 
of  granite  must  have  been  im.mense,  and  it  could  defy  the  assault  of  every  foe 
except  famine ;  yet  it  has  been  taken  six  or  seven  times  in  as  many  centuries. 

A  similar  fort,  though  not  so  strong,  is  described  by  Rev.  G.  T.  Washburn,^ 
in  southern  India,  at  Dindigul,  a  town  thirty-eight  miles  north  northwest  of 
Madura.  It  was  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  Tangala,  and  sixteen  hundred  years 
later  it  was  famous  in  the  wars  of  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son,  Tippoo  Sahib.  The 
English  captured  it  in  one  day  in  1767,  and  again  in  1790.  Its  name  signifies 
'•  pillow  rock,"  and  it  is  a  great  brown  mass  of  granite  from  three  to  four 
hundred  feet  high,  accessible  only  on  one  side,  and  crowned  with  a  substantial 
fort.  The  engraving  gives  a  view  of  it  from  the  east.  Part  of  the  town  of 
Dindigul  is  seen  on  the  right  hand  of  the  picture. 

^Missionary  Herald,  1835,  p.  458;   1S41,  pp.  311-312.  -Do.,  1835,  p.  458. 

"  Do.,  1876,  p.  209. 


l68  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Dr.  Allen  describes  Beejapur  as  formerly  one  of  the  largest  and  most  splen- 
did cities  of  India.  Native  writers  assign  to  it  a  population  of  nine  hundred 
and  fifty-four  thousand.  Its  wall  is  eight  miles  in  circumference,  built  of  hewn 
stone,  with  towers  at  intervals  of  a  hundred  yards,  and  surrounded  by  a  deep 
ditch,  cut  much  of  the  way  in  solid  rock.  The  Jumma  Musjid,^  in  which  Dr. 
Allen  lodged,  is  a  splendid  structure,  two  hundred  and  ninety  feet  by  one 
hundred  and  sixty-five,  with  wings  each  two  hundred  and  ten  feet  by  forty-five. 
The  roof  is  one  large  dome  surrounded  by  smaller  ones,  and  supported  by 
walls  resting  on  pillars.  The  kiblah  has  many  extracts  from  the  Koran,  beauti- 
fully engraved  in  stone,  and  gilt.  No  wood  is  used  in  its  construction.  It  was 
erected  in  A.  D.  1666,  by  Ali  Adil  Shah,  and  is  in  good  preservation;  though 
only  a  dozen  worshipers  attend  now  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  where  kings  and 
countless  throngs  once  assembled. 

Near  this  is  the  mausoleum  of  Sultan  Mohammed,  or  Mohammed  Shah,  two 
hundred  and  forty  feet  square.  The  interior  is  one  vast  room,  covered  by  a 
single  dome.  On  a  lofty  platform  in  the  center  are  the  monuments  of  himself 
and  family,  seven  in  all.  Their  bodies  lie  in  vaults  beneath.  At  each  corner 
of  the  building  is  a  large  minaret ;  from  these,  horizontal  passages  extend  to 
the  base  of  the  dome,  where  a  magnificent  view  of  the  interior  bursts  on  the 
spectator.  Men  on  the  floor  appear  like  pigmies,  yet  the  ceiling  of  the  dome 
seems  as  high  as  from  the  pavement  a  hundred  feet  below,  while  all  the  upper 
parts  of  the  building  appear  much  larger.  The  sound  of  voices  from  the  oppo- 
site side  is  loud  and  distinct.  This  mausoleum  was  erected  by  Mohammed 
Shah,  who  died  A.  D.  1660." 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  holy  places  in  Madura  is  the  Teppa 
Kulam.^  Its  neat  solidity  and  tasteful  arrangement  make  an  impression  of 
perfect  symmetry.  It  is  twelve  hundred  yards  square.  The  sides  are  faced 
with  hewn  granite,  surmounted  by  a  granite  parapet,  and  midway  in  each  a 
broad  flight  of  steps  leads  down  to  the  water,  ornamented  with  mythological 
figures.  Between  the  wall  and  the  water  extends  a  paved  gallery,  affording  a 
cool  and  pleasant  walk.  In  the  center  of  the  tank  is  a  square  island,  visible  in 
the  engraving,  faced  with  the  same  granite  blocks.  At  its  corners  are  small 
temples,  and  in  the  center  of  all  rises  a  lofty-domed  pagoda,  the  intervening 
space  being  filled  with  ever-blooming  fruit  trees  and  shrubbery.  As  the  water 
is  deep  and  clear,  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  very  pleasing. 

Timul  Naik  expended  in  its  construction  $50,000,  and,  to  meet  the  cost  of  its 
annual  festival,  endowed  it  with  lands  yielding  a  yearly  rent  of  $5,000.  At  this 
festival,  the  parapet,  island,  and  temples  are  lighted  up  with  a  hundred  thou- 
sand lamps,  and  the  idols  of  the  great  pagoda  are  drawn  round  the  ishuul  for 
several  hours,  on  a  gaudily  ornamented  raft,  after  which  they  are  taken  to  a 
pavilion  on  the  island  to  rest  from  their  fatigue.  On  a  clear  night,  the  illumi- 
nation and  the  fire-works  connected  with  it  attract  thousands  of  spectators 
from  all  directions.* 

Just  before  his  lamented  death,  Rev.  D.  C.  Scudder  was  exploring  some 

>  Great  mosque.  -Missionary  Herald,  1837,  pp.  209-210.  s  Raf t  tank. 

'Rev. 


-  Missionary  Herald,  1837,  pp.  209-210. 
.  J.  T.'Noyes,  Missionary  He'ndd,  1S72,  p.  297 


iriiwTiiiiiaiiMte«ii 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


169 


cromlechs  among  the  Pulney  hills.  Clambering  along  their  sides  by  a  romantic 
footpath,  and  crossing  brooks,  where  he  noticed  recent  traces  of  elk,  he  found 
the  ruins  on  a  projecting  ridge  overlooking  a  long  and  beautiful  valley.  On 
a  raised  platform,  twenty-four  feet  square,  facing  east  and  west,  were  a  number 
of  these  structures,  falling  to  ruin.  They  consisted  of  three  slabs  of  unhewn 
stone  placed  on  end,  like  the  three  walls  of  a  house,  with  an  immense  slab 
covering  the  whole,  and  one  end  left  open  for  a  door.  One  of  these  primitive 
apartments  measured  eight  feet  in  length  by  four  in  breadth.  Crawling  under 
the  stone  roof,  he  dug  away  the  soil  at  several  points  with  a  hoe,  and  found  a 
flat  stone  that  sounded  hollow  beneath.  There  were  three  rows  of  cromlechs, 
and  six  in  each  row.  The  platform  was  faced  with  square,  unhewn  stones,  to 
the  height  of  three  feet.  Two  rods  down  the  hill  were  several  others,  but  not 
faced  like  this  one.  Next  day  he  uncovered  one  of  the  floor  slabs,  a  foot  in 
thickness,  three  feet  wide,  and  five  in  length,  but  he  could  not  move  it  to  learn 
what  was  beneath. 

Two  miles  distant  he  found  on  another  projecting  spur  of  the  mountain  a 
similar  platform  and  cromlechs,  larger  and  better  preserved.  One  perpendic- 
ular slab  was  eight  feet  high,  six  feet  long,  and  a  foot  and  a  half  thick ;  and 
abreast  of  it  were  two  rooms,  each  six  feet  by  three,  and  four  feet  high,  but 
roofless.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  square  stood  another  row,  very  ruinous^ 
and  at  one  end  of  it  a  smaller  one,  facing  at  right  angles  to  the  others.  The 
slabs  evidently  came  from  the  stratified  gneiss  of  the  mountain  close  by,  which 
naturally  splits  into  such  blocks,  and  the  places  where  they  came  from  were 
plainly  marked.  Mr.  Scudder  longed  to  excavate  below  the  floors,  but  had  not 
the  means  for  that.  Their  antiquity  is  doubtless  equal  to  the  Celtic  ones  in 
Britain.     The  natives  here  have  no  tradition  about  them. 

Near  a  village  belonging  to  Mana  Madura,  the  rims  of  a  dozen  earthen  pots 
a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  in  diameter  projected  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  He  dug  up  one,  found  it  two  feet  deep  and  full  of  gravel.  In  the 
bottom  he  found  two  small  pots,  of  a  form  now  unusual,  and  in  one  was  the 
half  of  a  skull,  its  form  preserved  by  the  earth  in  which  it  was  embedded,  with 
some  teeth  and  remains  of  other  bones.  He  opened  four  more,  and  in 
each  found  bones,  though  all  were  exceedingly  decayed.  On  the  outside  of 
one  were  a  number  of  vessels  of  various  forms,  one  like  a  finger-bowl.  No  one 
knew  anything  about  the  origin  of  the  jars,  but  it  was  manifestly  an  ancient 
grave-yard.  There  was  a  tradition  that  it  belonged  to  a  caste  that  was  buried 
alive,  with  a  little  rice  and  water  in  the  cups  —  manifestly  a  mere  guess. 

Two  months  later  he  found  an  old  piud  fort  near  his  own  home  at  Periaku- 
lum,  and  close  by  some  circles  of  rough  stones  like  those  found  in  Dindigul. 
Not  far  oiT  he  heard  of  some  pots  larger  than  those  just  described.  A  native 
picked  up  near  them  a  rusty  iron  weapon  like  a  cleaver,  and  another  had 
ploughed  up  a  piece  of  iron  like  a  sword,  and  in  a  small  stone  house  had  found 
a  horse  made  of  pottery,  much  superior  to  those  manufactured  now.  Setting  off 
himself,  he  found  a  cromlech  about  six  feet  by  three,  choked  up  with  dirt,  and, 
by  digging,  several  earthen  vessels  were  brought  to  light.  In  one  end  of  the 
structure  was  a  round  hole,  with  a  stone  set  up  against  it  outside,  like  some  on 


jjO  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

the  Nilagiris.  It  is  supposed  that  the  body  was  introduced  through  this  open- 
ing. Among  other  discoveries  he  made  was  a  pot  on  four  legs,  and  two  large 
pots,  like  those  at  Mana  Madura,  lying  on  their  sides,  facing  the  door,  with 
many  fragments  of  others.  He  also  found  some  covers  for  the  pots,  and  some 
pieces  of  iron  too  much  destroyed  by  rust  to  determine  their  exact  shape  ;  also 
some  bones.  He  thought,  also,  that  decayed  bones  were  the  cause  of  a  white 
powder  in  the  soil.  The  room  faces  due  east,  and  the  slabs  are  six  feet  thick 
by  seven  or  eight  in  height.  The  end  ones  are  three  feet  wide  by  seven  in 
heio-ht.  There  is  no  place  where  they  could  have  been  brought  from  nearer 
than  a  mile.  These  are  the  dry  bones  of  several  sprightly  letters  filling  eleven 
pages  of  his  memoir.^  See  Rev.  W.  Tracy's  account  of  similar  tombs  and 
cromlechs,  six  years  later,  in  Journal  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  IX,  ]>.  xlv. 
He  thinks  the  urns,  and  apparently  the  cromlechs  also,  are  Buddhistic. 

Rev.  E.  Burgess  describes  the  celebrated  caves  of  Ellora.^  These  are  a  mile 
in  length,  containing  twenty-three  excavations,  three  of  them  two  stories  high, 
and  one  three  stories.  Nine  of  them  are  each  more  than  a  hundred  feet  long, 
but  the  average  size  is  eighty-one  feet  by  fifty-two.  Pillars,  round,  square,  and 
octagonal,  are  left  at  regular  intervals  to  support  the  roof,  and  the  walls  are 
covered  with  images  of  the  gods.  One  called  Kylus'is  a  complete  temple, 
with  its  rooms,  verandas,  domes,  and  spires  cut  out  of  the  rock.  A  passage 
fourteen  feet  wide  and  forty-two  feet  long  leads  from  the  outer  court  to  an 
inner  one  two  hundred  and  forty-seven  feet  by  one  hundred  and  fifty,  and  in 
the  center  of  this  stands  the  great  temple,  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  by 
nijiety-five,  and  ninety  feet  to  the  highest  turret.  A  veranda  twenty  feet  wide 
extends  along  the  back  of  the  court  and  half-way  down  its  sides ;  the  wall  is 
covered  with  sculptures. 

The  temple  of  Minatchi,  at  Madura,  is  described  by  Rev.  J.  R.  Eckard^  and 
by  Rev.  W.  Tracy .^  A  granite  wall,  thirty-seven  feet  high,  surrounds  a  court 
eight  hundred  and  forty  feet  by  seven  hundred  and  twenty.  The  gate-way 
towers,  represented  in  the  engraving,  are  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high, 
three  of  them  completely  encrusted  with  bas-reliefs  of  the  gods.  Within  this 
wall  are  nearly  fifty  granite  buildings.  The  stone  roof  of  one  of  these  rests  on 
a  thousand  granite  monoliths.  One  is  now  building,  at  an  estimated  cost  of 
700,000  rupees.  When  Tirumal  Naick  repaired  this  temple,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  he  endowed  it  with  an  annual  income  of  223,500 
rupees. 

Across  the  street  from  the  great  temple  of  Minatchi  is  the  Puthu  Manda- 
pam,  or  new  choltry.  It  is  also  called  Vasanta,^  because  built  as  a  cool  retreat 
for  the  god  Siva  in  May,  their  hottest  month.  It  is  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  feet  long  by  eighty-one  in  width,  divided  in  the  interior  into  a  nave  and 
two  side  aisles.  In  beauty  of  finish  it  excels  all  other  structures  in  Madura. 
The  flat  roof  is  composed  of  immense  granite  slabs,  resting  on  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  pillars  twenty-five  feet  high,  each  hewn  from  a  single  block 

■^  Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  D.  C.  Scudder,  pp.  356-366. 

*  Do.,  1841,  pp.  311-312.     See,  also,  Dr.  Allen's  India,  Ancient  and  Modern,  pp.  391-396. 
»  Paradise.  *  Missionary  Herald,  1836,  p.  169.  ^Do,  1S68,  p.  105. 

'•  Siiriiig. 


ARCH.^OLOGY. 


lyr 


of  granite,  and  carved  in  Hindoo  style.  The  labor  of  carving  and  of  erecting: 
them  in  position  must  have  been  enormous.  Among  the  ornaments  are  ten 
groups  of  stone  sculptures,  representing  the  ten  Pandian  kings,  of  heroic  size,, 
with  their  wives  in  smaller  figures.  A  massive  platform  in  front,  with  twelve 
pillars  smooth  as  glass  and  black  as  jet,  supporting  a  canopy,  are  wrought  out 
of  black  Madura  granite,  a  dark  Syenite  sprinkled  with  a  green  variety  of 
Scapolite.  (See  engraving.)  The  work  was  begun  in  1626  by  Tirrumala  Nay- 
agan,'  who  was  crowned  king  of  Madura  in  1623,  and  reigned  thirty-six  vears; 
and  was  finished  in  seven  years,  at  a  cost  of  ^20,000.  Others  say  it  was 
twenty-two  years  in  building,  and  cost  more  than  a  million  sterling.- 

Rev.  Dr.  Winslow  describes  the  gate-towers  of  the  temple  at  Seethumbarum' 
as  peculiarly  magnificent.  They  are  three  hundred  feet  high,  and  the  granite 
lintel  of  one,  more  than  thirty  feet  above  the  threshold,  is  twenty-five  feet 
long.  Inside  of  this  the  temple  looks  like  a  city,  so  numerous  are  the  build- 
ings. There,  too,  is  a  choltr}-,  whose  thousand  granite  pillars  support  a  solid 
granite  roof.     Does  this  illustrate  Solomon's  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  ? 

Rev.  W.  Tracy  describes  the  pagodas  at  Seringham,^  where  are  a  thousand 
houses  for  Brahmans,  with  a  choltry  like  that  described  abVDve.  The  treasures 
connected  with  it  are  a  palanquin  covered  with  plates  of  fine  gold,  a  crown, 
and  back  and  breastplates  of  fine  Venetian  gold  ;  fingers  and  toes  of  rubies, 
aigrettes  set  with  diamonds,  necklaces  and  bracelets  of  topazes  and  pearls,  one 
bird  made  of  pearls  and  another  of  gold  and  diamonds,  and  various  vessels  of 
pure  gold,  all  valued  at  1,312,500  rupees.^ 

In  the  interior  of  Sumatra,  at  Pogaruyong,  not  far  from  Padang,  Rev.  J. 
Ennis  found  in  front  of  the  dwelling  of  the  chief,  three  stones  seven  feet  by 
four,  with  inscriptions  in  the  ancient  Kawi  character.  The  largest  one  has 
thirty  lines,  each  containing  about  sixty  letters.  The  stone  is  very  hard,  the 
workmanship  superior,  and  the  straight  lines  and  graceful  curves  showed  that 
the  chisel  had  been  held  by  hands  more  skillful  than  those  of  the  present  inhab- 
itants. The  face  of  the  whole  country  is  covered  with  ancient  monuments. 
Fortifications,  mounds,  walls,  and  roads  appear  everywhere,  overgrown  with 
trees,  and  of  these  antiquities  the  natives  have  only  the  slightest  and  most 
unsatisfactory  tradition s.'^ 

A  pagoda  in  China  is  not  strictly  a  temple,  though  a  temple  may  be  con- 
nected with  it.  The  native  account  of  the  erection  of  the  first  structure  of  the 
kind  in  China  may  help  us  to  form  an  idea  of  its  character  and  object.  In 
the  year  A.  D.  260,  Kang-tsung-huei,  a  Buddhist  priest,  appeared  at  Nanking, 
and  performed  many  wonderful  feats.  He  told  the  emperor  that  Buddha  had 
left  many  relics,  whose  miraculous  power  was  great ;  and  the  emperor  promised 
to  build  a  pagoda  for  it,  if  one  could  be  procured.  A  bone  of  Buddha  was 
brought  in  a  bottle,  and  its  radiance  lighted  up  the  palace.  In  his  eagerness 
to  examine  it,  the  emperor  poured  it  into  a  copper  basin,  which  was  instantly 
broken  by  its  touch.  The  priest  assured  the  king  that  this  was  only  one  of  its 
wonderful  powers,  for  diamond  could  not  scratch,  fire  burn,  or  the  heaviest  maul 

1  Probably  same  as  Tirumal  Naick,  p.  170. 

2 Rev.  J.  T.  Noyes,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1873,  pp.  241-242.  ^V)a.,  1837,  p.  361. 

*Do.,  1839,  p.  23.  ''jS656,2SO.  '^Missionary  Herald,  183S,  p.  370. 


172  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

break  it.  The  story  goes  that  the  emperor  ordered  an  athlete  to  pound  it  with- 
a  sledge-hammer.  The  sledge  flew  into  fragments,  but  the  relic  was  as  entire 
and  effulgent  as  ever.  So  the  emperor  built  the  far-famed  porcelain  tower  of 
Nanking  to  enshrine  the  wonderful  relic.  This  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
structures  ever  built  in  China,  costing,  it  is  said,  $3,000,000.  Its  nine  stories 
flashed  the  sunlight  from  their  crystal  surfaces,  and  its  clear-toned  bells,  rung 
by  the  wind,  made  pleasant  melody,  till  the  Taeping  rebels  destroyed  it  in 
1856. 

These  buildings  are  supposed  to  ward  off  evil  and  secure  the  favor  of 
Buddha.  The  devout  Buddhist  believes  that  business  will  be  brisker,  crops 
more  abundant,  education  more  flourishing,  and  general  prosperity  more 
marked  where  such  structures  are  found.  They  vary  in  height  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  the  number  of  stories  varies  from  five  to  thir- 
teen, though  seven  or  nine  is  the  favorite  number.  They  are  generally  built 
of  brick  or  stone,  sometimes  solid  and  sometimes  hollow,  and  provided  with, 
stairs. 

The  one  in  the  engraving  stands  near  the  northern  wall  of  T'ung-cho  ;  is 
built  of  coarse  brick,  and  has  thirteen  stories.  It  is  forty  feet  in  diameter  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  T'ung-cho  is  twelve  miles  east  of  Peking 
and  seventy  miles  north  of  Tientsin,  and  has  been  one  of  our  mission  stations 
since  1867.^ 

The  celebrated  Nestorian  inscription  in  China,  as  it  has  been  translated  by 
one.  of  our  missionaries,  Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman,^  demands  mention  here.  It  was 
discovered  bv  a  Chinese  workman,  in  the  year  A.  D.  1625,  in  or  near  the  city 
of  Singan  fu,  which  for  many  centuries  was  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and 
was  such  at  the  time  this  monument  was  erected,  A.  D.  781.  The  city  is  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Wei,  latitude  34°  16'  north,  and  between  109°  and  110°  east 
longitude.  The  tablet  is  a  slab  of  marble,  about  ten  feet  by  five,  with  a 
pyramidal  cross  on  tojD,  and  was  found  covered  by  rubbish,  but  was  at  once 
removed  to  a  temple  by  the  Chinese  magistrates.  It  contains  a  Chinese 
inscription  in  twenty-eight  lines,  with  twenty-six  characters  in  each  line,  besides 
a  heading  over  the  top  in  nine  characters,  and  another  on  the  right  side  in 
seventeen.  Dr.  Bridgman  gives  Kircher's  translation  in  Latin,  Dalquie's  in 
French,  and  the  original  Chinese,  besides  his  own  version  in  English.  The 
whole  is  printed  in  four  columns,  covering  two  pages,  all  visible  to  the  reader 
on  the  opening  of  the  book.  Twenty-two  pages  are  thus  filled  with  the  inscrip- 
tion and  translations,  and  five  pages  more  are  occupied  with  notes  by  Dr. 
Bridgman.  Some  of  these  notes,  and  the  whole  of  Dr.  Bridgman's  version,  are 
given  in  the  Middle  Kingdom?  Dr.  J.  Murdock,  in  his  edition  of  Mosheim's 
Ecclesiastical  History, "^  says  that  at  the  bottom  is  a  Syrian  inscription  in  Estrangelo 
characters,  containing  a  catalogue  of  Nestorian  ecclesiastics.  The  inscription 
is  partly  historical  and  partly  theological,  giving  an  account  of  the  creation 
and  the  incarnation,  and  of  the  attitude  of  a  number  of  the  Chinese  emperors 
toward  the  religion  of  Christ,  some  of  them  favoring  it  and  sending  gifts  to  the 

'A.  O.  Treat,  M.  P.,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1875,  pp.  369-371. 
^Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  201-229:  Vol.  XIX,  p.  552. 
•Vol.  II,  pp.  291-297.  *Vol.  I,  p.  422,  note. 


A  PAGODA  AT  TUNG-CHO. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


173 


church,  and  having  their  portraits  hung  upon  its  walls.  It  is  interesting  to 
notice  that  it  calls  the  Magi  who  visited  the  Babe  in  Bethlehem,  Persians  ;  and 
among  other  things  said  of  the  disciples  after  Christ  had  left  the  earth  is  this : 
"They  beat  the  wood,  sounding  out  the  voice  of  benevolence  and  mercy."  Dr. 
Bridgman,  in  his  note  on  this,  says  it  alludes  to  some  usage  with  which  he  is 
unacquainted.  Does  it  not  refer  to  the  piece  of  sonorous  wood  suspended  in 
some  eastern  churches  too  poor  to  own  a  bell,  which  is  struck  by  a  mallet  in 
order  to  summon  the  people  to  prayer  ?  The  inscription  mentions  a  persecu- 
tion by  Buddhists  in  A.  D.  599,  and  another  slight  opposition  in  A.  D.  713.  It 
speaks  of  Olopun  as  a  man  of  superior  virtue,  who  made  his  way  through 
dangers,  bearing  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  arrived  at  Chang  ngan,  one  of  the 
districts  in  the  department  of  Singan  fu,  in  A.  D.  736.  There  was  a  metro- 
politan in  Peking  by  that  name  in  A.  D.  714,  The  missionary  labors  of  the 
Nestorians  ceased  when  the  Mongols  were  expelled  in  A.  D.  1369,  and  some 
have  thought  that  all  trace  of  their  labors  had  disappeared  ;  but  a  missionary  in 
Ningpo  tells  of  a  stranger  coming  to  his  chapel  from  a  western  province,^  and 
listening  attentively,  who  after  service  said  that  he  and  his  ancestors  worshiped 
only  one  God,  the  Creator.  He  knew  of  Moses  and  Jesus  ;  said  he  was  not  a 
Romanist  or  Moslem,  but  that  his  doctrine  had  been  handed  down  from  many 
generations,  and  that  thirty  families  in  his  town  belonged  to  the  same  religion. 
Was  not  this  a  living  witness  to  the  fruitfulness  of  labors  put  forth  many  cent- 
uries before,  by  Nestorian  missionaries,  fit  to  go  along  with  this  marble  testi- 
mony to  the  same  ?  ^ 

*  Singan  fu  is  west  of  Ningpo.  -Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  p.  51. 


VIII. 
CABINETS  AND  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS. 


The  contributions  of  missionaries  to  our  museums  and  cabinets  demand 
our  notice.  The  Missionary  Museum  at  the  Congregational  House  in  Boston 
is  a  rich  treasure  for  the  student  in  natural  history,  especially  in  conchology 
and  mineralogy.  Messrs.  Bingham,  Thurston,  Goodrich,  and  Coan  have  sent 
contributions  from  the  Pacific,  Messrs.  Beadle  and  Wolcott  from  Syria,  Drs. 
Dwight  and  A.  Smith  from  Turkey,  Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard,  Drs.  Perkins  and 
Wright  from  Persia,  Dr.  Winslow,  Dr.  Fairbanks  and  Rev.  H.  J.  Bruce  from 
India,  and  Dr.  S.  W.  Williams  and  others  from  China,  with  many  more. 
Besides  idols  from  heathen  lands,  it  contains  many  weapons  of  war,  instru- 
ments of  agriculture,  and  household  utensils  ;  and  among  its  illustrations  of 
archaeology  are  an  ivory  image  Dr.  Grant  obtained  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdis- 
tan, and  the  base  of  a  marble  fountain  from  Tripoli  in  Syria,  brought  home  by 
the  writer,  containing  the  lower  extremities  of  a  statue,  and  the  end  of  a  club 
carved  into  the  likeness  of  a  head,  from  whose  mouth  the  water  issued. 

The  Rev.  M.  Hopkins,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  thus  writes  of  missionary  contributions 
to  Williams  College  :  "  Like  other  institutions,  we  had,  quite  early,  numerous 
specimens  of  clothes,  clubs,  spears,  oars,  and  the  like,  from  the  Sandwich 
Islands ;  native  iron  from  Africa,  and  spears  made  from  it ;  also  specimens  in 
geology,  mineralogy,  and  botany ;  but  the  things  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the 
specimens  of  Assyrian  sculpture  sent  by  Dr.  D.  W.  Marsh  from  the  palace  of 
Sennacherib,  in  Nineveh,  which  he  obtained  from  Mr.  Layard  for  the  college. 
They  are  among  the  very  finest,  and  were  the  first  brought  to  this  country. 
They  made  quite  a  sensation,  and  determined  other  institutions  to  obtain  simi- 
lar ones,  if  possible.  In  this  several  of  them  succeeded,  and  so  that  branch  of 
study,  since  pursued  with  so  much  zeal  and  profit  in  our  land,  we  owe  to  our 
missionaries.  We  are  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  Marsh,  and  much  credit  is  due 
him  for  his  zeal  and  care  in  the  matter.  He  had  to  saw  the  slabs  into  sections 
small  enough  to  be  carried  on  the  backs  of  camels  to  the  Mediterranean." 

In  the  Woods  Natural  History  Cabinet  at  Amherst  College  is  a  collection  of 
more  than  twelve  hundred  minerals,  chiefly  from  Asia,  sent  mostly  by  mission- 
aries, and  numerous  enough  to  give  a  tolerable  idea  of  the  geology  of  Syria, 
especially  Mount  Lebanon  ;  also  of  northwestern  Persia,  and  the  Ghauts  of 
India.  They  were  sent  by  Revs.  P.  Fisk,  S.  Hebard,  G.  B.  Whiting,  D.  Bliss, 
and  H.  B.  Morgan,  of  Svria  ;  Drs.  B.  Schneider,  H.  J.  Van  Lennep,  and  C. 
(^74) 


CABINETS    AND    CUNEIFORM     INSCRIPTIONS.  I7C 

Hamlin,  Revs.  P.  O.  Powers,  J.  S.  Everett,  O.  P.  Allen,  H.  A.  Homes,  and 
H.  Lobdell,  M.D.,  of  Turkey,  and  H.  Hallock,  of  Malta  and  Smyrna;  Revs. 
J.  Perkins,  D.D.,  J.  L.  Merrick,  and  D.  T.  Stoddard,  of  Persia;  Rev.  Dr.  D. 
Poor  and  N.  Ward,  M.D.,  of  Ceylon  ;  Rev.  E,  Burgess,  of  Ahmednuggur  ;  Rev. 
Dr.  E.  Bridgman  and  Dr.  I.  McGowan,  of  China ;  and  Revs.  J.  Goodrich,  E. 
Spaulding,  and  A.  Chapin,  M.D.,  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Dr.  Van  Lennep 
sent  a  geological  map  of  the  region  round  Smyrna,  and  some  fragments  of 
sculpture  from  Ephesus;  and  Dr.  Perkins,  when  other  materials  failed,  used 
extra  articles  from  his  wardrobe  to  pack  his  specimens  safely.^ 

Since  that  volume  was  published,-  many  and  valuable  specimens  have  been 
received.  Dr.  E.  Hitchcock,  Jr.,  writes:  "Rev.  W.  Walker,  of  the  Gaboon 
river,  in  western  Africa,  sent  a  skeleton  and  skin  of  the  gorilla,  which  at  that 
time  were  worth  a  thousand  dollars,  as  but  few  specimens  existed  either  in 
Europe  or  America.  Rev.  J.  Tyler,  of  the  Zulu  mission,  sent  hundreds  of 
specimens  of  the  rare  quadrupeds  of  South  Africa.  The  unique  horns  he  sent 
have  done  more  to  ornament  the  cabinets  than  any  other  contribution.  Among 
his  gifts  were  a  fine  lot  of  skins  and  skeletons  of  the  cony,  the  feeble  folk  of 
Proverbs  xxx :  26,  which  are  very  difficult  to  obtain,  either  in  Syria  or  South 
Africa  ;  and  also  a  monster  boa  constrictor,  with  a  number  of  other  serpents. 

"  Dr.  S.  R.  Brown,  of  Japan,  has  sent  us  the  male  and  female  of  the  giant 
crab,  the  largest  that,  so  far  as  we  know,  has  ever  existed,  and  a  quantity  of 
the  spun-glass  corals  ^  found  near  Yokohama.  Rev.  H.  J.  Bruce,  of  Satara, 
India,  has  furnished  valuable  specimens  of  birds  and  mammals,  including  bats ; 
and  his  skill  in  preparing  the  skins  is  remarkable.  The  sons  of  the  late  Rev. 
H.  Ballantine  have  secured  hundreds  of  specimens  of  Indian  birds.  Rev.  C. 
Hartwell  has  sent  many  valuable  shells,  plants,  and  minerals  from  Fuhchau, 
in  China,  and  Rev.  D,  Bliss  has  performed  like  service  for  the  cabinet  in 
Syria." 

The  Nineveh  Gallery  of  Amherst  College  is  a  monument  to  the  memory  of 
Rev.  H.  Lobdell,  M.D.,  for  its  contents  were  almost  all  procured  by  him.  It 
is  sixteen  feet  by  twelve,  lighted  from  the  roof,  and  paved  with  imitations  of 
Assyrian  bricks.  It  is  paneled  to  the  height  of  seven  feet  with  slabs  from 
Nimrud.  Above  this  are  reproductions,  in  stucco,  of  some  of  the  best  of  the 
Assyrian  sculptures. 

The  slabs  are,  first,  a  richly  dressed  human  figure  with  the  wings  and  head 
of  an  eagle,  which  some  identify  with  the  Nisroch  of  2  Kings  xix :  37  ;  second, 
an  idol  with  two  horns  lying  horizontally,  one  above  the  other,  on  his  mitre,  or 
crown.  It  is  seven  and  a  half  feet  high,  with  large  wings  growing  out  of  his 
shoulders,  a  basket  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  extended  left  hand  a  cone,  or 
pine-apple.  The  sacred  tree  is  on  this  slab  as  well  as  on  the  first,  and  across 
its  entire  breadth  is  a  belt  of  cuneiform  inscription  eighteen  inches  wide.  The 
third  differs  from  it  only  in  having  three  horns  bent  round  the  tiara,  one  above 
the  other.  The  fourth  represents  King  Assur-nazir-pal^  with  a  bow  in  one 
hand  and  a  censer  in  the  other,  as  if  offering  incense  on  return  from  war.     The 

"^  Reminiscences  0/ Amherst  College,  by  President  Hitchcock,  pp.  75-77.  ^1863. 

■•  Hyalonema  *  Literally,  the  god  Assur  is  the  protector  of  his  son. 


J76 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


fifth  resembles  the  second  and  third,  except  that  his  head  is  covered  with  fil- 
lets. The  left  hand  holds  what  seems  to  be  a  branch  of  the  sacred  tree,  and 
the  right  is  lifted  as  if  in  worship.     The  sixth  is  the  same  as  the  first. 

In  this  o-allery  are  three  horizontal  cases  filled  with  various  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  relics ;  also  several  large  bricks,  some  from  the  palace  of  Assur- 
nazir-pal,  at  Nimrud,  and  some  from  Babylon  •  also  a  number  of  beautiful 
agate  and  chalcedony  gems  from  Mecca  and  Greece  ;  Babylonian,  Assyrian  and 
Sassanian  cylinders  ]  Sassanian,  Persian,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Cufic  seals  ;  frag- 
ments of  alabaster  jars,  of  a  winged  bull,  one  of  these  last  containing  a  fossil 
Pteroceras,  also  many  inscriptions  from  Babylon.  There  are  fifteen  Greek  silver 
coins,  twelve  of  them  of  Alexander  the  Great,  thirty-one  of  the  Seleucida,  eigh- 
teen of  the  Arsacidae,  three  of  the  Sassanidae,  sixty-three  Roman  coins,  from 
Vespasian  to  Alexander  Severus,  and  eight  Cufic.  Of  antique  copper  coins 
there  are  thirteen  Greek,  forty-eight  Roman,  forty-nine  of  the  Eastern  Empire, 
and  two  hundred  and  sixty  Cufic,  besides  other  things. 

Miss  L.  W.  Shattuck,  who  has  charge  of  the  cabinets  of  natural  science  in 
Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  writes  :  "Our  gifts  from  missionaries  have  been  so 
numerous,  and  have  extended  through  so  many  years,  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  give  a  full  account  of  them.  When  I  began  the  botanical  collection 
here,  I -found  hundreds  of  plants  in  the  bundles  just  as  they  were  sent.  I  have 
had  them  put  up  carefully  in  large  tin  boxes,  but  I  do  not  know  who  sent  them. 
From  China,  Ceylon,  Persia,  Palestine,  Turkey,  Spain,  Africa,  Labrador,  and 
some  of  our  North  American  Indian  missions,  many  valuable  collections  of 
t)lants,  woods,  and  seeds  have  come  to  us,  and  beautiful  collections  of  algse 
and  ferns  have  been  sent  from  numerous  localities.  In  the  department  of 
zoology,  we  have  from  Africa  birds,  serpents,  fishes,  shells,  eggs,  insects,  and 
horns  and  skins  of  quadrupeds  ;  from  India,  shells  and  birds ;  from  the  Mar- 
shall and  Sandwich  Islands,  shells  and  corals ;  and  the  same  from  Burmah, 
China,  and  Japan.  Rev.  Mr.  Bruce  and  Rev.  Dr.  Fairbanks  have  sent  hun- 
dreds of  specimens,  both  in  zoology  and  botany.  It  would  leave  an  immense 
gap  in  all  our  cabinets  to  take  away  our  missionary  treasures.  The  incidental 
work  done  by  our  devoted  missionaries  for  the  advancement  of  human  knowl- 
edge would  compare  favorably  with  all  that  governments  have  done  who  have 
made  that  the  sole  object  of  national  exploring  expeditions." 

Accompanying  the  above  is  a  list  of  thirty-one  missionaries  who  have  sent 
curiosities  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Minerals  were  also  received  from  Rev. 
C.  F.  Muzzy,  India;  Mrs.  M.  A.  J.  Chamberlain,  Sandwich  Islands;  Mrs.  A.  G. 
Gulick,  Spain;  Mrs.  B.  Labaree,  Persia;  Rev.  Dr.  Chamberlain,  Rev.  W.  B. 
Capron,  Rev.  H.  J.  Bruce,  and  Mrs.  M.Anderson,  India;  and  Mrs.  J.  Ballagh, 
of  Japan. 

George  Champion  sent  specimens  of  mineralogy  and  natural  history  to  the 
cabinets  of  Yale  College,  from  South  Africa.  Rev.  G.  H.  Apthorpe  sent  a 
valuable  collection  of  corals  from  Ceylon.  Rev.  J.  Goodrich  sent  a  collection 
of  specimens  of  lava  and  sulphur  from  the  volcanoes  of  Hawaii. 

The  writer  has  made  repeated  applications  for  information  from  the  college 
itself,  but  so  far  has  received  only  promises  of  future  communications,  perhaps 
because  of  the  lack  of  material  to  report. 


CABINETS    AND    CUNEIFORM    INSCRIPTIONS.  1 77 

To  the  list  of  these  contributions  of  Assyrian  antiquities  to  our  college  cabi- 
nets is  appended  the  following  communication  from  the  pen  of  one  who,  but 
for  his  connection  with  missions,  had  never  taken  any  interest  in  such  studies. 


CUNEIFORM    INSCRIPTIONS. 

The  difficulty  of  deciphering  cuneiform  inscriptions  to-day  is  nothing  com- 
pared to  what  it  was  at  first.  Mons.  P.  E.  Botta  was  the  first  to  bring  to  the 
light  of  day  the  buried  wonders  of  an  Assyrian  palace.  After  working  all  day 
in  the  trenches  at  Khorsabad,^  under  a  scorching  sun,  he  spent  the  evening, 
and  indeed  many  subsequent  days,  in  the  effort  to  find  a  clue  to  the  meaning 
of  the  records  which  he  transcribed  so  carefully.  He  classified  the  characters 
noted  resemblances  between  them,  and  the  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of 
those  that  were  often  repeated,  but  after  all  his  labor  he  could  not  decide 
whether  they  should  be  read  like  English,  from  left  to  right,  or  like  Hebrew, 
from  right  to  left,  though  he  felt  satisfied  that  they  must  be  syllabic  and  not 
alphabetic. 

Compared  with  the  difficulties  of  those  days,  we  may  say  that  they  are  now 
read  with  ease.  The  wonder  is  that  any  had  courage  and  perseverance  enough 
to  attack  the  difficulty  and  conquer  it ;  and  yet,  compared  with  other  studies, 
the  difficulties  are  still  so  great  as  to  dishearten  anything  short  of  the  most 
hearty  devotion  and  unflinching  perseverance. 

It  is  not  with  any  design  of  discouraging  the  study,  but  rather  in  order  to 
induce  those  who  are  looking  in  that  direction  to  count  the  cost,  and  summon 
up  the  resolution  requisite  to  success,  that  we  venture  a  few  remarks  on  the 
difficulties  of  deciphering  the  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

The  first  to  confront  the  student  is  the  great  number  of  the  characters. 
The  syllabary  of  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce  gives  five  hundred  and  twenty-two ;  but  of 
many  of  these  he  gives  more  than  one  form,  and  yet  this  by  no  means  exhausts 
the  list.  Even  a  tyro  finds  characters  which  he  cannot  identify  with  anything 
there.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  keep  in  the  memory  only  the  more 
frequently  recurring  forms,  especially  when  they  resemble  each  other  in  gen- 
eral appearance,  and  differ  only  in  some  point  not  apparent  without  close 
examination. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  worst  of  the  difficulty.  Some  of  these  represent 
almost  as  many  sounds  as  an  ordinary  alphabet.  >~,  the  first  in  the  list, 
according  to  Prof.  Sayce,  has  twenty  values:  seven  Accadian,  and  thirteen 
Assyrian.  Another,  >^,  has  four  Accadian  values  and  fifty-one  Assyrian — fifty- 
five  in  all.  This  is  an  extreme  case,  yet  there  is  no  character  that  has  only 
one  value.     This  is  disheartening,  unless  one  makes  up  his  mind  to  turn  to  the 

1  Bit  Sargina,  the  house  of  Sargon. 
12 


lyS  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

syllabary  in  every  doubtful  case ;  but  what  if  none  fit  it  ?  or,  worse  yet,  if  several 
fit  it  equally  well  ? 

The  different  value  in  Accadian  and  Assyrian  calls  for  explanation.  The 
Accadians  ^  came  originally  from  Media,  on  the  northeast,  and  settled  in  Baby- 
lonia. Their  language  was  Turanian,  not  Shemitic,  and  they  seem  to  have 
been  the  inventors  of  the  cuneiform  system  of  writing.  Originally  hiero- 
glyphics, copying  the  form  of  the  object  described,  these  were  soon  changed 
for  the  easier  and  angular  cuneiform ;  and  when  the  Assyrians  subdued  Baby- 
lonia, they  appropriated  the  written  characters  of  the  conquered,  with  a 
simplification  of  the  form  and  a  variation  in  the  value ;  for  the  same  character 
was  applied  to  the  same  object  in  both  languages,  and  so  represented  different 
sounds  as  it  was  read  by  the  two  nations.  Beginning  with  visible  objects,  this 
diversity  extended  to  other  parts  of  speech.  Then,  having  thus  commenced 
the  use  of  polyphones,  they  went  on  enlarging  the  number,  using  affixes,  and 
sometimes  prefixes,  to  specify  the  pronunciation  required.  In  this  way  poly- 
phones came  to  be  used  in  different  words  in  the  same  language,  and  a  certain 
collocation  of  different  characters  determined  the  pronunciation  of  both. 
Thus,  -^y  is  ood  or  doo,  or  par  or  tam,  or  eight  other  sounds  ;  but  after  <^ 
which  is  mat,  or  sad,  or  lat,  etc.,  it  denoted  that  a.  ^J  was  to  be  pronounced 
Aksood=I  conquered. 

There  are  many  sources  of  this  diversity  in  the  value  of  characters.  One  is 
the  use  of  the  same  one  both  as  a  syllable  and  as  an  ideograph,  or  sign  for  a 
word.  Thus,  >tJ^  may  be  the  syllable  moo,  or  the  ideograph  soom  =  name,  or 
sanna  ==  a  year ;  and  -^T  may  be  as  above,  or  the  ideograph  oomma  =  day,  some- 
times pronounced  yoomoo,  like  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  ^J>-  is  the  syllable 
si,  or  the  ideograph  enu  =  eye. 

Another  source  of  this  diversity  is  the  use  of  certain  characters  as  determin- 
atives, denoting  that  the  word  following  belongs  to  a  certain  class  of  objects ; 
e.  g.,  >->-y  is  the  syllable  an,  or  it  is  the  ideograph  11  =  God  ;  or,  as  a  determin- 
ative, it  denotes  that  the  word  following  is  something  divine ;  e.  g.,  "^j  is  yoomoo, 
=  day,  but  >->-Y'^Y  is  Samas  =  the  sun,  reverenced  as  a  god.  ■<^»7f-  is  the 
syllable  im  or  ni,  or  the  ideograph  Roohhoo  =  wind,  or  breath,  or  spirit;  but 
•^•"T-s^^f  ^^  ^^^'  ^^  Rammanu,  the  God  of  the  Atmosphere  (2  Kings,  v  :  18). 
»"^yy  may  be  the  syllable  ir,  or  aloo  =  city,  or  a  determinative,  denoting  that 
the  word  following  is  the  name  of  a  city  ;  e.  g.,  *^X^\  *^^\  Ninua  =  Nineveh  ; 
literallyFishtown;  >-^yy  <^^  >{-  ^\  Di-mas-ka  =  Damascus  ;  '^^yy  [tf 
,^  =-^^yy  4^>^  >^  Ur-sa-ii-im-mu=Jerusalem.  y  is  the  determinative  for 
proper  names  ;<?.^.,  y  Jj^  ^^  T^JJ  y^  ^yyy^^  Kha-za-qi-a-hoo  =  Hezekiah, 

Another  source  of  this  diversity  is  the  use  of  the  same  characters  for  num- 

'  Literally,  Highlanders. 


CABINETS    AND    CUNEIFORM    INSCRIPTIONS.  179 

bers  and  for  syllables  or  words  ;  e.  g.,  y  is  Sa,  the  relative  pronoun,  or  gar ;  and 
it  is  also  irbu,  denoting  four.  ^^  is  Sana,  and  that  also  is  irbu  =  four  ;  Hebrew 
and  Arabic,  Arbaa.  \  is  u,  or  va=  and.  It  is  also  Esirtu,  masculine,  or  Esru, 
feminine  =  ten  ;  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  Asher,  Ashra.  •^<^  is  the  syllable  mun,  or 
nis,  or  the  ideograph  for  Tsar  =  king,  or  Esraa=  twenty.  Y»-  is  the  syllable  me 
or  sib ;  the  ideograph  for  assembly,  or  for  tongue,  by  which  an  assembly  is 
called,  or  for  Kalu,  the  verb  to  call  or  summon.  It  is  also  me  =  one  hundred ; 
Hebrew,  Maeah;  Arabic,  Meeah.  There  is  still  greater  uncertainty  about  Y. 
As  a  syllable  it  is  dis  or  tis;  as  an  ideograph,  ana  =  the  preposition  to  ;  and  as 
a  numeral,  either  akhadoo,  or  edu,  or  estin,  masculine,  ikhit,  feminine  =  one  ; 
or  it  may  be  soossoo  =  sixty,  for  the  soss  was  a  unit  among  the  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians. 

There  is  a  curious  illustration  of  this  diversity  in  the  names  of  some  of  the 
gods  ;  e.  g.,  \K\  is,  as  a  syllable,  ess  ;  as  an  ideograph,  Bit  =  house  ;  as  a 
numeral,  Silasaa  =  thirty ;  but  >">-y  ^^"^  is  Seen  =  the  moon,  one  of  the  chief 
gods  of  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Pantheon,  being  masculine,  and  the  eldest 
son  of  Bel,  while  Samas,  the  name  of  the  sun,  is  feminine ;  and  ^Yy'  is  Khamis- 
serit  =  fifteen,  but  >->-y  ^Yy^  ^^  ^^^^  goddess,  Istar,  that  takes  the  place  of  both 
Venus  and  Bellona ;  for  she  presides  over  both  love  and  war,  and  was  the 
favorite  goddess  of  some  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  especially  of  Assur-bani-pal. 

Another  fruitful  source  of  diversity  is  the  interchange  of  M  and  V ;  e.  g., 
^Y  may  be  either  ma  or  va,  and  scholars  debate  whether  to  read  *-^Q  *^ 
Akmoo  or  Akvoo=  I  burned.  So  also  there  is  a  like  uncertainty  in  the  read- 
ing of  some  forms  of  what  is  called  the  mimmation  of  words ;  an  intensive 
form  corresponding  to  the  Arabic  tennween,  or  nunnation,  which  adds  n  to  the 
a,  e,  and  u  of  the  three  cases,  as  this  adds  m. 

The  Assyrian  mode  of  writing,  without  capitals,  punctuation  marks,  or  spaces 
between  words  and  sentences,  is  another  source  of  very  great  difficulty  to  the 
reader.  He  never  knows  where  one  word  ends  and  another  begins,  but  has  to 
puzzle  it  out  as  best  he  can ;  for  a  line  may  often  be  divided  up  in  more  ways 
than  one,  and  characters  may  be  used  either  to  denote  syllables  or  ideographs. 
One  help,  however,  is  afforded  us  in  our  perplexity.  A  line  never  ends  in  the 
middle  of  a  word.  If  the  last  word  is  too  short  to  fill  it  out,  the  characters  are 
dilated  horizontally  to  fill  the  space.  If  too  long,  they  are  crowded  together 
more  closely,  or  an  ideograph  is  used  instead  of  several  syllables.  The  Jews 
dilated  or  contracted  their  letters  in  the  same  way,  but  they  had  no  ideographs. 

It  also  is  a  source  of  great  perplexity,  that  the  structure  of  a  character  gives 
no  clue  to  its  sound.  With  us  a  p  is  ap,  and  apt,  apt,  but  it  is  not  so  in 
Assyrian  ;  e.  g.,  >^]^  is  i  s,  but  with  ^  prefixed,  /jZ^TY,  it  is  lam  ;  g^<  { 
is  eru  =  brass ;  but  with  the  same  prefix  it  becomes  soon  =  their,  and 
yy^,   Kha,    before  it,  makes    it    goog  =    worried.     ""^YTY  is  lib  =  heart,  but 


l8o  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

■^yy,  though  just  distinguishable,  is  roo  or  nadanu  =  to  give,  or  isbu  = 
evening.  ^^  is  soo,  but  ^y>=  is  pakh,  or  lab,  or  lool,  or  rookh,  etc.  ffy^y 
is  dhoo,  but  ^yyy^y  is  rair.  Perhaps  no  example  of  this  is  more  striking 
than  this  unusually  long  character  :  j^y/'  <^  ^^-  ^^^^^  ^^^^  P^*"^  °^  ^^^'^' 
including  the  two  upright  wedges,  is  si,  or,  as  an  ideograph,  nadanu  =  to  give  ; 
add  the  four  slanting  wedges  =  zib,  and  it  becomes  pooloo  =  cattle  ;  but  add 
the  rest,  which  alone  is  na,  and  the  whole,  as  it  stands,  is  tsalam  =  image. 

These  difficulties  are  not  at  all  diminished  by  the  great  similarity  of  some 
characters  to  each  other,  so  that  one  has  to  look  very  carefully  to  distinguish 
them.  Indeed,  they  are  not  only  mistaken  for  each  other  by  the  reader,  but 
also  by  transcribers  from  the  original  monuments  or  cylinders,  and  by  editors 
or  printers  of  works  intended  to  assist  beginners.  Thus,  ^yy^,  dan,  or  rib,  is 
often  mistaken  or  written  for  ^jy y,  oon,  or  nis  =  man  ;  and  j^IJ,  ip,  is  often 
put  for  yiyf,  oor,  and  V2ce  versa.  In  less  than  one  half  of  the  thirty-seventh 
plate  of  the  first  volume  of  The  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia,  corresponding  to 
pages  35-38  of  George  Smith's  Histoiy  of  Sennacherib,  there  are  six  variations 
in  the  text  of  the  two  volumes;  also  one  determinative  is  left  out.  One  num- 
ber is  given  differently.  The  names  of  Warka  and  Sippar  vary,  and  the 
syllable  ra  occurs  in  one  where  the  determinative  for  city  is  found  in  the  other  ; 
e  is  given  for  Kan.  The  Assyrian  engravers  of  the  original  inscriptions  also 
were  not  always  infallible,  as  different  copies  of  the  same  inscription  testify. 

Another  difficulty  arises  from  the  similarity  of  sound  between  certain  letters. 
The  Hebrew  has  two  h's  and  the  same  number  of  k's,  t's,  s's,  and  z"s.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  Syriac.  The  Arabic  has  three  h's,  two  d's  besides  Dhad,  two  t's, 
two  k's  and  s's  besides  Ain  and  Ghain.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  there  will  be 
confusion  in  distinguishing  these  sounds  in  the  Assyrian,  especially  as  that 
language  seems  to  change  the  sounds  of  characters  evidently  corresponding 
with  Hebrew  consonants  in  certain  words  common  to  both  languages.  So 
different  Assyrian  scholars  write  the  same  characters  differently  in  English 
letters.  And  the  syllabic  character  of  the  language  greatly  increases  the  diffi- 
culty, nor  is  that  difficulty  diminished  by  the  crowded  lines  of  many  inscrip- 
tions, making  the  distinction  between  letters  very  obscure ;  for  often  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  decide  whether  a  wedge  or  wedges  belong  to  the  character 
preceding,  changing,  of  course,  its  value,  or  to  the  one  that  follows,  making  out 
of  it  an  entirely  different  sound. 

Again  :  Prof.  Sayce's  Syllabary  gives  the  Accadian  and  Assyrian  renderings 
of  characters,  with  their  meaning  in  English  ;  but,  out  of  his  five  hundred  and 
twenty-two  characters,  thirty-nine  have  no  Accadian  rendering.  Seven  have  no 
Assyrian,  and  forty-six  have  no  English  meaning  assigned  to  them  ;  twenty-six 
have  neither  Assyrian  rendering  nor  meaning  in  English  ;  and  eighteen  have 
nothing  whatever  but  the  bare  character  —  no   sound  given   to    it,  either   in 


CABINETS   AND    CUNEIFORM    INSCRIPTIONS.  iSl 

Accadian  or  Assyrian,  and  no  definition  in  English;  a  mere  testimony  that  the 
character  exists,  and,  so  far,  defies  all  attempts  to  understand  it,  while  many 
of  the  pronunciations  and  renderings  that  are  given  are  marked  as  doubtful.^ 

Then,  the  same  character  has  very  different  forms  in  different  inscriptions. 
It  is  like  puzzling  out  bad  chirography  in  English  manuscript  to  try  to  read 
some  of  them,  so  great  is  the  variation.  Even  the  same  character  does  not 
always  look  alike  in  the  same  inscription ;  now,  this  part  of  it  is  enlarged  and 
that  made  small,  and  then  the  large  and  small  are  reversed  in  another  occur- 
rence of  the  same  character.  We  can  guess  that  ^^YT Y,  um,  and  ^=YYT  are  the 
same,  and  we  learn  from  fc^y7|  that  short  perpendicular  wedges  may  some- 
times take  the  place  of  those  that  go  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  line.  Other 
specimens  might  be  given  of  characters  yet  more  unlike,  but  still  identical, 
could  types  be  procured  that  would  truthfully  set  forth  the  want  of  resemblance. 
Who  would  suppose  that  \l]_±  and  \y\  were  the  same  character?  Yet,  on 
close  inspection,  one  recognizes  the  three  perpendicular  wedges  and  the  two 
slanting  ones  in  both,  ^ ]  [  sa,  as  ordinarily  printed,  is  ^TY  in  the  inscriptions 
of  Sennacherib,  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia,  published  by  the  British  Museum, 
Vol.  I,  and  >— <*"!,  na,  becomes  there  >£![. 

These  are  some  of  the  difficulties  in  the  prosecution  of  such  studies,  yet 
they  are  by  no  means  insurmountable.  Indeed,  this  grouping  of  them  together 
may  make  them  appear  greater  than  they  really  are ;  for  they  are  to  be  met  only 
one  at  a  time,  and,  that  one  being  overcome,  the  learner  is  ready  to  advance  to 
victory  over  others  in  their  order ;  and  in  spite  of  them,  there  is  a  strange  fasci- 
nation in  searching  out  the  meaning  of  words  graven  by  hands  that  more  than 
twenty-five  hundred  years  ago  moldered  into  dust.  Just  as  in  our  own  tongue 
we  distinguish  at  once  between  the  ball  that  is  tossed  from  hand  to  hand,  and 
the  ball  that  is  kept  up  all  night  long  by  merry  dancers,  so  here,  without  any 
special  marks,  the  learner  gradually  comes  to  distinguish  between  things  that 
differ  ;  and  such  works  as  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce's  Lectures  on  the  Assyrian  La7iguage 
and  Syllabary,  by  explaining  the  reasons  for  the  usage,  or  giving  the  history  of 
its  genesis  and  growth,  enable  us  to  read  with  greater  ease  these  wondrous 
records  of  the  past,  cotemporary  with  the  most  interesting  portions  of  Old  Tes- 
tament history,  and  most  strikingly  corroborative  of  their  truth.  The  light 
they  throw  on  the  much-vexed  question  of  the  date  of  the  original  institution 
of  the  Sabbath,  and  many  other  Biblical  subjects,  amply  repays  the  labor  of 
deciphering  their  meaning.^ 

It  has  been  said  that  part  of  the  inscriptions  are  Accadian,  and  part  Assyr- 

1  The  cuneiform  type  used  in  these  pages  is  from  the  celebrated  firm  of  Harrison  &  Sons,  45  St.  Martin's  Lane, 
London,  W.  C,  who  furnished  the  type  used  in  the  late  George  ?im\X\^^  Histories  0/  A ssur-bani-pal  and  Sen- 
nacherib, and  also  in  the  Syllabary  of  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce. 

2 See  Catholic  Presbyterian,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  37-45,  and  Rev.  W.  DeL.  Love  in  Bibliothtca  Sacra,  1879,  p|> 
744-46. 


l82 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


ian.  There  are  also  Persian,  and  other  varieties ;  but  the  Assyrian  belongs 
to  the  same  family  of  languages  as  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Syriac,  and  it 
may  be  interesting  to  trace  the  family  likeness  in  a  few  particulars.  We 
may  see  it  in  the  resemblance  of  common  words,  bearing  decided  testimony 
to  the  affinity  of  the  languages,  as  in  the  following  list,  which  is  put  in  Eng- 
lish letters  as  the  only  way  to  put  the  comparison  within  reach  of  the  mass 
of  intelligent  readers: 


English. 


Assyrian. 


Hebre7v. 


Arahi 


Syriac. 


Spirit 

Roohhoo 

Rooakh 

Rooh 

Rookha 

God 

Ilu 

El,  Elohim 

Allah 

Alaha 

Heaven 

Samu 

Shemaim 

.Semaa 

Shemaya 

Earth 

Irtsitu 

Arets 

Ardh 

Araa 

Water 

Mie 

Maim 

Ma 

Maya 

Man 

Nis 

Ish,  Enosh 

Insan  PI.  nas 

Nasha 

Father 

Abu 

Ab 

Abu 

Aba 

Mother 

Ummu 

Aem 

Ini 

Aema 

Brother 

Akhu 

Akh 

Akh 

Akh  a 

House 

Bitu 

Beth 

Beit 

Beitha 

Door 

Bab 

Baba  (of  the  eye) 

Bab 

Babtha (of  the  eye> 

Son 

Pal,  Ablu 

Ben 

Ibn 

Bar 

Daughter 

Bintu 

Bath 

Bint 

Bartha 

Body 

Pagaru 

Phejer 

Phejer 

Pagra 

Soul,  Life 

Napistu 

Nephesh 

Nephes 

Naphsha 

Forest 

Kharsanu 

Khoresh 

Khursh 

Way 

Darragu 

Derrek 

Tarik 

Sun 

Samas 

Shemesh 

Shems 

Shemsha 

Star 

Kakabu 

Kokab 

Koukab 

Kaukba 

Day 

Immu,  Yomu 

Yom 

Youm 

Youma 

Light 

Noor 

Or 

Noor 

Noora 

Right 

Imna 

Yamin 

Yemin 

Yamina 

Left 

Sumela 

Semohl 

Shenial 

Semala 

Heart 

Libbu 

Laeb 

Libb 

Libba 

Head 

Risu 

Rosh 

Ras 

Risha 

Tongue 

Lisanu 

Lishon 

Lesan 

Leshana 

Eye 

Enu 

Ayin 

Ain 

Aina 

Ear 

Uzun 

Ozen 

Idhin 

Adna 

Mouth 

Pi 

Peh 

Fum 

Puma 

Face 

Panu 

Paneh 

Silver 

Kasap 

Kesef 

Kaesfa 

Iron 

Parzil 

Earzel 

Parzla 

King 

Malku 

Melek 

Melek 

Malka 

Throne 

Kuzzu 

Kissae 

Kurseh 

Kursya 

Horse 

Susu 

Sus 

Susya 

Dog 

Kilbelu 

Keleb 

Keleb 

Kalba 

Sheep 

Tsseni 

Tsohn 

Dhahn 

Heifer 

Agalu 

E'jlah 

I'jl^lt 

Ae'galtha 

Shade 

Tsulul 

Tsasl 

Tsui 

Taslala 

River 

Nar 

Nahar 

Nahr 

Nahra 

Fish 

Nun 

Nuna 

The  affinity  of  Assyrian  with  Shemitish  languages  is  still  more  npp.irent  in 
the  use  of  particles,  of  which  the  following  are  examples  : 


CABINETS    AND    CUNEIFORM     INSCRIPTIONS. 


183 


£}igl/sk. 


Assyrian. 


Hebrew. 


Arabic. 


Syriac. 


No,  Not 

La 

Lo 

La 

La 

Without 

Balu 

B'lo 

Bila 

Bila 

And 

U,  Va 

Va 

Va 

Va 

As 

Ki 

K' 

Ka 

Aik 

Like 

Kima 

K'mo 

Kima 

Akma 

Before 

Pani,  Lapani 

Lifnae 

With 

Maa 

Aam 

Maa 

Aam 

Whether 

Lu 

Lu 

Lou 

Lau 

Upon 

Illu 

A'l 

A'la 

A'l 

In  many  of  its  grammatical  forms  the  Assyrian  language  vindicates  its 
Shemitish  affinity.  Thus,  nouns  have  the  absolute  and  the  construct  state. 
The  designation  of  cases  corresponds  to  the  Arabic.  In  that  language  the 
nominative  is  Madhmum,  /.  ^.,  marked  by  the  vowel  "u."  The  genitive  is 
Maksur,  or  marked  by  the  vowel  "  e,"  and  the  accusative  is  Maftuh,  or 
■denoted  by  the  vowel  "  a,"  and  it  is  precisely  so  in  Assyrian. 

The  Assyrian  verb,  in  its  forms,  closely  resembles  the  other  languages  of 
the  same  family.  The  names  of  its  principal  conjugations  are  the  same.  Its 
moods  are  similar,  and  its  tenses  almost  identical  in  forms  and  in  the  number 
of  persons.  Any  one  familiar  with  Arabic,  Syriac,  or  Hebrew  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  conjugating  an  Assyrian  verb.  The  likeness  extends  even  to  the 
kind  of  verbs.  There  is  the  same  distinction  between  complete  and  defective 
verbs.  There  are,  also,  gutturals  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  radical.  The 
difference  in  its  forms  is  just  enough  to  suggest  new  ideas  of  the  philosophy  of 
language,  and  give  a  better  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  existing  forms. 

This  fam.ily  affinity  of  the  Assyrian  appears  also  in  the  meaning  of  verbs,  as 
may  be  readily  seen  by  a  few  examples : 


Assyrian. 

Hebrew. 

Arabic. 

Syriac. 

English. 

Bakharu 

Bakhar 

Bakhar 

To  prove  in  order  to  choose. 

Banu 

Bana 

Bana 

Bana 

To  build. 

Ebiru 

Aabar 

Aabr 

Aabar 

To  cross  over. 

Ezibu 

Aazab 

Aaz'b 

To  leave,  Forsake. 

Karabu 

Karab 

Karab 

Kareb 

To  approach. 

Khalaqu 

Khalak 

Khalak 

To  destroy. 

Lamadu 

Lamad 

Lamed 

To  learn. 

Maatu 

Muth 

Mat 

Meet 

To  die. 

Malaku 

Malak 

Malak 

Malak 

To  consult,  Reign. 

Malu 

Mala 

Mala 

Mala 

To  fill. 

Naparaku 

Farak 

Farak 

Farek 

To  break. 

Pakadu 

Fakad 

Fakad 

Fakad 

To  set  over,  Appoint,  Visit. 

Patakhu 

Patakh 

Fatakh 

Fatakh 

To  open. 

Sadharu 

Sadar 

Shatar  (a 

writing)  To  write,  To  put  in  a  row. 

.Sakaru 

Shakar 

Sakar 

Shakar 

To  drink  to  excess. 

Salalu 

Shalal 

Sail 

Shalel 

To  carry  off.  To  plunder. 

Saalu,  Sahalu 

Shaal 

Saal 

Shael 

To  ask. 

Salamu 

Shalam 

Shalam 

To  complete. 

Samca 

Shamaa 

Samaa 

Shamaa 

To  hear. 

Satuu 

Shatah 

Eshti 

To  drink. 

Tsabatu 

Tsabat 

Dhabat 

To  seize. 

Zacaru 

Zacar 

Dhacar 

Dakar 

To  remember. 

IX. 

PHILOLOGY. 


This  chapter  was  originally  written  by  Prof.  W.  S.  Tyler,  of  Amherst  College,  in  1869. 
As  the  paper  was  too  long  for  insertion  in  the  present  volume,  it  was  condensed  by  another 
ten  years  later.  If,  then,  the  subject  is  not  brought  up  to  the  present  standard  of  philological 
science,  the  blame  must  not  be  laid  at  the  door  of  the  original  author,  who  did  his  part  well  at 
the  time  when  it  was  done.  T.  L. 

Robert  Boyle,  the  founder  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  laid  it  down  as 
the  especial  object  of  that  institution,  to  propagate  Christianity  along  with  and 
through  literature  and  science  ;  and  he  has  the  honor  of  being,  also,  the  founder 
of  the  first  Protestant  society  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel.  He  instituted 
the  Boyle  lectures  for  the  defense  of  Christianity,  and  had  translations  of  the 
Bible  made  and  published  at  his  own  expense. 

Leibnitz,  when  invited  by  Frederick  III  to  form  the  plan  of  a  National 
Academy  at  Berlin,  proposed  that  it  embrace  four  departments  :  (i)  Physics, 
including  medicine ;  (2)  Mathematics,  mechanics,  and  astronomy ;  (3)  The 
Language  and  History  of  Germany,  and  (4),  to  use  his  own  words,  "  Oriental 
learning,  particularly  as  it  concerns  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  among  infi- 
dels." The  king  adopted  the  plan,  made  him  president  for  life,  and  gave  the 
academy  the  oversight  of  foreign  missions,  becoming  himself  their  patron.  He 
made  it  a  prominent  object  of  this  national  association  for  literature  and 
science,  that  by  institutions  extending  not  only  to  adjoining  Christian  lands, 
but  also  to  the  remotest  barbarians,  a  zeal  for  extending  the  Gospel  of  our 
Saviour,  Jesus  Christ,  might  gradually  be  extended  over  the  whole  earth. 
According  to  this  "Leibnitz  plan  of  missions,"  literature  and  science  were  to  be 
an  important  means  of  extending  the  knowledge  of  the  Gospel.  He  held  that 
both  learning  and  religion  would  thus  be  advanced,  and  Christian  and  heathen 
lands  reap  mutual  benefit,  since  literature  and  science  would  aid  the  mission- 
aries, who,  in  turn,  would  send  home  the  knowledge  of  new  facts  from  their 
distant  fields. 

The  name  of  Leibnitz  had  great  influence  in  introducing  the  same  ideas  into 
the  academies  at  Halle  and  Wittenberg,  Vienna  and  St.  Petersburg.  It  is 
interesting  thus  to  see  religion  and  literature  starting  out  together  for  the  con- 
quest of  the  world,  and  ever  since  we  find  them  marching,  shoulder  to  shoulder, 
from  victory  to  victory.  Between  missions  and  philology  the  connection  is 
obvious  and  intimate.  In  order  to  preach  in  a  foreign  language,  missionaries 
(184) 


PHILOLOGY. 


i8S 


must  study  it ;  and,  to  be  masters  of  it,  they  must  continue  the  study  while  they 
live. 

There  is  no  way  of  studying  the  radical  tendencies  and  abiding  traits  of  a 
people  like  the  study  of  their  language ;  for  that  not  only  reflects  the  fleeting 
thoughts  of  individuals,  but  photographs  the  characteristics  of  the  race, 
especially  those  forces  that  have  most  profoundly  impressed  them  ;  and  of  these 
none  is  so  all-controlling  as  religion.  Nothing,  then,  so  molds  language  as 
religion,  and  nothing  so  expresses  the  religion  of  a  people  as  their  language. 
As  the  fossils  of  a  country  record  the  forms  of  life  that  have  existed  in  it,  so 
does  its  language  record  every  influence  that  in  succession  has  entered  into 
the  character  of  the  nation.  It  can  make  the  generations  that  have  spoken  it 
pass  before  us,  with  their  deepest  feelings  and  controlling  thoughts  laid  open  to 
our  view. 

Max  Miiller,  in  the  preface  to  his  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  shows 
how  language  continues  to  bear  the  impress  of  the  earliest  thoughts  of  man, 
defaced,  it  may  be,  yet  still  legible  to  the  eye  of  the  scholar;  and  the  continuity 
in  the  growth  of  religion  is  even  more  striking.  We  find  its  roots  as  far  back 
as  we  can  trace  the  history  of  man.  An  intuition  of  God,  a  sense  of  depend- 
ence on  him,  a  belief  in  his  government  of  the  world,  discrimination  between 
good  and  evil,  and  a  hope  of  a  better  life,  he  counts  as  radical  elements  of  all 
religions;  a  part  of  the  original  dowry  of  the  soul,  without  which  religion  had 
been  impossible.  He  quotes  Augustine  to  the  effect  that  "  what  is  now  called 
the  Christian  religion  existed  among  the  ancients  from  the  beginning;  but  when 
Christ  came,  the  previously  existing  true  religion  began  to  be  called  Christian." 
Another  father  remarked  that  "if  there  is  any  agreement  between  the  doctrines 
of  the  Greeks  and  our  own,  it  is  well  to  know  it ;  and  to  learn  how  they  differ 
•will  confirm  us  in  that  which  is  better  than  theirs."  Just  as  the  most  degraded 
jargons  of  barbarians  contain  the  ruins  of  former  greatness  and  beauty,  so  the 
most  barbarous  forms  of  faith  and  worship  contain  some  sparks  of  the  true 
light  that  can  be  rekindled  by  the  Gospel. 

This  learned  philologist  may  press  these  views  to  an  extreme,  yet  the  gen- 
eral idea  is  founded  in  both  reason  and  Scripture ;  and  if  there  is  any  founda- 
tion for  such  views  of  the  relation  of  the  science  of  language  to  the  science  of 
religion,  both  scholars  and  missionaries  have  a  lesson  to  learn.  If  prophets 
foretold  Christ  as  the  desire  of  all  nations,  and  apostles  preached  the  true  God 
as  Him  whom  the  heathen  ignorantly  worshiped,  whom  they  were  feeling 
after,  if  haply  they  might  find  him,  then  are  we  justified  in  finding  unconscious 
prophecies  of  Christ  in  the  literature  of  all  ages,  and  missionaries  should  be 
quick  to  discern  germs  of  truth  in  the  darkest  minds,  and  by  means  of  them 
lead  men  to  the  knowledge  of  the  only  true  God,  and  Jesus  Christ,  whom  he 
hath  sent.  Thus  the  science  of  philology  deserves  the  atteiUion  of  Christian 
scholars. 

The  Bible  suggests  a  connection  between  language  and  religion,  in  the  account 
of  the  original  confusion  of  a  single  language  into  many  mutually  unintelligible 
modes  of  speech,  whether  it  was  a  sudden  and  miraculous  change,  or  a  picture 
of  the  more  gradual  divergence  of  dialects  under  natural  causes;  for  it  shows 


J 86  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

that  changes  in  language  are  connected  with  moral  and  religious  causes,  and 
sin,  which  separates  man  from  God,  also  sunders  him  from  his  fellow.  Even  if 
the  gift  of  tongues  in  connection  with  the  apostolic  church  was  only  an  out- 
■ward  sign  of  the  wonder-working  power  of  the  Spirit,  it  is  yet  a  significant 
expression  of  the  fact  that  God  has  interposed  to  counteract  that  sundering 
power  of  sin,  and  reunite  men  to  each  other  and  to  himself.  Does  it  not  sym- 
bolize the  spirit  of  Christ,  bringing  men  on  opposite  sides  of  the  globe  to  believe 
the  same  truths,  cherish  the  same  feelings,  and  speak  the  same  spiritual  lan- 
guage—  a  union  that  may  ultimately  assimilate  language  as  well  as  thought  and 
feeling.^  In  the  Pentecostal  gatherings  of  the  latter  days,  may  not  men  hear 
each  other  speak  in  a  language  which  all  can  understand,  the  wonderful  works 
of  God  ?  So,  in  the  removal  of  linguistic  barriers  between  man  and  man,  may 
the  prophecies  be  fulfilled  that  "  Every  valley  shall  be  exalted,  and  every 
mountain  and  hill  shall  be  made  low,"  and  "  There  shall  be  no  more  sea." 

The  relation  of  missions  to  philolog}^  is  illustrated  in  the  steps  taken  to 
secure  a  uniform  mode  of  reducing  spoken  language  to  a  written  form.  The 
first  missionaries  of  the  Board  among  our  Indians,  feeling  the  need  of  some 
uniform  system  in  their  different  fields,  consulted  the  eminent  philologist,  John 
Pickering,  concerning  the  possibility  of  a  common  alphabet,  and  in  1820  he 
communicated  to  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  his  Essay  on  a 
Uniform  Orthography  for  the  Indian  Languages  of  North  America.  He  would 
represent  each  elementary  sound  by  a  distinctive  character.  The  system  was 
approved  by  the  academy  and  adopted  by  the  missionaries,  and,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Board,  was  applied  not  only  to  the  languages  of  our  own  abo- 
rigines, but  also  in  the  isles  of  the  Pacific  and  in  Africa. 

In  1848  Rev.  H.  Venn,  secretary  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  pre- 
pared Rules  for  Reducing  Unwritte?i  Languages  to  Writing  in  Roman  Characters. 
These  were  approved  by  several  English  societies,  and  applied  to  several 
African  languages.  A  more  complete  alphabet,  however,  was  needed  for  gen- 
eral adoption,  and  Prof.  R.  Lepsius,  of  the  Royal  Academy  at  Berlin,  prepared 
his  Standard  Alphabet  for  Reducing  Unwritten  Languages  and  Foreign  Graphic 
Systems  to  a  Uniform  Orthography  in  European  Letters.  This  was  approved 
by  a  committee  composed  of  Profs.  Bopp,  J.  Grimm,  Pertz,  Gerhard,  Busch- 
mann,  and  J.  Miiller.  The  progress  of  missions,  meanwhile,  so  increased 
interest  in  the  subject  that  the  Chevalier  Bunsen  called  a  meeting,  at  which 
were  present,  among  others.  Profs.  Wilson,  Miiller,  Owen,  Dietrich  ;  Sirs  C. 
Trevelyan  and  J.  Herschel ;  Rev.  Mr.  Stanley;  Messrs.  Norris,  Pertz,  Babbage, 
Wheatstone,  and  Cook ;  Rev.  Messrs.  Venn,  Chapman,  Koelle,  and  Graham,  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  ;  Rev.  Mr.  Arthur,  of  the  Wesleyan,  and  the 
Rev.  Messrs.  Underbill  and  Trestrait,  of  the  Baptist,  Missionary  Societies. 
Prof.  Lepsius  was  also  present,  and  his  alphabet  was  adopted  by  the  meeting. 
Prof.  Lepsius  holds  that  the  matter  has  both  a  scientific  and  practical  end  : 
the  former  to  bring  these  languages  more  within  our  reach,  and  the  latter  to 
facilitate  the  propagation  of  the  Christian  faith  among  those  heathen  nations  that 
have  no  written  language.  So  Lepsius  carried  out  the  designs  of  Leibnitz  in 
this  twofold  service  to  language  and  to  missions.     The  alphabet   at  once  was 


PHILOLOGY. 


187 


approved  by  a  number  of  missionary  societies,  including  our  own  Board,  and 
within  five  years  had  been  applied  to  fourteen  African  and  seven  Asiatic  lan- 
guages, and  has  already  done  immense  service  both  to  philology  and  missions. 

In  the  first  stage  of  linguistic  research,  missionaries  have  rare  facilities  for 
gaining  accurate  knowledge.  They  learn  both  the  written  and  spoken  lan- 
guage, read  learned  books,  and  talk  with  the  massed,  and  that,  too,  not  for  a 
visit,  but  through  life.  There  can  be  no  better  authority  on  anything  relating 
to  a  distant  country  or  people  than  an  observant,  well-educated  missionary. 

The  earliest  contributions  to  the  modern  science  of  language  were  made 
mainly  by  Papal  missionaries ;  and  the  beginnings  of  comparative  philology 
rose  from  a  comparison  of  translations  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  1784  Hervas  published  his  polyglot  vocabulary  in  one  hundred 
and  fifty  languages,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  more  than  three  hundred. 

When  not  only  single  words  were  compared,  but  also  the  grammatical  struct- 
ure of  languages,  as  in  the  Mithridates  of  Adelung  and  Vater,  the  grammars  and 
lexicons  prepared  by  missionaries  still  furnished  no  small  part  of  the  mate- 
rials for  comparison  ;  and  as  there  is  now  scarce  a  nation  on  the  face  of  the 
whole  earth  where  missionaries  have  not  been  sent,  scarcely  a  language  which 
missionaries  have  not  used,  we  see  how  abundant  the  materials  are.  And  as 
philology  can  be  perfected  only  by  collecting  and  collating  all  the  facts,  in 
order  to  discover  the  laws  that  govern  all  languages,  missionaries  must  be  not 
only  pioneers,  but  laborers  to  the  end. 

We  need  only  to  look  at  the  number  of  the  missionaries  of  our  own  Board, 
their  distribution  over  the  earth,  and  the  nature  of  their  work,  to  see  their 
facilities  for  collecting  materials  for  the  science  of  language.  In  1879  it  had 
sixteen  missions,  occupying  seventy-five  stations  and  five  hundred  and  ninety- 
eight  out-stations  ;  fifteen  hundred  and  sixty-four  laborers  in  all,  including 
three  hundred  and  ninety-four  from  this  country ;  two  hundred  and  sixty-one 
churches,  with  fourteen  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-five  members ; 
twenty-three  training  and  theological  schools,  with  seven  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  pupils  ;  twelve  hundred  and  two  girls  in  boarding  schools ;  and  six  hundred 
and  twenty-six  free  schools,  with  twenty-six  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  pupils.  These  missions  are  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth  :  in 
many  provinces  of  India  and  China  ;  in  Turkey  and  southern  Africa ;  among 
our  own  Indians  ;  and  on  the  isles  of  the  Pacific.  The  languages  used  belong 
to  the  three  great  classes  of  the  uninflected,  inflected,  and  agglutinated  ;  and  the 
peoples  using  them  belong  to  the  principal  races  of  mankind.  Our  missionaries 
have  been,  and  are,  among  the  best  masters  of  the  Chinese  language,  the 
Tamil  and  Marathi,  the  modern  Syriac  and  Kurdish,  the  Turkish,  Armenian, 
and  Bulgarian,  also  the  Arabic,  which  is  understood  by  intelligent  Moslems 
from  China  to  Liberia ;  the  modern  Greek ;  the  Zulu  Kaffir,  of  South  Africa, 
and  the  Grebo,  Mpongwe,  and  other  languages  of  the  western  coast ;  the 
Cherokee,  Choctaw,  Dakota,  and  Ojibwa,  of  our  North  American  tribes; 
besides  the  Hawaiian  and  other  languages  of  the  Pacific.  Books  or  tracts  have 
been  printed  by  the  Board  in  forty-six  languages.  Besides  those  just  men- 
tioned, and  the  English,  we  name  the  Hebrew,  Spanish,  ancient  Syriac,  Gujerati, 


l88  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Sanskrit,  Hindostanee,  Portuguese,  Persian,  Telugu,  Siamese,  Malay,  Bugis, 
Dyak,  Japanese,  Marquesas,  Micronesian,  Dikele,  Creek,  Osage,  Ottawa, 
Seneca,  Abenaquis,  Pawnee,  and  three  in  Oregon,  Twenty  of  these  languages 
were  spoken  by  missionaries,  at  the  house  of  Dr.  Anderson,  on  the  evening 
after  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Board,  and  more  than  twenty  have  been 
reduced  to  writing  by  our  own  missionaries  ;  among  them  the  Grebo,  Mpongwe, 
Dikele,  Zulu  Kaffir,  modern  Syriac,  Dyak,  Hawaiian,  several  in  Micronesia,  the 
Cherokee,  Choctaw,  Creek,  Osage,  Ottawa,  Ojibwa,  Abenaquis,  Dakota,  Paw- 
nee, and  three  languages  in  Oregon.  The  Roman  character  is  used  in  all 
these  except  the  Syriac  and  Cherokee.  Grammars  have  been  prepared  and 
published  of  modern  Greek,  Armenian,  Arabic,  ancient  and  modern  Syriac, 
Hebrew,  Tamil,  Chinese,  Hawaiian,  Grebo,  Mpongwe,  Zulu,  and  Dakota ;  and 
dictionaries  of  the  Armenian,  Hebrew,  Tamil,  Chinese,  Hawaiian,  Grebo, 
Mpongwe,  Zulu,  and  Dakota.  One  has  also  been  prepared  of  modern  Syriac, 
containing  ten  thousand  words. 

No  one  can  read  the  contents  of  the  journals  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society  and  not  be  struck  with  the  number  of  articles  furnished  by  missionaries 
of  the  Board.  In  every  volume  are  mentioned  from  four  to  twenty  donations 
of  books  from  missionaries,  mostly  in  foreign  languages.  Of  the  five  hundred 
and  ninety-one  pages  of  the  first  volume,  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  are  filled 
by  five  missionaries  ;  in  the  second  volume,  eight  occupy  one  hundred  and 
thirty-four  of  its  three  hundred  and  forty-two  pages ;  nine  fill  one  hundred 
and  fifty-seven  out  of  five  hundred  and  three  pages  in  the  third  ;  eight  claim 
one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  pages  out  of  four  hundred  and  eighty  in  the 
fourth ;  thirteen  take  up  two  hundred  and  one  of  the  four  hundred  and  forty- 
four  pages  in  the  fifth,  and  four  occupy  three  hundred  and  seventy-two  out  of 
five  hundred  and  seventy-six  pages  in  the  sixth — considerably  more  than  one 
third  of  the  whole,  chiefly  on  subjects  connected  with  philology. 

The  Hawaiian  language  has  five  vowels,  a  e  i  o  u,  having  the  Italian 
sounds,  and  seven  consonants,  h  k  1  m  n  p  w.  Every  syllable  ends  with  a 
vowel.  To  express  foreign,  especially  Bible  names,  nine  consonants  were 
added.  This  simple  alphabet  soon  made  the  ability  to  read  almost  universal. 
The  language  is  further  modified  by  tones  or  accents,  varying  the  meaning  of 
words  composed  of  the  same  letters.  A  majority  of  words  can  be  used  either 
as  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  or  adverbs,  not  by  changing  their  form  so  much  as 
their  place  in  the  sentence  and  their  adjuncts.  As  in  all  uncultivated  lan- 
guages, there  is  a  great  lack  of  generic  terms,  but  the  language  is  rich  in 
specific  epithets.  The  Hawaiian  dictionary  by  Rev.  L.  Andrews  (1865,  8vo, 
559  PP-)  defines  fifteen  thousand  five  hundred  words  —  as  many  as  the  first  edi- 
tion of  Dr.  Johnson's  English  dictionary.  The  Hawaiian  grammar  by  the 
same  author  (1854,  8vo,  156  pp.)  shows  the  peculiarities  of  Hawaiian  orthogra- 
phy, ethymology,  syntax,  and  prosody  in  a  systematic  manner,  worthy  of  any 
ancient  or  modern  language. 

Prof.  Whitney  says  of  the  Malay  Polynesian,  or  oceanic  family  of  languages: 
"  A  few  nearest  to  further  India  have  alphabets  and  a  scanty  literature,  coming 
chiefly   through    the  introduction   of  religion   and   culture  from   India.      The 


PHILOLOGY.  189 

Malay  has  adopted  the  Arabic  alphabet.  For  islands  so  scattered,  these  lan- 
guages have  a  noteworthy  correspondence  of  material  and  structure.  Their 
family  coherence  is  unquestionable,  but  the  degrees  of  relationship  among  its 
members  are  only  partially  made  out  as  yet.  Missionaries  act  an  important  part 
in  laying  them  open  to  knowledge,  as  well  as  in  diffusing  knowledge  through 
them."  The  Hawaiian  Missionary  Society,  daughter  of  the  American  Board, 
already  has  missions  in  the  Marquesas,  Marshall,  and  Gilbert  Islands,  and  the 
"  Morning  Star  "  is  running  to  and  fro  among  these  groups,  one  thousand  miles 
from  each  other,  conveying  to  them  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  and  bringing 
back  to  us  knowledge  of  geography,  language,  and  whatever  pertains  to  man. 
In  these  islands  are  different  dialects  of  the  same  language,  not  to  call  them 
different  languages,  in  which  different  versions  of  the  Bible,  while  imparting  to 
the  natives  the  true  wisdom,  furnish  us  with  data  for  a  better  knowledge  of 
philology. 

[Rev.  S.  Dibble,  in  his  History  of  the  Sandivich  Islands,  pp.  5-7,  gives  the 
Lord's  Prayer  in  Tahitian,  Rarotongan,  Hawaiian,  Marquesan,  Samoan,  and 
the  New  Zealand  and  Tonga  languages,  from  an  article  by  Rev.  Mr.  Davies, 
one  of  the  oldest  missionaries  in  the  Pacific,  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
Hawaiian  Spectator.  He  also  gives  a  list  of  words  from  the  Malay  and  Poly- 
nesian languages,  showing  their  affinities  and  resemblances ;  also  the  ten 
numerals  in  Tahitian,  modern  Tahitian,  Marquesan,  Rapan,  Rarotongan, 
Hawaiian,  Paumotuan,  Samoan,  Fijian,  Malayan^  Javanese,  and  in  the  lan- 
guages of  New  Zealand,  Easter  Island,  Tonga,  Tana  Island,  Islands  of  Savu, 
Ceram,  Isle  of  Mosses,  Islands  of  Sampoor,  Cocos,  New  Guinea,  Madagascar, 
New  Caledonia,  Caroline  and  Pelew  Islands,  Mindanao,  the  Tagals  and  Battas, 
and  the  language  of  Acheen,  in  Sumatra,  pp.  8-1 1.  —  T.  L.] 

The  languages  of  North  and  South  America  belong  to  one  family,  though, 
owing  to  a  great  variety  of  climate  and  a  roving  manner  of  life,  dialectic  differ- 
ences have  become  extreme.  Indeed,  they  are  still  undergoing  great  and  rapid 
changes.  In  more  than  one  of  them,  books  prepared  by  missionaries  have 
become  almost  unintelligible  in  three  or  four  generations  ;  yet  all  are  probably 
derived  from  one  parent  language,  for,  from  the  Arctic  ocean  to  Cape  Horn,  the 
construction  of  all  of  them  is  polysynthetic,  tending  to  abnormal  agglomeration 
of  elements  in  their  words.  Names  thus  are  cumbrous  compounds,' and  the 
languages  tediously  polysyllabic  ;  e.g.,  in  the  Mexican,  the  word  for  goat  signi- 
fies "head  tree  (horn)  lip  hair  (beard),"  or  "the  horned  and  bearded  one."  la 
Delaware  and  Araucanian,  the  sentence  "  I  do  not  wish  to  eat  with  him  "  is  one 
word  ;  and  in  Cherokee,  the  word-phrase  "  Wi  ni  taw  ti  qe  gi  na  li  skaw  lung  ta 
naw  ne  li  ti  se  sti"  means  "They  will  by  that  time  have  nearly  finished  grant- 
ing favors  at  a  distance  to  me  and  thee."  ^  Thirteen  of  the  languages  reduced 
to  writing  by  our  missionaries  represent  five  groups  .gf  Indians  :  the  Florida 
group,  Iroquois,  Algonquin,  Dakota,  and  Oregon. 

The  Cherokee  alphabet  deserves  a  passing  notice.  A  Cherokee  named 
Guess,  or  Sequoyeh,  who  knew  only  his  native  tongue,  conceived  the  idea  that 
he  could  represent  all  its  syllables  by  separate  characters.     They  numbered 

'  Whitney's  Language  aiid  Shidy  of  Language,  Lect.  IX. 


igo  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

eighty-two  ;  and  to  express  them  he  took  our  letters  and  various  modifications 
of  them,  and,  adding  to  these  some  marks  of  his  own  invention,  made  out  the 
requisite  number  of  characters,  and  soon  was  able  to  correspond,  by  means  of 
them,  with  other  Indians  who  had  learned  no  other  alphabet.  Four  other 
signs  were  subsequently  added,  making  eighty-six  in  all.  A  Cherokee  has  only 
to  learn  this  alphabet,  which  he  can  do  very  readily,  and  he  is  able  to  read  at 
once.  Events  which  have  affected  the  destiny  of  the  Cherokees  have  hindered 
the  success  of  this  alphabet,  yet  it  remains  a  rare  achievement  of  native  genius. 
Every  syllable  in  Cherokee  ends  with  a  vowel,  unlike  other  North  American 
dialects,  though  this  peculiarity,  I  believe,  prevails  in  nearly  all  of  them. 
Hence  the  number  of  syllables  in  them  would  not  admit  of  such  an  alphabet 
■without  becoming  very  cumbrous,  like  the  cuneiform.  Even  in  the  Hawaiian, 
ninety-five  syllabic  characters  would  be  required,  whereas  the  present  alphabet, 
as  we  have  seen,  requires  only  twelve  letters. 

The  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Dakota  language,  by  Dr.  Stephen  R. 
Riggs,  fills  Volume  IV  of  The  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge.  It  con- 
tains more  than  sixteen  thousand  words,  and  fills  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  pages,  quarto.  The  grammar  fills  sixty-four  pages,  quarto.  The  alphabet 
has  five  vowels  and  twenty-four  consonants.  Syllables,  with  few  exceptions, 
end  in  a  pure  or  nasalized  vowel.  Three  fourths  of  the  words  with  two  or 
more  syllables  accent  the  second  syllable,  and  most  of  the  remaining  words 
accent  the  first.  Personal  pronouns  have  a  dual  number,  as  well  as  singular 
and  plural ;  and  nominative,  possessive,  and  objective  cases.  They  make  no 
distinction  in  gender.  Nouns  have  only  two  numbers,  and  no  possessive  case. 
Gender  in  them  is  denoted  by  termination  or  by  different  words ;  most 
frequently  by  adjectives  denoting  sex.  Verbs  have  three  persons,  the  third 
being  the  simple  form,  and  the  others  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  personal 
pronouns.  In  this,  and  in  having  three  numbers,  the  verb  resembles  the  He- 
Ijrew.  It  has  three  modes  :  indicative,  imperative,  and  infinitive  ;  and  only  two 
tenses  :  an  aorist  and  a  future,  which  is  also  like  the  Hebrew  ;  but  the  variations 
in  form  and  meaning  of  some  of  the  verbs  are  very  numerous.  Adjectives 
have  three  numbers,  and  are  compared  only  by  means  of  adverbs.  Preposi- 
tions follow  the  nouns  they  govern,  like  the  Turkish,  and  are  often  incorporated 
as  prefixes,  suffixes,  or  insertions,  with  nouns,  verbs,  and  adverbs. 

The  verb  follows  both  its  subject  and  object,  the  last  coming  between  the 
subject  and  the  verb.  Its  arrangement  of  sentences  is  very  primitive.  "  Give 
me  bread  "  becomes  "  Bread  me  give."  So  the  best  interpreters  begin  where 
the  speaker  leaves  off,  and  go  backwards.  The  same  is  true  in  translating 
Scripture  sentences.  Our  North  American  languages  furnish  a  problem  by 
no  means  easy  of  solution,  but  missionaries  have  contributed  important  data 
towards  it. 

Missionaries  of  the  Board  have  reduced  four  African  languages  to  writing  ; 
published  grammars  and  dictionaries  in  them,  the  Bible  in  whole  or  in  part, 
and  also  other  books  of  instruction.  They  have  also  written  articles  of  great 
philological  value  for  periodicals  at  home.  The  first  volume  of  the  journal  of 
ike  Aviericati  Oriental  Society  contains  three  such  contributions. 


PHILOLOGY.  igi 

The  Bibliotheca  Sacra  for  November,  1847,  contains  "  a  comparison  between 
the  Mandingo,  Grebo,  and  Mpongvve  dialects,"  by  Rev.  J.  L.  Wilson,  The 
editor  says  of  this  article  :  "It  communicates  a  variety  of  facts  about  the  lan- 
guages of  western  Africa  deeply  interesting  alike  to  the  Christian  and  the 
philanthropist.  The  phenomena  adduced  are  a  striking  conlirmation  of  the 
scientific  value  of  Christian  missions.  Though  an  indirect  and  undesigned 
effect,  it  amply  repays  all  the  cost  incurred.  The  missionary  thus  cooperates 
with  the  scholars  and  philanthropists  of  Christendom  in  extending  the  bound- 
aries of  knowledge  and  civilization." 

Mr.  Wilson  arrives  at  the  general  conclusion  that,  in  the  northern  half  of 
Africa,  the  number  of  languages  is  very  great,  with  little  if  any  affinity  for  each 
other;  while  south  of  this  one  great  family  prevails,  down  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  languages  of  the  north  and  south  show  that  these  two  families  of 
blacks,  whatever  physical  resemblances  they  possess,  must  have  had  different 
origins. 

Selecting  the  Grebo  and  Mandingo  from  the  languages  of  the  north,  and 
the  Mpongwe  from  those  of  the  south,  he  shows  radical  differences  between 
them  and  a  marked  correspondence  between  the  character  of  the  people  and 
their  languages ;  e.  g.,  the  Grebo  language,  like  the  people,  is  harsh,  abrupt, 
energetic.  It  is  also  indistinct  in  enunciation,  meager  in  words,  abounding, 
in  nasals  and  gutturals,  has  but  few  grammatical  inflections,  and  is  very- 
difficult  to  acquire.  The  Mpongwe,  reflecting  the  character  of  that  people, 
is  soft  and  flexible,  distinct  in  enunciation,  methodical  in  grammatical  forms, 
almost  free  from  nasals  and  gutturals,  and  very  easy  of  acquisition.  GrebO' 
is  in  great  measure  monosyllabic.  Mandingo  has  only  about  one  fifth  of  its 
words  so  short,  and  almost  all  nouns  have  two  or  more  syllables.  In  Mpongwe 
are  not  over  a  dozen  monosyllabic  nouns,  and  only  two  or  three  monosyl- 
labic verbs.  Grebo  has  few  or  no  contractions,  but  the  other  two  languages 
abound  in  them,  making  one  word  out  of  three  or  four.  The  Mandingo 
for  "sister"  is  literally  "my  mother's  female  child."  Still,  the  contractions 
are  not  so  numerous  as  in  some  of  our  own  Indian  languages.  The  alphabet 
of  Mr.  Pickering  is  used  in  writing  all  these  languages,  but  expresses  the  two- 
others  more  adequately  than  the  Grebo.  There  are  no  inflections  in  any  of 
them  to  distinguish  gender  or  case  in  nouns.  Gender  is  denoted  by  uniting 
with  the  noun  the  word  for  man  or  woman.  Subject  and  object,  having  the 
same  form,  are  only  distinguished  by  position,  as  -in  English.  The  possessive 
is  formed  in  Grebo  by  inserting  "it,"  and  in  the  other  languages  "his,"  between 
the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed  ;  e.  g.,  "The  child  //  of  John,"  and  "John 
his  child."  These  three  languages  have  few  adjectives.  The  deficiency  is 
made  up  by  the  use  of  a  noun  and  verb.  Thus,  for  "  He  is  hungry,"  they  say 
"  Hunger  works  him."  They  have  no  degrees  of  comparison  ;  yet  they  are 
rich  in  pronominal  forms,  not  to  express  gender  or  case,  but  importance,  insig- 
nificance, emphasis,  and  the  like.  Verbs  have  no  distinguishing  form  of 
gender  or  number.  In  Grebo  they  have  three  modes  and  thirteen  tenses. 
The  passive  voice  is  never  used  when  it  can  be  avoided.  This  seems  to  be 
true  of  all  the  languages  of  northern  African  negroes.     Mpongwe  verbs  have 


192  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

four  modes  and  four  tenses  ;  they  always  end  in  "  a,"  are  very  regular,  and  rich 
in  causative,  frequentative,  and  similar  forms,  denoting  the  varied  relations 
of  actions.  Regular  verbs  have  five  simple  and  six  compound  conjugations, 
thus  :  Afikamba,  I  talk  ;  Kambaga,  to  talk  constantly  ;  Kambiza,  to  cause  to  talk; 
Kainbma^  to  talk  with  some  one ;  Kambagatnba,  to  talk  at  random;  and  by  com- 
bining these  we  have:  Kambazaga,  to  cause  to  talk  constantly;  Kambinaga,  to 
talk  constafitly  with  sojne  one;  Kambinaza,  to  cause  to  talk  with  some  one ;  Kam- 
bagambaga,  to  talk  at  random  constantly ;  Kambagambiza,  to  cause  some  one  to 
talk  at  random  ;  Kambagambina,  to  talk  with  some  one  at  random. 

There  is  no  word  common  to  any  two  of  these  languages  except  the  letter 
"  m,"  a  contracted  form  of  the  pronoun  "  I "  in  Mpongwe  and  Mandingo,  and 
"  ne,"  meaning  "is"  in  Grebo  and  Mpongwe;  though  there  are  some  general 
resemblances  in  grammatical  forms. 

About  the  time  that  Lepsius  devised  his  standard  alphabet,  our  missionaries 
at  Natal,  on  account  of  the  close  affinity  of  some  languages  in  that  vicinity, 
desired  a  uniform  mode  of  reducing  them  to  writing,  and  took  some  steps  to 
secure  it,  but,  on  learning  of  his  more  comprehensive  plan,  adopted  that. 
Among  those  most  active  in  this  were  Rev.  J.  C.  Bryant  and  Rev.  L.  Grout. 
The  former  soon  died ;  but  Mr.  Grout,  in  1859,  wrote  a  grammar  of  the  Zulu 
language,  which,  for  fullness  and  accuracy,  will  bear  comparison  with  any  of 
the  standard  grammars  of  ancient  or  modern  languages.  The  title-page  is  sug- 
gestive. It  speaks  of  Mr.  Grout  as  both  a  missionary  and  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and  is  published  both  in  South  Africa 
and  London.  All  South  African  languages  except  the  Lechuana  and  the 
Hottentot  have  many  of  the  characteristics  just  mentioned  in  the  Mpongwe. 
The  Zulu  alphabet  has  thirty-two  letters,  twenty-two  of  them  the  same  in  form 
with  the  English,  though  not  all  having  the  same  power.  Five  are  vowels, 
twenty-four  consonants,  and  three  clicks,  which  are  sounds  peculiar  to  South 
Africa.  The  accent  is  generally  on  the  penultimate.  All  nouns  consist  of  a 
root  and  a  prefix  or  incipient.  This  last  is  also  peculiar  to  South  Africa. 
There  are  eight  declensions,  distinguished  by  different  incipients  and  different 
ways  of  forming  the  plural.  Gender  rarely  affects  declension.  There  are 
three  cases,  distinguished  by  inflection.  Among  these  is  a  locative  case,  denot- 
ing the  place  at  or  in  which  a  thing  is  or  is  done,  or  whence  or  whither  it  pro- 
ceeds. There  are  few  adjectives  in  Zulu,  the  deficiency  being  made  up,  as  in 
West  Africa,  by  the  use  of  nouns  and  verbs.  They  are  inflected  by  prefixes 
which  conform  to  the  incipients  of  the  nouns  with  which  they  agree  in  class 
and  number. 

For  numerals,  the  Zulus  use  the  decimal  system,  suggested  by  the  ten 
fingers;  and  count  by  pointing  out  the  things  counted  with  their  fingers,  begin- 
ning with  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand,  and  ending  a  decade  with  the  same 
finger  of  the  right  hand.  The  names  of  the  numbers  indicate  this  ;  thus,  five 
signifies  "finish  the  hand;"  six,  "take  the  thumb  ;"  seven,  "point  with  the  fore- 
finger;" eight,  "leave  two  numbers,"  and  so  on. 

Pronouns  are  an  index  to  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand,  by  a  marked 
resemblance  to  the  nominal   incipient,  the  radical  part  of  the   pronoun    being 


PHILOLOGY. 


193 


often  a  mere  image  of  that.  Personal  pronouns  have  different  forms  for 
numbers,  but  not  for  gender  or  case. 

The  verbs  resemble  in  form  the  Mpongwe.  They  are  mostly  regular  ;  the 
root  always  begins  with  a  consonant,  has  two  or  more  syllables,  and  ends  in 
*'  a."  Their  chief  characteristic  is  the  number,  variety,  and  yet  perfect  regu- 
larity of  the  conjugations,  expressing  relative,  causative,  reflective,  reciprocal, 
and  other  significations,  as  in  the  Mpongwe. 

Mr.  Grout  thinks,  with  Mr.  Wilson,  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hotten- 
tots and  Bushmen,  South  Africans  form  glottologically  but  one  family,  and 
have  all  come  from  the  north,  crowding  and  crowded  to  the  south.  The 
clicks,  the  conjugations,  and  the  incipients  are  marked  indications  of  their 
affinity. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Oriental  Society,  but  not  published, 
Mr.  Grout  expresses  the  conviction  that  there  is  a  genetic  connection  between 
the  Copts  and  the  Hottentots,  a  portion  of  the  former  people  having  been 
detached  from  the  rest  and  driven  gradually  south  to  the  position  now  occupied 
by  the  latter.^ 

Our  knowledge  of  African  languages  remains  nearly  where  the  missionaries 
leave  it.  [Mr.  Stanley  gives  a  tabular  comparison  of  one  hundred  and  ten  of 
the  most  common  words  in  fifty-four  African  languages,  in  the  appendix  to  his 
Through  the  Dark  Contiuent,  but  for  some  of  these  he  is  indebted  to  mission- 
aries. Twenty-four  of  the  fifty-four  were  collected  by  himself  in  the  course  of 
his  various  wanderings  in  that  land. — T.  L.] 

Prof.  Whitney  says  : "-  "  The  extraordinary  activity  of  missions  and  geograph- 
ical discovery  in  Africa  within  a  few  years  has  directed  study  toward  African 
dialects.  A  great  mass  of  material  has  been  collected,  and  examined  suffi- 
ciently to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  distribution  of  races  in  that  continent,  but 
a  vast  deal  still  remains  to  be  done." 

To  those  accustomed  to  hear  only  one  language,  the  Turkish  empire,  also, 
seems  like  one  great  Babel  of  barbarous  tongues.  The  missionary  there  needs 
to  be  a  living  polyglot ;  and  some  have  spoken  several  languages  with  the  flu- 
ency and  propriety  of  natives.  Dr.  E.  Riggs  began  his  work  by  translating  the 
Bible  into  modern  Greek,  continued  it  by  a  version  in  the  Armenian,  and  now 
has  added  to  that  the  Bible  in  the  modern  Bulgarian.  The  unifying  influence 
of  this  last  is  already  manifest  in  the  language,  which  had  not  only  widely 
departed  from  the  old  Slavic,  but  had  divided  into  two  dialects.  This  trans- 
lation, however,  in  which  Dr.  Riggs  was  aided  by  Dr.  Long,  of  the  Methodist 
mission  north  of  the  Balkans,  strikes  the  balance  so  happily  between  the  dia- 
lects, and  meets  with  such  a  hearty  welcome,  that  it  is  becoming  the  fixed 
standard  of  a  common  language. 

A  thousand  years  have  elapsed  since  the  Bible  was  translated  into  the  old 
Slavonic,  also  called  the  Church  Slavic,  because  adopted  by  a  large  part  of 
that  race  as  their  sacred  language ;  and  it  is  a  curious  coincidence,  pointed  out 
by  Prof.  Whitney,  "  that  our  knowledge  of  Germanic  and  Slavonic  speech  begins, 

'  Froceednigs  0/ Americajt  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  VII,  p.  Ivii. 
-  Langitage  and  the  Study  of  Language,  Lect.  IX. 

13 


194 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


like  that  of  many  a  dialect  to-day,  through  a  version  of  the  Bible  made  by  the 
missionaries,"  Cyril  and  Methodius. 

In  1859  and  i860,  Rev.  C.  F.  Morse  published  a  grammar  and  vocabulary 
of  the  modern  Bulgarian,  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Bulgarian  scholars.  The 
so-called  Cyrillic  alphabet  consists  of  thirty-four  letters.  The  ancient  one  had 
forty-one. 

Bulgarian  nouns  have  three  genders  ;  names  of  inanimate  objects  are  some- 
times masculine  or  feminine,  and  names  of  persons  sometimes  neuter.  The 
dual  of  the  old  Slavic  has  become  obsolete.  Only  the  nominative,  accusative,, 
and  vocative  cases  are  in  common  use.  The  dative  is  used  occasionally,  and 
there  are  traces  of  the  old  genitive.  The  instrumental  and  prepositive  cases 
are  yet  more  rare.  The  adjective,  like  the  noun,  is  varied  to  express  gender, 
number,  and  case,  though  it  has  also  lost  many  of  the  ancient  inflections.  It 
is  always  compared  by  prefixing  the  words  more  and  most.  The  dative  is  in^ 
constant  use  in  personal  pronouns.  The  only  moods  marked  by  distinct  forms^ 
are  the  indicative  and  imperative.  There  are  seven  tenses,  three  of  them  hav- 
ing two  forms.  Most  verbs  have  two  or  three  conjugations,  to  express  single, 
repeated,  or  conditional  action.  Their  number  and  regularity  constitute  a. 
peculiarity  resembling  the  African  languages.  As  in  English,  the  infinitive  is 
marked  by  the  preposition  "to."  The  noun  follows  the  adjective,  and  the 
subject  precedes  the  verb. 

Dr.  Riggs  sent  to  the  Oriental  Society,  in  1862,  translations  of  Bulgarian 
songs,  from  a  collection  of  more  than  six  hundred,  taken  from  the  mouths  of 
the  common  people.  Among  various  meters,  the  most  common  one  resembles 
Longfellow's  "Hiawatha."^ 

Dr.  Jonas  King's  greatest  philological  service,  perhaps,  arose  from  his  influ- 
ence in  promoting  the  introduction  of  the  modern  Greek  Scriptures  into  the 
schools  of  Greece,  and  securing  their  extensive  circulation  among  the  people. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  spiritual  blessing  thus  conferred  on  the  nation,  or  the 
service  rendered  to  good  government,  he,  in  this  way,  did  much  to  restore  the 
modern  language  to  the  purity  and  beauty  of  the  ancient,  and  fix  it  permanently 
for  the  future  ;  for  the  history  of  the  English  and  German  Bibles  shows  that 
nothing  so  much  elevates  and  settles  the  language  of  a  people  as  a  good  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible. 

Though  the  Armenian  language  is  very  old,  its  literature  also  begins  with 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  in  the  fifth  century.  The  alphabet  was  then 
invented  by  St.  Mesrob,  who  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Bible  into  that 
language.  Ancient  Armenian  is  not  now  understood  by  the  people.  Dr.  Riggs 
is  the  author  of  the  first  grammar  of  the  modern  Armenian.  The  alphabet  has 
thirty-eight  letters.  Its  syntax  resembles  the  Turkish,  and  differs  both  from 
ancient  Armenian  and  European  languages.  In  the  order  of  a  sentence  the 
circumstances  of  place  and  time  are  mentioned  first ;  then  the  subject,  preceded 
by  its  adjective,  if  it  has  one ;  then  the  object  of  the  action,  followed  by  the 
manner  or  instrument ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  verb.     Though  the  language  belongs 

^yournal 0/  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  VII,  p.  Iviii. 


PHILOLOGY. 


195 


to  the  [ndo-European  family,  Dr.  Riggs  finds  in  it  roots  common  to  it  with  the 
Hebrew  as  well  as  with  Latin  and  Greek. 

As  the  Armenians  are  scattered  over  Persia  and  India,  as  well  as  Turkey, 
their  spoken  language  differs  widely ;  but  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
modern  Armenian,  the  preparation  of  the  grammar  of  the  language,  and  the 
religious  literature  created  in  it,  have  formed  a  common  standard  which  is 
working  powerfully  to  settle  the  language,  as  well  as  enrich  it  with  spiritual 
truth. 

Scattered  among  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  clustering  along  the 
■western  shores  of  the  lake  of  Oroomiah,  are  the  Nestorians,  whose  early  mis- 
sions extended  to  China,  and  whose  churches  one  thousand  years  ago,  like  a 
chain  of  outposts,  connected  that  empire  with  western  Asia.  Their  language  is 
a  modern  dialect  of  the  Syriac,  cognate  with  the  Hebrew,  and  more  nearly 
related  to  the  "  Syro-Chaldaic "  spoken  by  our  Lord.  [A  Nestorian,  if  he 
wished  to  expostulate  with  his  friend  for  leaving  him,  would  say :  '"  Lima  sa- 
bachthani"  (Matt,  xxvii :  46) ;  and  a  Nestorian  mother,  if  she  wanted  her  daugh- 
ter to  rise  up,  would  still  say,  "  Koomi  "  (Mark  v  :  41),  though  to  her  son  she 
would  say  "Koom,"  "i"  being  the  feminine  termination  of  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  verb.  So,  in  the  mountains,  Chaepa  (Cephas)  is  a  stone,  and 
Simon  Peter  is  Shimon  Chaepa,  pronounced  Tshaepa.  T.  L.]  Modern  Syriac 
differs  from  the  ancient  more  than  the  Greek  of  the  present  day  from  that  of 
Plato,  and  less  than  Italian  and  French  from  Latin.  Dr.  J.  Perkins  was  the  first 
to  reduce  it  to  writing,  in  1836.  As  he  taught  his  first  class  to  read  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  he  understood  why  Dr.  Chalmers  pronounced  the  Indian  boy  in  the 
woods,  learning  to  read,  the  sublimest  object  in  the  world  ;  and  when  he  laid 
the  first  printed  proof  of  the  Bible  before  his  assistants,  they  exclaimed,  "  It 
is  time  to  give  glory  to  God."  He  translated  the  entire  Bible,  and  printed  it 
in  parallel  columns  with  the  ancient  Syriac.^  His  contributions  to  American 
periodicals  and  his  work  on  Persia  are  noticed  elsewhere. 

The  first  attempt  at  a  grammar  of  the  modern  Syriac  was  a  brief  but  excel- 
lent sketch  by  Rev.  A.  L.  Holladay.  The  grammar  of  Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard  is 
written  with  constant  reference  to  the  Hebrew  and  ancient  Syriac,  and  so  far 
forth  is  a  comparative  grammar.  He' found  the  roots  of  verbs  identical  with 
those  of  ancient  Syriac,  but  the  inflections  and  scheme  of  conjugations  differ- 
ent. Like  other  modern  languages,  it  has  broken  up  the  original  form  of  the 
verb,  and  uses  new  auxiliaries  both  in  the  active  and  passive  voice. 

The  first  mission  of  the  American  Board  was  to  the  Marathi  people  in 
India,  and  the  first  station  was  Bombay.  Rev.  E.  Burgess  wrote  a  grammar 
of  the  language,  which  is  closely  related  to  the  Sanskrit,  using  the  same  alpha- 
bet, consisting  of  fifty  letters,  sixteen  of  them  classed  as  vowels,  and  thirty-six 
consonants.-  Roman  letters  are  also  employed  in  the  method  recommended 
by  Sir  W.  Jones.  This  grammar  has  the  merit  of  originality  and  simplicity. 
It  does  not  follow  all  the  intricacies  of  Sanskrit  treatises  on  grammar.  Instead 
of  their  eight  cases,  it  makes  three  according  to  meaning,  and  only  two  accord- 
ing to  form. 

'  Peshito.  ^Two  of  them  seem  to  do  service  in  both  capacities. 


ig6  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Our  Tamil  mission  has  not  only  translated  the  Scriptures  into  that  language, 
and  furnished  to  the  people  a  Christian  literature  containing  more  than  three 
hundred  works,  but  has  collected  ample  material  for  the  study  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  language.  It  belongs  to  the  Dravidian  group,  which  includes,  also, 
the  Malabar,  Canarese,  and  Telugu,  and  to  the  Turanian,  or  Scythian  family. 
The  people  speaking  these  languages  have  been  driven  to  the  southern  part  of 
Hindostan  by  the  superior  race  of  the  Hindoos,  and  have  adopted  their  religion 
and  literature.  Rev.  H.  R.  Hoisington,  in  his  "  Brief  Notes  on  the  Tamil 
Language,"^  argues  for  the  Shemilic  affinity  of  the  language  and  people.  Rev. 
E.  Webb^  accepts  the  evidences  of  their  Scythian  affinity.  Prof.  Whitney 
inclines  to  the  same  view,  but  waits  further  evidence. 

^  yournal  of  American  Oriental  .'Society,  Vol.  IIL  pp.  387-398.  =Do.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  xliv,  xlv. 


X. 
ETHNOGRAPHY. 


Closely  connected  with  the  contributions  of  missionaries  to  philology  are 
their  contributions  to  the  related  science  of  ethnography.  Indeed,  the  same 
facts  furnish  material  for  both  these  sciences.  Ethnography  is  "  that  branch 
of  knowledge  which  has  for  its  object  the  description  of  the  different  races  of 
men,  with  their  different  characteristics,  circumstances,  manners,  and  habits." 
Ethnology  is  "  the  science  which  treats  of  the  division  of  man  into  races  ;  their 
origin  and  relations,  and  the  differences  which  characterize  them."  Anthro- 
pology is  "the  science  of  man,  considered  in  his  entire  nature,  as  composed  of 
body  and  soul,  and  as  subject  to  various  modifications  from  sex,  temperament^ 
race,  civilization,  and  the  like."  "  Ethnography  embraces  the  descriptive  de- 
tails, and  ethnology  the  rational  exposition."  Both  sustain  the  relation  to 
anthropology  that  parts  do  to  a  whole.  They  run  into  each  other,  "  their  dif- 
ferences being  mainly  those  between  the  particular  and  the  general ;  between 
the  orderly  collection  of  local  facts  and  the  principles  according  to  which 
they  are  grouped  and  interpreted.  Ethnographists  deal  with  particular  tribes, 
and  the  particular  institutions  and  customs  prevailing  among  them.  Ethnolo- 
gists bring  simultaneously  under  review  superstitions,  legends,  customs,  and 
institutions  which,  though  scattered  in  distant  regions  of  the  earth,  have  some 
common  basis  or  significance."  The  science  of  ethnology  does  not  date  back 
of  the  present  generation.  The  word  ethnography  occurs  perhaps  for  the  first 
time  in  the  Atlas  of  Balbi  (1826).^ 

As  the  science  is  so  new,  it  is  not  strange  if  the  enemies  of  religion  seek  to 
pervert  it  to  their  purposes.  It  is  always  so.  The  "god  of  this  world  "  tried 
thus  to  make  the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  geology  subservient  to  his  king- 
dom ;  and  if  the  effort  was  made  to  preempt  the  science  of  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  for  the  service  of  irreligion,  it  is  nothing  strange  if  the  science  of  the 
races  inhabiting  the  earth  meet  with  the  like  treatment.  The  intelligent  Chris- 
tian is  not,  on  that  account,  an  opposer  of  the  science,  but,  knowing  that  the 
God  of  the  Bible  "  made  the  world  and  all  things  therein,  and  hath  made  of 
one  blood  all  nations  of  men  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth,"  he  does  all 
in  his  power  to  help  it  on,  knowing  that  in  his  own  time  the  Lord  will  take 
possession  of  it  for  himself,  and  that  unscientific  theories,  formed  on  the  basis  of 

'  Elie  Rechis,  in  Encyclopcedia  Britaimica,  ninth  edition. 

(197) 


198  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

a  too  hasty  and  one-sided  induction  of  facts,  will  soon  give  place  to  a  more 
comprehensive  induction,  that  shall  bring  this  science  also  into  line  with  all 
others,  in  their  harmony  with  the  written  word. 

The  distinction  just  made  between  ethnography  and  ethnology  shows  us 
where  to  expect  to  find  the  toiling  hands  of  our  missionaries  —  not  among  those 
at  the  center,  who  have  time  to  build  up  the  structure  of  ethnology,  but  among 
the  careful  observers  of  the  facts  of  ethnography,  who  furnish  the  materials  for 
that  structure.  In  this  incipient  stage  of  the  science,  too,  their  help  may  be 
more  efficient  in  collecting  the  simple  facts  than  in  deducing  from  them  gen- 
eral truths,  which  may  require  to  be  modified  by  other  facts,  collected  from 
other  quarters,  before  they  become  of  universal  application. 

It  is  also  to  be  expected  that  these  facts,  however  valuable  when  they  come 
to  be  seen  in  position  in  the  finished  structure,  may  not  show  to  equally  good 
advantage  when  viewed  separately  and  apart ;  just  as  the  large  blocks  of  stone 
lying  scattered  round  the  site  of  the  intended  building  do  not  appear  so  well 
as  when  each  occupies  the  place  assigned  it  by  the  architect. 

The  contributions  of  missionaries  to  comparative  philology  furnish  impor- 
tant help  for  the  classifications  of  ethnology.  The  study  of  Sanskrit  —  and 
our  missionaries  stand  high  among  those  who  are  acquainted  with  that  ancient 
language  —  has  taught  Germans  and  Scandinavians  to  trace  back  their  gen- 
ealogy till  its  separate  stems  unite  in  India,  and  the  variation  of  words  in  each 
language  determines  the  era  when  those  who  use  it  left  their  ancient  home. 

In  the  hand  of  modern  scholars,  philology  has  become  a  telescope,  by 
which  we  penetrate  the  secrets  of  the  distant  past.  It  discovers  bonds  of 
parentage  between  those  who,  like  the  Greeks  and  Persians,  reproached  each 
other  as  barbarians,  and  detects  a  diversity  of  origin  between  others,  who,  like 
the  Greeks  and  Egyptians,  thought  themselves  closely  allied.  The  old  Aryan 
vocabulary  reveals  that  race  as  ploughing  with  oxen,  using  carriages  and  boats, 
and  keeping  cattle.  As  it  does  not  mention  the  ass  and  cat,  it  shows  they  had 
no  dealings  M'ith  the  Egyptians.  As  it  speaks  of  bears  and  wolves,  but  not  of 
lions  and  tigers,  the  people  that  used  it  must  have  lived  north  of  Assyria, 
where  lions  hunted  and  were  hunted,  and  did  not  extend  to  the  southern  shores 
of  "the  Caspian,  where  tigers  still  seek  their  prey. 

Our  missionaries  in  the  Pacific  distinguish  the  natures  of  different  groups 
not  only  by  their  peculiarities  of  body,  but  by  the  relations  of  their  languages 
to  other  known  languages  of  Asia  and  the  speech  of  other  islands ;  and  this 
knowledge  will  be  more  accurate  and  thorough  as  the  power  to  compare  these 
languages  and  detect  their  deepest  contrasts  and  resemblances  increases. 

It  is  already  ascertained  that  the  Hawaiians  form  one  of  the  families  of  the 
brown  Polynesian  race  —  radically  distinct  from  the  Malay,  and  more  akin  to 
;the  Papuan  —  which  inhabits,  also,  the  Marquesas,  Tonga,  Society,  Friendly, 
and  Samoan  groups,  as  well  as  New  Zealand,  Their  similarity  of  language  is 
so  great  that  the  Hawaiian  and  the  New  Zealander,  though  living  five  thousand 
miles  apart,  readily  understand  each  other.  They  are  of  a  swarthy  complexion, 
inclining  to  olive,  with  hair  black,  glossy,  and  wavy.  They  have  large  eyes,  a 
broad  nose,  and  full  lips.     They  are  well-knit  and  active.     Their  stature   is 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


199 


good,  but  their  chiefs  are  larger  and  taller  than  Europeans.  They  are  expert 
in  swimming,  make  good  fishermen  and  sailors,  and  are  of  a  yielding  and  imita- 
tive disposition,  laughter-loving,  and  capable  of  a  fair  degree  of  elevation. 

The  population  of  the  islands  is  steadily  decreasing.  In  1822  it  was  esti- 
mated at  one  hundred  and  forty-two  thousand  ;  ten  years  later,  the  official 
census  gave  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  three  hundred  and  thirteen.  In 
1836  it  was  one  hundred  and  eight  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy-nine  ; 
in  1850,  eighty-four  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-five;  in  i860,  sixty-nine 
thousand  eight  hundred;  and  in  1872,  fifty-six  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
ninety-nine.  This  decrease  is  due  to  many  causes  —  chiefly  to  diseases  intro- 
duced by  contact  with  the  whites^  and  to  intoxicating  drinks;  and,  but  for  the 
missionary  work,  would  have  been  much  greater  than  it  is  —  if,  indeed,  the  race 
had  not,  ere  this,  like  some  others,  been  wholly  extirpated. 

A  thorough  collation  of  the  vocabularies  and  grammars  prepared  by  our 
missionaries  among  the  North  American  Indians  may  throw  light  on  their 
place  among  the  nations,  and  on  many  an  ancient  migration  now  unknown  or 
only  guessed  at  through  the  mists  of  time.  So  the  scholarly  works  in  philology 
written  and  published  by  our  missionaries  in  India  may  yet  throw  a  flood  of 
light  on  the  origin  and  migrations  and  other  changes  of  the  one  hundred  and 
fifty  millions  in  that  peninsula. 

Dr.  D.  O.  Allen "  speaks  of  the  Sanskrit  as  a  polished  language,  "  of  won- 
derful structure,  more  perfect  than  the  Greek,  more  copious  than  the  Latin, 
and  more  exquisitely  refined  than  either."^  H.  H.  Wilson,  Oxford  Professor 
of  Sanskrit,  says :  "  The  music  of  its  composition  must  ever  be  inadequately 
expressed  by  any  other  tongue."  It  has  not  been  spoken  for  centuries,  but  at 
an  early  period  was  vernacular  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and  probably  came 
from  the  northwest.  Dr.  Allen  thinks  it  was  not  the  parent  of  the  vernacular 
languages  of  India,  but  that  they  were  the  languages  of  the  aborigines,  previous 
to  the  introduction  of  the  Brahminic  system;  and  that,  as  the  Sanskrit  was  the 
repository  of  all  the  Brahminic  learning,  theological,  scientific,  and  technical 
terms  were  transferred  from  that  into  the  other  languages.  The  Sanskrit, 
even  at  the  early  period  when  the  Hindoo  dramas  were  written,  seems  to  have 
been  confined  to  the  higher  classes ;  for,  while  the  parts  spoken  by  the  learned 
are  in  that  language,  persons  of  low  caste  are  represented  as  performing  their 
parts  in  the  vernacular.^  He  thinks  the  Tamil,  Canarese,  Telugu,  Marathi, 
Oriya,  Bengali,  Hindui,  Gujerati,  Scindi,  Punjaubi,  and  Hindostani  ai-e  dis- 
tinct from  the  Sanskrit  and  from  each  other,  each  representing  its  own 
aboriginal  population;^  nearly  all  of  them  have  different  alphabets.  The 
Tamil  is  more  polished  and  contains  more  literature  than  any  of  the  rest. 
While  the  learned  in  other  parts  of  India  wrote  in  Sanskrit,  the  learned  among 
the  Tamil  people  used  their  own  tongue.^ 

Besides  determining  the  relations  of  different  African  tribes  to  each  other 
through  the  affinities  of  their  languages,  Dr.  J.  L.  Wilson  has  shown  how  the 

'Dr.  Anderson's  Hawaiian  Islands,  pp.  269-278.     T.  M.  Coan,  M.  D.,  in  American  Encydopcrdia. 
2  India,  A  ncient  and  Modern,  pp.  43 1-433-  •  ^  Quoted  from  Sir  William  Jones. 

*  India,  Ancient  and  Modern,^.  ^-H.  »Do.,p.  435-  "^Do.jp.  436. 


200  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

languages  of  Western  Africa  reveal  the  contact  of  tribes  there  with  various 
European  nations,  by  words  borrowed  from  their  languages.  So  the  dialects 
of  South  Africa  bear  witness  to  the  presence  of  the  English  and  Dutch  in  that 
quarter,  as  those  of  the  eastern  coast  indicate  the  vicinity  of  the  Malagasy ; 
while  in  the  north,  intercourse  with  the  Arabs  and  Copts  is  detected  through 
the  traces  of  that  intercourse  left  in  the  languages  of  that  region. 

Rev.  L.  Grout  gives  a  very  full  account  of  the  Zulus  and  their  language. 
Taking  language  for  his  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  their  relations,  he  concludes 
with  Dr.  J,  L.  Wilson  that  all  the  aborigines  of  South  Africa,  save  the  Hotten- 
tots and  Bushmen,  had  a  common  origin.  This  variety,  extending  north  to 
equatorial  Africa,  includes  the  Zanguebar  and  Mozambique  tribes ;  the  Zulu 
and  Kosa ;  the  Bechuana,  Bayeye,  and  kindred  tribes  in  the  interior ;  and  the 
Ovaherero,  Ovampo,  Kongo,  and  Mpongwe  on  the  west.  Their  moral  and 
physical  characteristics,  mental  type,  and  religious  notions  corroborate  this 
view.  They  are  known  as  the  Zingian  or  Bantu  race.  The  Hottentots  seem 
to  have  been  separated  from  their  kindred  in  northern  Africa,  and  crowded 
before  the  advance  of  this  other  race  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  conti- 
nent. While  other  things  point  at  this  fact,  the  similarity  between  the  Coptic 
and  Hottentot  languages  gives  the  most  reliable  evidence  of  its  truth.  The 
Zingian  race  seems  to  be  Hamitic ;  belonging  to  those  called  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  by  the  name  of  Kush.  Its  language  is  alliterative,  or  prefixional, 
called  by  some  agglutinate,  like  the  Turkish  and  Tatar. ^ 

One  peculiarity  of  the  language  is  a  curious  smack  in  one  out  of  a  dozen 
words,  called  a  click,  which  may  be  made  with  the  tongue  and  front  teeth,  with 
the  tongue  and  palate,  or  with  the  tongue  and  double  teeth  on  either  side. 
Another  is,  that  the  formative  letters  generally  precede  the  root,  thus  :  umfana, 
boy ;  abafana,  boys  ;  inkomo,  cow ;  izinkomo,  cows  ;  ilizwi,  word ;  amazwi, 
w^ords.  So  in  the  adjective  :  umfana  omkulu,  large  boy  ;  abafana  abakulu,  large 
boys  ;  inkomo  enkulu,  large  cow ;  ilizwi  elikulu,  large  word.  So  in  the  posses- 
sive pronouns :  abafana  bami,  my  boys  ;  izinkomo  zami,  my  cows ;  ilizwi  lami, 
my  word ;  showing  an  alliterative  euphony.  Mr.  Grout  illustrates  this  by 
other  examples.  No  language  has  more  regularity,  flexibility,  and  precision. 
Nouns  are  of  eight  classes,  according  to  their  first  syllable  and  the  form  of 
their  plural.  The  plural  of  the  first  is  made  with  aba,  the  second  with  ama, 
the  third  with  izin,  each  class  and  number  having  its  own  form  of  the  pronoun, 
personal,  relative,  or  possessive,  and  so  on.  This  may  seem  complicated,  but 
it  is  so  exact  and  regular  that  not  even  children  are  at  a  loss  for  the  right  form, 
or  make  mistakes.  The  language  also  avoids  the  softness  arising  from  too 
many  liquids,  and  the  harshness  caused  by  a  superabundance  of  consonants. 

Its  greatest  defect  is  the  paucity  of  terms  for  moral  and  religious  ideas. 
Yet  the  language  is  capable  of  development  and  enlargement.  One  root  is 
capable  of  many  modifications ;  thus,  from  bona,  to  see,  comes  bonisa,  to  cause 
to  see,  bonisisa,  to  cause  to  see  clearly,  bonela,  to  see  for,  bonelcla,  to  see  and  do 
the  same,  to  imitate,  banana,  to  see  each  other,  botie/ana,  to  see  for  each  other, 
bonisana,  to  cause  each  other  to  see,  bonakala,  to  be  visible,  bonakalisa,  to  make 

'^  Zulu- Land,  pp.  59-65. 


ethno<;raph\  .  201 

visible,  itmboni,  a  seer,  iimboneli,  a  spectator,  imibonelo,  a  spectacle,  umbonisi,  an 
overseer,  umbofiiso,  a  show,  isibono,  a  sight,  a  curiosity,  tsiboniso,  a  vision,  isi- 
bonakalo,  an  appearance,  isibonakaliso,  a  revelation ;  and  so  it  might  be  traced 
through  the  passive  voice  also  ;  as,  boiiwa,  to  be  seen,  boniswa,  to  cause  to  be 
seen,  boiiisiswa,  to  cause  to  be  clearly  seen,  and  so  on. 

Like  the  German,  it  forms  compound  words  :  impiima  langa,  east,  from 
pu7na,  to  come  forth,  and  ilafiga,  thQ  sun  ;  inchona  langa,  west,  from  chona,  to 
sink,  and  ilanga;  so  inhlilifa,  heir,  from  two  words,  meaning  "to  eat  the  estate 
of  the  dead  one."  Their  names,  also,  are  significant.  Amanzimtoti  is  "  sweet 
water; "  one  who  wears  spectacles  is  called  "  glasses,"'  and  the  like.^ 

Mr.  Grout  gives  some  specimens  of  their  literature,  but  we  have  not  room 
for  specimens,  as  they  are  not  marked  for  either  beauty  or  profundity. - 

The  people  are  of  good  stature,  erect  and  slender ;  their  limbs  well  propor- 


A    ZUI.U     KRAAL. 


tioned,  and  their  frames  well  developed.  Their  color  is  from  a  copper  to  a  jet 
black.  Dark  brown  is,  in  their  eyes,  the  height  of  beauty,  or,  as  they  say, 
"black  with  a  little  red."  Their  eyes  are  black,  and  their  teeth  well  set.  The 
features  of  the  face  var}'  from  those  of  the  negro  to  those  of  the  Caucasian. 
Their  huts  are  built  of  wattles,  in  the  form  of  an  old-fashioned  bee-hive,  round 
a  cattle-pen,  with  a  corresponding  palisade  outside.  The  doors  are  so  low  that 
one  must  enter  on  all-fours,  and  window  there  is  none.  The  huts  are  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  diameter ;  there  is  one  for  each  wife  or  other  depend- 
ent. The  calves,  dogs,  goats,  and  sheep  occupy  them  along  with  their  human 
inmates,  though  generally  railed  off  from  them.  The  fire-place  is  a  shallow 
excavation  in  the  midst  of  the  calabashes,  water-pots,  millstones,  and  other 
paraphernalia  of  the  household.  The  food  is  maize,  first  boiled,  and  then 
mashed  between  two  stones.      This  is  eaten  with  milk,  generally  sour.      Their 


'  /.ulu-I^aud^  p]).   T.S7— K^j;. 


'  Do.,  pp.  193-200. 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


beer  is  drank  from  earthen  pots  or  closely-woven  baskets.  In  drinking  from  a 
brook,  they  wade  in  and  toss  the  water  with  the  hand  into  the  mouth,  like 
Gideon's  three  hundred.  Their  grain  is  threshed  with  flails,  winnowed  by  the 
wind,  and  deposited  in  summer  in  bins  of  wicker-work,  but  in  winter  in  bottle- 
shaped  pits  dug  in,  or  rather  under,  the  cattle-fold,  and  covered,  first  with 
stones  and  then  with  earth  and  the  contents  of  the  yard,  to  make  it  rain-proof. 
Their  wardrobe  is  too  scanty  for  description,  being,  for  a  man,  an  apron  half  a 
foot  v/ide  and  twice  as  long  in  front,  and  another  a  little  larger  behind.     The 

women  wear  a  dressed  cowhide, 
reaching  from  the  loins  down  to- 
wards the  feet.^  Men  wear  a  ring 
of  hair  on  the  head,  sewed  full  of 
gum  and  charcoal,  and  polished 
like  our  boots.  The  women  gather 
theirs  into  a  knot,  glued  together 
with  grease  and  red  ocher.  Beads 
they  wear  in  great  profusion  wher- 
ever they  can  make  them  stick,  even 
astride  the  nose  and  over  the  eye- 
brows. Bracelets  of  shells,  armlets 
of  brass,  and  glittering  rings  are 
worn  by  all,  with  many  bones  and 
bits  of  wood,  teeth  and  claws  of 
beasts  or  birds  as  amulets,  and,  to 
crown  all,  feathers  stuck  in  the 
hair.  The  skin  is  also  sometimes 
adorned  by  scars  ;  and  if,  in  a  fit 
of  anger,  the  husband  cuts  these 
off  from  his  wife,  she  is  in  disgrace 
till  she  can  raise  up  other  ridges  in 
their  place.  They  use  great  quan- 
tities of  snuff,  which  they  carry  in 
gourds,  reeds,  or  buffalo  horns,  and 
convey  to  the  nose  with  a  bone 
spoon  till  the  tears  flow.  The  pipe 
is  also  a  great  favorite,  and  is  used 
to  disgusting  excess.  The  chief  business  of  the  men  is  war.  They  also  build 
the  kraal  and  make  the  fences  ;  leaving  the  women  to  thatch,  make  the  floors, 
and  raise  the  crops.  Mr.  Grout  gives  graphic  descriptions  of  their  watching 
the  crops  to  keep  them  from  being  carried  off  by  birds  and  beasts ;  also  the 
process  of  Zulu  milking.-  There  is  also  a  detailed  account  of  7ai1u  govern- 
ment and  law  ;  their  political  institutions ;  their  courts  of  justice  ;  their  elo- 
quence ;  and   also   their   superstitions,  which  resemble  those  already  described 

iThe  engraving  opposite  shows  these  peculiarities  of  the  dress  of  both  sexes,  as  well  as  the  practical  work- 
ing of  the  superstition  which  looks  on  all  sickness  as  caused  by  the  witchcraft  of  some  one  whom  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  prophetess  to  point  out  for  punishment.  It  illustrates  what  was  said  on  page  89,  concerning  west- 
ern  Africa.—  Missionary  Herald,  1R72,  P-  ■^'^^•  '^ /.jtln-Land,  pp.  04-1 M- 


A    ZULU    WARRIOK, 


N 
C 
f 

c 
c 

R 


ETHNOCJRAPHV. 


203 


in  western  Africa.  Tlie  worship  of  the  Amahlozi,  or  shades  of  their  ancestors, 
is  dwelt  on,  and  its  debasing  effects ;  also  their  customs  on  the  occasion  of 
deaths  and  burials.'  His  chapter  on  women  and  marriage  is  a  very  sad  one. 
The  men  were  not  allowed  to  marry  till  the  chief  gave  them  permission  to 
leave  the  army.  The  women  were  sold  for  cattle  without  the  least  reference  to 
their  own  choice,  and  generally  to  those  able  to  pay  the  highest  price,  who  were 
apt  to  be  old  men  with  a  number  of  wives  already.  Mr.  Grout  tells  of  a  poor 
girl  who  had  attended  the  mission  schools  and  got  an  idea  of  a  better  life,  who 
fled  to  the  bush  among  the  wild  beasts,  from  her  relatives,  who  sought  to  force 
her  into  such  a  union.      She  came  at  midnight  to  his  house,  and  begged  with 


WOMEN    IN    AFRICA. 


tears  that  he  would  save  her,  declaring  that  she  would  prefer  death  to  the  fate 
before  her  ;  but  her  pursuers  followed  and  insisted  on  their  rights,  in  spite  of 
the  missionary's  arguments  and  the  girl's  tears.  Twice  did  she  get  away  and 
come  to  him  for  help,  but  British  law  forbade  him  to  do  anything,  similar  cases 
having  previously  been  decided  against  him  in  the  courts ;  and  he  was  com- 
pelled, amid  his  own  tears,  to  give  her  up,  and  never  heard  from  her  again. - 

The  people  in  that  warm  climate  lack  the  energy  and  forethought  produced 
by  our  northern  winters  ;  but  they  are  honest,  though  untruthful.  Stealing  is 
rarely  known,  and  doors  are  not  fastened,  as  in  more  civilized  countries.  They 
are  light-hearted  and  cheerful  ;  polite,  and  possessed  of  a  fine  sense  of  justice, 
but  passionate,  and  apt  to  lose  control  of  themselves  in  their  passion. 


-  Do. ,  pp.  132-162. 


2 Do.,  pp.  167-170. 


XI. 
GENERAL  LITERATURE. 


The  literary  work  of  the  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  in  foreign 
languages  is  so  voluminous  that  anything  like  a  complete  catalogue  of  their 
writings  is  out  of  the  question.  This  chapter  can  only  aim  at  a  general  view 
of  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  work  accomplished.  They  have  been  much 
more  intent  on  working  than  on  keeping  a  record  of  their  work.  It  would  be 
interesting,  also,  to  know  the  writer  or  translator  of  each  publication,  but  this, 
also,  is  no  longer  possible,  for  the  authors  of  some  have  been  forgotten  ;  oth- 
ers have  been  the  product  of  several  co-laborers  ;  and  still  others  have  been  so 
altered  by  repeated  revision  that  one  does  not  know  to  whom  to  assign  them. 
Even  translations  have  sometimes  been  so  modified  to  meet  the  wants  and 
modes  of  thought  of  the  people  for  whom  they  were  made,  as  hardly  to  retain 
the  form  of  the  original.  So  there  has  been  no  attempt  to  specify  authorship, 
save  in  a  few  cases  that  could  not  well  be  avoided. 

A  list,  such  as  it  is,  which  much  research  and  a  good  deal  of  correspondence 
has  succeeded  in  getting  together,  may  be  seen  in  Appendix  II. 

A  writer  in  the  Westminster  Review  says :  "  The  literature  of  a  country  is 
not  composed  entirely,  or  even  principally,  of  the  products  of  high  genius.  It 
does  not  depend  on  genius  for  its  existence,  or  even  for  its  utility.  Great 
poets  and  great  thinkers  appear  at  long  intervals,  and  make  their  eras  memo- 
rable for  generations.  They  are  too  few  to  constitute  at  any  period  a  current 
literature."  Doubtless  some  of  the  writings  of  missionaries  are  of  ephemeral 
interest ;  but  much  from  their  pens  has  served  its  generation  well,  and  some  of 
their  productions  will  survive  as  long  as  the  languages  in  which  they  were 
written. 

That  there  was  need  of  their  laying  the  foundations  of  a  national  literature 
among  peoples  that  had  not  even  an  alphabet,  is  plain ;  but  the  literature 
of  most  of  the  heathen  nations  that  had  already  one  of  their  own  was  so  full 
of  falsehood  in  science,  superstition  in  religion,  and  gross  immorality  and  filthi- 
ness,  that  it  only  created  a  necessitv  for  a  new  literature,  free  from  these  fatal 
defects. 

In  India  the  lullabies  of  the  nursery,  the  stories  of  childhood,  the  dramas  of 
the  stage,  the  rites  of  the  priest,  and  discourses  of  philosophers  were  full  of 
silliness  and  impurity.  The  popular  mind  was  preoccupied  by  absurdity  and 
(204) 


GENERAL     LITERATURE. 


205 


obscenity;  and  though  the  government  had  published  school-books  and 
some  works  of  general  literature,  no  opposition  to  the  corruption  of  idolatry 
had  been  allowed.  The  character  of  the  native  literature,  even  of  the  sacred 
books,  demanded  the  creation  of  a  Christian  literature  if  the  people  were  to  be 
lifted  out  of  their  pollution ;  and  the  Rev.  T.  J.  Scott,  a  Methodist  missionary, 
says  that  a  small  library  of  Christian  books  can  already  be  collected  in  India: 
''The  Bedford  tinker  repeats  his  immortal  allegory  in  at  least  seven  languages 
there,  and  the  Holy  War  is  fought  over  again  on  the  plains  of  India.  Sandford 
and  Merton  rehearse  their  useful  story  to  Indian  youth,  to  whom  we  can  now  give 
Line  upon  Line  in  several  languages.  The  children  also  have  a  Peep  of  Day, 
and  even  The  House  We  Live  In  has  been  rebuilt  for  them,  and  the  good  Dairy- 
man's Daughter  leads  her  beneficent  life  over  again  in  Hindostan."  ^ 

Another  Wesleyan,  Rev.  E.  E.  Jenkins,  in  an  address  delivered  in  London, 
1870,  asks,  Who  translated  the  Bible  into  fifteen  Indian  languages  ?  The 
missionaries.  Who  wrote  the  best  grammars  and  lexicons  of  these  languages  ? 
Beschi,  Yates,  and  Winslow,  missionaries.  Who  were  the  pioneers  in  those 
researches  which,  under  Wilson  and  Max  Miiller,  bring  out  the  treasures  of  the 
Pali  and  Sanskrit  ?  Yates,  Gogerly,  and  Spence  Hard}',  missionaries.  Who 
have  given  to  literature  the  most  minute  and  reliable  accounts  of  the  manners 
and  customs,  the  religion  and  the  castes  of  the  Hindoos  ?     The  missionaries. 

Dr.  John  Murdock,  writing  to  Lord  Napier  in  1872,  said:  "It  would  be 
better  for  India  if  its  whole  indigenous  literature  were  to  share  the  reputed 
fate  of  the  Alexandrian  Library.''  A  writer  in  the  Indian  Evangelical  Review 
said  that  "the  issue  of  books  and  pamphlets  was  increasing  in  India  enormously, 
very  few  of  the  best  vernacular  books  being  free  from  obscenity,  while  the  great 
mass  of  novels  and  poetry  published  in  Bengal  are  distressingly  iilthy."  Even 
the  Vedas  cannot  be  translated  into  English,  on  account  of  their  impurity.  The 
same  was  true  of  the  literature  of  ancient  Assyria.  In  translating  the  Legend 
of  the  Deluge,  George  Smith  says  of  some  parts  of  it :  "These  I  do  not  give,  as 
their  details  are  not  suited  for  general  reading."  -  They  described  the  amours 
of  Ishtar.^ 

The  Japanese  love  books,  especially  history,  and  have  an  extensive  polite 
literature,  but  that  also  greatly  needs  purification ;  and  while  the  mythology  of 
China  is  free  from  the  defilement  that  marks  the  Hindoo  Pantheon,  the  same 
cannot  be  said  of  all  its  literature. 

The  apostles  had  a  like  corrupt  literature  resisting  their  efforts  to  elevate  the 
community  in  their  day,  but  they  had  no  press  to  help  them,  for,  in  the  great 
plan  of  God,  the  time  for  that  had  not  yet  come  ;  though  it  seems  that  if  Paul 
could  have  sent  his  epistles  to  the  press,  and  so  circulated  them  among  all  the 
churches,  the  history  of  the  world  might  have  been  different  from  what  it  is; 
but  then  we  must  remember  that  the  influence  of  the  press  may  be  for  evil  as 
well  as  for  good,  and  which  of  the  two  shall  prevail  depends  on  the  character 
of  those  that  use  it.  It  might  have  been  that,  if  there  had  been  a  press  in  their 
day,  it  had  been  subsidized  more  by  the  enemies  than  by  the  friends  of  God  and 

^Allahabad  Conference,  p.  433.  -Assyrian  Discoveries,  p.  173.     Chaldean  Genesis,  p.  220. 

*The  Assyrian  Venus. 


2o6  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

man.  It  is  one  of  the  beneficent  arrangements  of  Providence  in  our  day,  that 
the  missionary  not  only  has  true  science  and  a  divine  religion  to  sow  broadcast 
over  the  nations,  but  the  church  at  home  supplies  him  with  this  mighty  engine, 
aware  of  its  capacities,  and  determined  that  they  shall  be  employed  for  good. 
The  late  Dr.  Osgood  calls  the  press  the  people's  university,  whose  graduates 
outnumber  those  of  all  others  ;  the  modern  cathedral,  whose  daily  morning  and 
evening  service  is  never  intermitted,  and  whose  pulpit  finds  no  reluctant 
hearer. 

Even  the  home  periodical  literature  of  foreign  missions  is  not  to  be  over- 
looked. In  i860  Dr.  Anderson  estimated  the  entire  number  of  copies  at  three 
million  ninety-seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven,  and  some  of  the 
annual  reports  of  the  Board  embody  material  most  valuable  for  the  future  his- 
torian of  modern  progress.  In  consulting  them  for  material  in  connection  with 
this  volume,  the  writer  has  been  impressed  more  strongly  than  ever  with  their 
exceeding  value.  Destroy  them,  and  it  would  be  obliterating  the  mile-stones  of 
progress.  It  would  be  like  blotting  out  the  records  of  the  debates  of  the  con- 
vention that  formed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  or  of  those  sessions 
of  Congress  that  adopted  its  successive  amendments. 

During  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  operations  of  the  Board,  its  issues  in  forty- 
six  foreign  languages  v^^ere  more  than  one  billion  five  hundred  million  pages. 
At  that  time  as  many  as  twenty  different  races  liad  received  from  it  a  written 
language,  but  the  Micronesians  were  counted  at  that  time  as  only  one,  and 
since  then  that  one  has  become  five.  The  Ponapean  language  has  been 
reduced  to  writing  by  Rev.  L.  H.  Gulick,  M.D.,  and  Rev.  A.  A.  Sturges;  the 
Kusaian  by  Rev.  B.  G.  Snow  ;  that  of  the  Marshall  Islands  by  Rev.  G.  Pier- 
son,  M.D.,  and  Rev.  E.  T.  Doane  ;  that  of  the  Gilbert  Islands  by  Rev.  H. 
Bingham,  Jr.;  while  the  Mortlock  islanders  were  indebted  for  the  same  service 
to  Obadinia,  the  daughter  of  a  chief  of  Ponape,  and  a  spiritual  child  of  our 
mission  there.  Besides  these,  languages  in  western  Africa  and  elsewhere  need 
to  be  added  to  the  list. 

TURKEY. 

In  1822  Rev.  D.  Temple  took  out  a  press  to  Malta.  Fifteen  thousand  dol- 
lars had  been  subscribed  in  Boston  for  its  working  capital ;  and,  after  printing 
twenty-one  million  pages,  chiefly  in  Greek,  it  was  removed  to  Smyrna  in  1833. 
Mr.  Hallock  went  with  it,  and  a  font  of  Armenian  type ;  also  one  of  Arabic, 
ordered  by  Dr.  King  from  Paris  and  London,  at  the  expense  of  friends  in 
France  and  England.  Among  others,  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Hannah  More  sub- 
scribed ;^5.  After  printing  about  twenty  million  pages  at  Smyrna,  mostly 
in  Armenian,  the  press  was  removed  to  Constantinople  in  1853. 

As  far  back  as  1830,  more  than  thirty-five  million  pages  were  printed  in 
eleven  languages,  and  these  not  only  created  readers  by  the  facilities  they  fur- 
nished for  learning  to  read,  but  often  a  small  tract  produced  great  results.  In 
1S32  Dr.  Goodell  dropped  a  copy  of  The  Dairyman'' s  Daughter,  which  he  had 
translated  into  Armeno-Turkish,  at  the  door  of  a  church  in  Nicomedia.  Years 
after,  he  learned  that  a  boy  gave  it  to  a  priest,  who  not  only  read  it  himself,  but 


GENERAL     LITERATURE. 


207 


read  it  to  another  priest;  and  not  they  alone  were  brought  to  the  knowledge  of 
Christ,  but  others  also.  Nor  did  Dr.  Goodell  know  anything  of  the  good  work 
thus  originated,  till  the  priest  came  to  him  in  Constantinople,  six  years  after- 
wards, for  help  in  evangelizing  that  vicinity.  Dr.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  found  there 
a  company  of  sixteen,  who  seemed  all  of  them  to  have  been  "  led  by  the  Spirit 
of  God"  (Romans  viii :  14).  Two  years  later  he  found  that  a  merchant  from 
Adabazaar  had  carried  several  books  there  also,  and  that  was  the  beginning  of 
a  good  work  in  that  city.  A  priest  was  converted,  and  though  persecutions 
arose,  yet  more  than  fifty  attended  the  meetings  before  a  missionary  had 
ever  seen  the  place.  So  at  Aintab,  Arabkir,  Tocat,  Sivas,  Killis,  Zeitun, 
and  many  more  places,  the  good  work  began  before  missionaries  had  been  on 
the  ground.  Dr.  E.  E.  Bliss  said  that  the  issues  of  the  mission  press  went  all 
over  the  land  in  advance  of  other  books,  and  furnished  the  Armenians  two 
thirds  of  their  reading.  In  one  village  a  noted  thief  bought  a  Bible  and  learned 
to  read  it.  The  result  was  his  own  conversion  and  the  gathering  the  nucleus 
of  a  church  in  a  very  convenient  chapel ;  another  Bible  which  he  sold  gath- 
ered as  many  as  fifty  people  in  a  village  forty  miles  distant  to  hear  it  read. 
A  colporteur  found  seventy  men  in  a  stable  at  Perchenj  listening  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  Gospel.  The  missionaries  at  Harpoot  went  there,  and  a  revival 
followed,  numbering  twenty-one  converts,  growing  in  two  years  into  a  church  of 
forty  members,  with  native  pastor,  chapel,  and  parsonage.  They  sent  out 
brethren,  two  by  two,  to  neighboring  villages,  and  in  one,  fifty  hopeful  conver- 
sions took  place,  resulting  in  a  church  whose  pastor  is  one  of  the  men  who 
first  went  there  with  the  Bible.  A  young  man  begged  an  Armenian  Testa- 
ment, got  another  man  to  read  it,  and  gathered  his  friends  every  Sunday  in  a 
cave  on  the  mountain  to  hear  it,  and  so  began  the  Protestant  community  of 
Albistan,  which,  in  five  years,  numbered  one  hundred  and  fifty  souls. 

Such  incidents  illustrate  the  working  of  the  leaven;  and  when  we  remember 
that  in  1872  two  hundred  and  eleven  different  works  had  been  published  in 
Turkey,  numbering  one  million  two  hundred  and  nineteen  thousand  five 
hundred  copies,  and  two  hundred  and  eighty-nine  million  two  hundred  and 
sixty-one  thousand  one  hundred  and  eighty  pages,  of  which  seven  hundred  and 
eleven  thousand  seven  hundred  were  bound  volumes,  and  one  hundred  sixty- 
seven  thousand  four  hundred  of  them  school-books,  from  primers  and  arith- 
metics up  to  works  on  astronomy  and  mental  and  moral  science,  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand  five  hundred  Bibles,  entire  or  in  portions,  we 
get  some  impression  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work  that  is  being  done  and  the 
change  that  is  going  on. 

Well  might  Dr.  Hamlin  say :  ^  "  Those  who  measure  the  work  by  the  num- 
ber of  churches  and  schools  wholly  misapprehend  it.  The  change  wrought  in 
the  religious  convictions  of  millions  testifies  more  fully  to  its  power  than  all 
tabulated  statistics."  In  his  Ajnong  the  Turks  he  says:  "The  Moslem  treats 
Christians  with  a  respect  he  never  did  before.  They  will  converse  on  religious 
subjects  with  a  freedom  impossible  thirty  years  ago.  In  a  steamer  on  the 
Bosphorus  I  once  overheard  some  Turks  attributing  the  change  to  American 

'  Missio7iary  Herald,  \^T2.,  p.  48. 


2o8  THK    LLY    VOLUME. 

missLonaries,  wholly  unaware  that  one  of  them  was  within  liearing.  By  their 
books,  schools,  periodicals,  and  versions  of  the  Bible,  they  have  exerted  a  wide 
influence  outside  of  their  direct  labors."^ 

Dr.  E.  E.  Bliss  recognized  the  good  hand  of  God  in  the  preservation  of  the 
press.  Though  the  enemy  punished  Protestants  with  fines,  imprisonment,  and 
the  bastinado,  and  burned  their  books,  they  never  tried  to  stop  the  press  which 
produced  the  books.  Dr.  Schauffler  called  it  "  the  one  battery  which  the 
enemy  could  never  silence." 

An  English  writer  said,  in  1873:  "The  missionaries  translated  the  Script- 
ures j  they  wrote  books  and  edited  newspapers,  reviews,  and  magazines ;  the^ 
engaged  in  works  of  practical  benevolence  ;  they  established  schools ;  they 
poured  out  a  flood  of  light  from  their  printing  presses ;  they  expounded  the 
Word  of  God.  At  Bebek  they  trained  numbers  of  young  men  in  sound  scholar- 
ship for  the  work  of  the  ministry.  In  the  various  languages  of  Turkey  they 
circulated  four  hundred  thousand  Bibles,  besides  five  hundred  thousand  other 
useful  books,  many  of  them  translations  of  our  favorite  classics,  besides  a  host 
of  school-books  and  works  on  science." 


SVE/A. 

In  1826  Syria  was  much  excited  over  Dr.  Jonas  King's  Farewell  Letter Xo  his 
friends,  giving  his  reasons  why  he  could  not  be  a  Papist.  It  was  first  circu- 
lated in  manuscript,  and  then  printed  in  Arabic.  That  translation  was  by 
Asaad  El  Shidiak.  Another  into  Armenian,  by  Bishop  Dionysius,  was  sent 
in  manuscript  to  Constantinople.  There,  also,  the  effect  was  wonderful.  A 
meeting  of  all  the  Armenian  clergy  in  the  city  was  called  to  hear  it  read  at  the 
Patriarchate.  Its  proof  texts  were  verified,  and,  by  commoa  consent,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  church  needed  reform.  It  was  also  translated  into  Greek,  and 
did  good  service  there.  Nor  was  its  usefulness  confined  to  its  own  pages,  for 
it  was  the  stone  dropped  into  the  stagnant  lake,  that  caused  ever  widening 
circles  in  the  form  of  The  Thirteen  Letters  of  Mr.  Bird,  Dr.  Mishakah's  works, 
and  others. 

Dr.  King  issued  many  works  afterwards,  some  much  larger  and  more  elabo- 
rate, but  none  that  produced  an  effect  like  this.  Perhaps  no  man  ever  stirred  a 
nation  more  intensely  than  Dr.  King  did  Greece  by  his  writings.  It  is  owing 
to  him  that  the  Word  of  God  is  not  bound  in  that  kingdom.  His  power  lay 
in  his  Luther-like  courage,  his  pure  doctrine,  consistent  life,  and  steadfastness 
under  hierarchical  oppression. 

Up  to  1835  our  Arabic  printing  was  done  in  Malta.  One  million  forty-four 
thousand  pages  were  printed  in  Beirut  in  1839.  Mr.  G.  C.  Hurter  began  his 
labors  as  printer  with  the  new  type  in  April,  1841.  Ten  years  later,  he  had 
only  one  hand  press  and  two  fonts  of  Arabic,  less  than  that  of  English,  a 
foundry  and  bindery.  In  1853  a  power  cylinder  press  was  added,  with  a  third 
font  of  Arabic,  and  a  fourth  in  1S58.  The  pocket  Testament  of  i860  was  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  books  in  the  language.     As  soon   as  it  appeared,  four 

*P-  354- 


GENERAL    LITERATURE. 


209 


thousand  two  hundred  and  ninety-three  copies  were  sold  for  eighteen  thousand 
three  hundred  and  ninety-five  piasters,  in  spite  of  the  war  and  its  desolations. 

In  1862  six  million  eight  hundred  and  sixty-nine  thousand  pages  were 
printed,  and  the  whole  number  of  pages  up  to  that  date  was  fifty  million  ;^  in 
1877,  twelve  miU'ion  six  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  seven  hundred  pages.  At 
this  date  the  printing  office  contained  three  steam  power  presses,  two  hand 
presses,  a  lithographic  press,  and  electrotype  apparatus. 

Here,  too,  incidents  illustrate  the  working  of  the  truth.  The  learned 
Michael  Mishakah,  of  Damascus,  was  led  to  Christ  by  reading  the  Bible  and 
other  issues  of  the  mission  press,  and  in  his  turn  sent  books  to  friends  in  other 
cities,  as  to  Hums,  where  is  now  a  Protestant  church.  In  a  war  on  Lebanon,  a 
Bible  from  a  plundered  village  opened  the  eyes  of  the  plunderer  to  his  sins,  and 
brought  him  and  several  of  his  relatives  to  Christ.  The  church  at  Marsovan, 
in  Turkey,  grew  out  of  a  tract  bought  at  Jerusalem  eighteen  years  previously, 
by  a  pilgrim  from  that  place.  A  man  called  one  day  on  Rev.  J.  L.  Lyons,  in 
Tripoli,  and  gave  a  written  statement  of  faith  in  Christ,  learned  wholly  from 
the  Gospel  under  the  teaching  of  the  Spirit  alone.  So  the  flood  of  an  Arabic 
Christian  literature  is  making  the  desert  to  bud  and  blossom  as  the  rose. 

PERSIA . 

Mr.  E.  Breath  introduced  the  press  into  Persia  in  1841,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  year  had  printed  half  a  million  pages  in  modern  Syriac.  In  i860  there 
had  been  printed  fifteen  million  two  hundred  and  sixty-three  thousand  and 
twenty  pages.  In  1869  the  whole  number  of  pages  amounted  to  nineteen  mill- 
ion five  hundred  and  twenty-nine  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty. 


The  first  press  established  by  the  Board  was  at  Bombay,  in  December,  18 16. 
The  following  March  fifteen  hundred  copies  of  a  Marathi  tract  of  eight  pages 
were  printed,  and  in  May  they  began  to  publish  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  Their 
type  was  then  so  uneven  that  it  had  to  be  trimmed  with  a  penknife  to  get  a 
legible  impression.  As  a  token  of  the  progress  made  since  that  day,  a  speci- 
men of  the  type  now  in  use  is  inserted  opposite  page  242,  for  the  inspection 
of  the  reader.  The  New  Testament  was  finished  in  1828.  In  1834  a  hymn- 
book  appeared,  and  in  1840  about  thirty-one  million  pages  of  educational  and 
Christian  literature  had  been  printed.  At  this  time  the  marked  success  of  the 
mission  press  roused  its  opponents  to  start  several  periodicals,  some  in  support 
of  idolatry  and  others  advocating  infidelity ;  but  the  grand  answer  to  them  all 
was  the  Marathi  Bible  in  1847.  Opposition,  however,  was  encountered  from 
other  quarters,  whence  it  was  least  expected.  It  seems  almost  incredible  to- 
day, that,  after  the  British  government  in  Ceylon  had  granted  permission  for 
the  establishment  of  a  mission  press  —  for  when  the  missionaries  asked  to  be 
allowed  to  labor  in  Jaffna,  with  far-seeing  wisdom,  they  asked  for  that  also,  and 
their  request  was  granted  —  when  Mr.  J.  Garrett  arrived,  in  August,  1820,  to 
take  charge  of  it,  the  lieutenant-governor,  Sir  Edward  Barnes,  refused  to  allow 

>  Oriental  Churches,  Vol.  II,  p.  366. 
14 


2IO  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

him  to  remain  on  the  island.  To  a  memorial  praying  for  a  reconsideration  of  the 
order  for  the  printer  to  leave  in  three  months,  he  replied  haughtily  that  the  Brit- 
ish government  was  abundantly  able  to  Christianize  its  own  heathen,  and  that 
Americans  had  better  be  employed  in  converting  their  heathen  at  home,  but  at 
any  rate  Mr.  Garrett  must  leave  at  the  time  specified.  The  missionaries  then 
asked  that  he  might  remain  in  a  private  capacity  till  after  the  monsoons,  when 
sailing  would  be  more  safe ;  and  begged  leave  to  suggest  that,  to  supply  India 
with  the  same  religious  privileges  enjoyed  in  England,  would  require  thirty 
thousand  missionaries,  or  five  times  the  number  of  ordained  ministers  in  Eng- 
land. Therefore,  they  feared  many  generations  would  perish  before  they  could 
hear  the  Gospel,  and  they  hoped  that,  however  inferior  to  others,  they  might  be 
allowed  to  do  some  humble  part  in  the  work ;  but  Mr.  Garrett  had  to  leave 
Ceylon,  in  obedience  to  the  mandate  of  an  English  governor,  who  "could  not 
enter  into  the  other  parts  of  the  memorial."  ^ 

The  mission  at  Madras  was  mainly  a  literary  depot.  In  1838  eight  iron 
printing  presses,  a  lithographic  press,  and  fifteen  fonts  of  type,  in  English, 
Tamil,  and  Telugu,  a  foundry  and  bindery,  with  hydraulic  press,  were  pur- 
chased from  the  Church  Missionary  Society.^  A  font  of  Hindostani  was 
added  afterwards,  and  in  1840  the  profits  of  the  press  more  than  supported 
the  mission.  That  year  eleven  million  six  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  seven 
hundred  pages  were  printed.'^  The  Tamil  Bible  was  printed  in  1844,  and  the 
entire  issues  up  to  i860  were  three  hundred  and  fifty-seven  million  nine  hundred 
and  sixty-one  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty-one  pages  —  almost  as  many 
million  pages  as  days  in  the  year. 

Mr.  E.  S.  Minor,  who  had  charge  of  the  press  at  Jaffna  in  1839,  ascribed 
the  changes  going  on  in  India  largely  to  the  influence  of  the  printed  page.  The 
creation  of  a  Christian  literature  has  always  been  prominent  in  missionary  work 
in  India.  Hindooism  is  losing  its  hold  on  the  people.  They  feel  that  the 
Gospel  is  slowly  but  surely  supplanting  the  Vedas,  and  the  attitude  of  the  gov- 
ernment now  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  regime  of  the  East  India  Company. 
The  London  Quarterly  Revietv^  says:  "Twenty-five  missionary  presses  in  India 
are  remarkably  active,  and  in  the  last  ten  years  have  issued  three  thousand 
four  hundred  and  ten  separate  works  in  thirty-one  languages."  These  presses 
from  1842  to  1862  issued  one  million  six  hundred  and  thirty-four  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  forty  copies  of  parts  of  Scripture,  and  eight  million  six  liundred 
and  four  thousand  and  thirty-three  volumes  of  Christian  literature,  including 
school-books. 

A  letter  from  Rev.  A.  Hazen,  dated  October  16,  1880,  states  that  a  prize 
offered  for  the  best  essay  on  an  important  practical  subject  was  adjudged  to  a 
native  of  low  caste,  who,  but  for  our  schools,  had  never  learned  to  read  ;  that, 
too,  though  a  Brahman  was  one  of  the  competitors.  Three  of  the  committee  of 
award  were  gentlemen  not  connected  with  the  mission,  and  nothing  was  known 
of  the  writers  till  after  the  awarding  of  the  prize.  In  this  way  missions  lift  up 
men  of  low  degree,  and  open  the  fountains  of  a  native  religious  literature. 

''■Missionary  Herald,  1821,  pp.  179-183;  Tracy's  History  of  the  American  Board  0/ Commissioners /or 
Foreign  Missiotis,  pp.  89-gi. 

2  Tracy's  History  of  American  Board  of  Commissioners  far  Foreign  Missions,  p.  361. 

3  Do.,  p.  4ri.  •'April,  1S75. 


OTjjc  3lortiV  Scraper,  in  €amiL 

I-/ ITiiJ  SOT  L_  eO  fE/ fi  w)  eS  (TR 

Loessr L^eO ^  ^  p    Q,g'iuiulliLj(9&i^GLjne^il/ 

€(S(^p  ^"(T^ih,  jsirih'BeiT  (s\'iiiseTr<BL_eir^irfr 
^erTLJn  eJih&^ffiljQLJtrjpujOi.   er&i&t/sn  S'Gffir 


GENERAL    LITERATURE.  211 

Sir  Bartle  Frere  recently  said  of  India  :  "  Missionaries  are  frequently  startled 
to  find  those  who  have  never  seen  a  missionary  and  yet  have  made  a  good 
advance  in  religious  knowledge.  The  people  of  a  remote  village  in  the  Dak- 
kan  removed  the  idols  from  their  ancient  temples,  and  agreed  on  a  form  of 
Christianity  deduced  from  the  careful  perusal  of  a  single  gospel  and  some 
tracts."  A  Hindoo,  reading  in  the  Bo^nbay  Guardian  an  account  of  a  meeting 
of  the  American  Board,  gave  six  hundred  rupees  to  support  three  boys  two 
years  at  the  school  of  a  catechist,  where  they  could  not  previously  be  received 
for  lack  of  means. 

CHINA . 

As  early  as  1833  our  press  was  at  work  for  China,  though  not  in  it,  but  at 
Singapore.  There,  also,  some  small  treatises  were  printed  for  the  Bugis  of 
Sumatra  and  the  Malays.  In  1843  it  was  removed  to  Hong  Kong.  In  1844 
the  English  government  presented  to  the  mission  their  large  font  of  Chinese, 
originally  cast  for  Dr.  Morrison's  dictionary,  and  worth  $5,000.  The  press 
was  removed  to  Canton  in  1845,  and  in  1846  one  million  three  hundred  and 
thirty-one  thousand  eight  hundred  pages  of  Scripture  were  printed  under 
the  care  of  D.  Ball,  M.D.,  and  of  other  works  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  thousand  two  hundred  pages.  Its  destruction  by  the  Chinese,  in  1857, 
involved  a  loss  of  $14,000,  which  was  afterwards  paid  by  the  government.  Up 
to  i860  twenty-five  million  pages  had  been  printed  in  China,  and  fourteen 
million  seventy-one  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  at  Singapore.  In 
187 1  there  had  appeared  five  hundred  different  books,  from  the  primer  up  to 
tl»e  Chinese  Bible,  in  the  Mandarin  and  Fuhchau  dialects.  There  were  com- 
mentaries, theological,  educational,  historical,  geographical,  mathematical,  and 
astronomical  works ;  treatises  on  botany  and  philology ;  Dr.  Martin's  transla- 
tion of  Wheaton  on  International  Law  ;  Dr.  Hobson's  medical  and  physiological 
works  ;  and  Mr.  Wylie's  translations  of  Euclid  and  Herschel ;  also  a  large  hymn- 
book.  Now,  these  five  hundred  have  become  more  than  a  thousand,  and  their 
sphere  of  circulation  is  greatly  enlarged.  A  few  years  ago  two  Chinamen  from 
Poklau,  one  hundred  miles  east  of  Canton,  carried  home  a  box  of  tracts  for 
distribution.  A  cordial  feeling  is  arising  toward  foreign  science,  growing  out 
of  the  appreciation  of  its  truthfulness,  and  even  Christianity  is  looked  on  with 
favor  because  of  the  science  which  it  brings.  It  was  so  in  the  days  of  the 
early  Jesuit  missions,  but  is  much  more  so  now.  The  viceroy  of  Kiangnan 
sanctioned  the  publication  of  Euclid,  though  the  translator  pleaded  for  the 
Gospel  in  the  preface.  The  Chinese  read  missionary  literature  more  and  more, 
showing  its  value  in  promoting  the  conversion  of  the  world. 

JAPAN. 

Our  missionaries  entered  Japan  only  in  1869,  but  since  then  the  progress  in 
all  departments  of  the  work  is  startling.  The  influence  of  Christian  truth  and 
science  weakens  the  hold  of  Shintooism  and  Buddhism  on  the  popular  mind. 
The  confidence  of  the  educated  classes  is  shaken  in  Confucianism  also.  The 
government  has  authorized  a  native  convert  to  translate  and  publish  William- 


212  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

son's  Natural  Theology.  The  thoroughly  Christian  report  of  Dr.  Berry,  on 
prison  discipline,  was  printed  and  circulated  by  the  government.  It  authorized, 
also,  the  issue  of  a  calendar  for  1878,  that  advertises  mission  schools  and  book 
depositories,  and  the  places  where  "the  Jesus  religion  "  is  taught.  A  year  ago 
a  secular  native  paper  pleaded  for  the  removal  of  all  restrictions  from  Christian 
preaching  and  burial  services,  and  came  out  squarely  for  religious  liberty. 

The  missionaries  are  straining  everj'^  nerve  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  Chris- 
tian literature  for  Japan.  Besides  the  New  Testament,  there  are  many  other 
books  that  stimulate  intellectual  development  and  mold  it  for  Christ,  and 
they  pass  at  once  into  circulation.  The  annual  report  of  the  Board  for  1879 
informs  us  that,  out  of  twenty-five  hundred  copies  of  the  Life  of  Christ,  by  Rev. 
J.  D.  Davis,  eleven  hundred  were  sold  in  four  months.  One  thousand  copies  of 
Line  upon  Line  were  nearly  all  sold,  and  a  second  edition  in  press.  More  than 
half  of  a  thousand  copies  of  a  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  were 
sold.  Eleven  thousand  tracts  had  been  issued.  The  number  of  pages  printed 
during  the  year  was  one  million  three  hundred  and  eighteen  thousand ;  or, 
including  the  Shichi  Ichi  Zappo,  the  religious  literature  of  the  year  was  two 
million  seven  hundred  and  lifty-three  thousand  pages  —  a  glorious  element 
entering  into  the  national  life  of  such  an  empire  as  Japan.  Christian  literature 
there  is  a  prime  necessity,  both  for  the  nurture  of  believers  and  to  counteract  the 
flood  of  skeptical  productions.  Whatever  is  needed  for  the  advance  of  Chris- 
tianity here  is  needed  there  —  a  thoroughly  trained  ministry,  the  highest 
Christian  schools,  and  an  evangelical  literature.  We  began  the  work  none  too 
soon.  We  cannot  prosecute  it  too  energetically.  Our  books  are  sold  openly 
in  native  bookstores.  The  work  opens  up  like  a  fan,  and  missionaries  are  at 
their  wits'  end  to  keep  up  with  it. 

SANDWICH   ISLANDS. 

On  the  first  Monday  of  January,  1822,  the  press  began  its  work  in  these 
islands.  Several  masters  of  vessels  came  to  witness  the  printing  of  the  first 
sheet  of  a  spelling-book,  and  Kaimoku,  the  governor,  assisted  in  the  work  with 
his  own  hands.  In  1830  twenty-eight  different  works  had  been  printed  there, 
containing  ten  million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pages,  besides  three  million 
three  hundred  and  forty-five  thousand  printed  for  them  in  the  United  States. 
There  were  then  fifty  thousand  readers  in  the  islands,  and  in  1840  the  issues 
amounted  to  eighty-three  million  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  fifty-seven  pages.  Twenty  years  later,  Hon.  R.  H.  Dana,  Jr., 
writes  that  "  our  missionaries  in  less  than  forty  years  have  taught  that  whole 
people  to  read  and  write,  to  cipher,  and  to  sew ;  have  given  them  an  alpha- 
bet, grammar,  and  dictionary,  and  preserved  their  language  from  extinction, 
giving  them  the  Bible,  and  works  of  devotion,  science,  and  entertainment ;  and 
have  established  schools  till  the  proportion  of  readers  is  greater  than  in  New 
England."  In  i860  more  than  two  hundred  works  besides  the  Bible  had  been 
printed,  to  the  extent  of  two  hundred  million  pages.  C.  Nordhoff  ^  says  that 
education  there  is  now  compulsory,  and  schools  free,  and  the  illiterate  a  very 

'  Harper's  Monthly,  August,  1873. 


GENERAL    LITERATURE. 


215. 


small  percentage  of  the  people.  Captain  Reynolds,  of  our  navy,  says :  "  The 
islands  owe  their  written  language,  their  literature,  and  the  education  that 
enables  them  to  read  it,  to  the  American  missionaries." 

AFRICA. 

The  press  was  introduced  at  Cape  Palmas  in  1837,  and  one  hundred  and 
eighty  thousand  five  hundred  and  thirty-two  pages  had  been  printed  in  1839. 
In  i860  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  pages  had  been  issued  in  the  Grebo, 
Dikele,  and  Mpongwe  languages,  and,  through  the  influence  of  the  press,  fetich- 
ism  was  losing  its  hold  on  the  people. 

In  i860  two  million  pages  had  been  printed  for  the  Zulus,  and  in  1878 
several  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  and  portions  of  the  Old,  had  been 
added  to  the  school-books,  hymn-books,  and  outlines  of  general  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal history  previously  published. 

INDIA  NS. 

Up  to  i860,  twenty-six  million  three  hundred  and  ninety-nine  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-six  pages  had  been  printed  for  the  North  American 
Indians.  Of  these,  thirteen  million  nine  hundred  and  eighteen  thousand  eight 
hundred  were  for  the  Cherokees,  four  million  nine  hundred  and  seven  thousand 
one  hundred  for  the  Pawnees,  three  million  seven  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
thousand  three  hundred  for  the  Choctaws,  one  million  eight  hundred  and  forty- 
one  thousand  for  the  Ojibwas,  and  smaller  amounts  for  other  tribes. 

The  writer  read  in  the  Missionary  Heraldiox  1836  ^  that  "  Mr.  Byington  has 
a  Choctaw  and  English,  and  English  and  Choctaw  dictionary,  embracing  about 
fifteen  thousand  words,  nearly  ready  for  publication.  It  has  been  carefully 
revised  and  corrected  by  the  best  interpreters.  A  grammar  of  the  Choctaw 
language  is  nearly  prepared  by  the  same  missionary.  Whether  the  demand  for 
either  will  justify  their  publication  by  the  Board  remains  to  be  determined." 
He  searched  diligently  for  some  notice  of  their  publication,  but  found  none. 
He  wrote  letters  of  inquiry,  but  got  no  answer,  till,  in  looking  over  Triibner's 
catalogue  of  Oriental  and  linguistic  publications  for  1880,  he  found,  along  with 
a  notice  of  Dohne's  Zulu  Kafir  Dictionary,  Grout's  Grammar  of  the  IsizulUy 
Doolittle's  Chinese  Vocabulary  and  Hand-book,  Baldwin's  Manual  of  the  Fuhchau 
Dialect,  Maclay  and  Baldwin's  Dictionary  of  the  same,  Williams'  Syllabic  Dic- 
tionary, Andrews'  Hawaiian  Dictionary,  and  Stoddard's  Dictionary  of  the 
Modern  Syriac,  the  following  modest  notice  :  ^  "  Byington.  Grammar  of  the 
Choctaw  Language.  By  the  Rev.  Cyrus  Byington.  Edited  from  the  original 
manuscript  in  library  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  by  D.  G.  Brinton, 
M.D.  Crown  8vo,  sewed,  pp.  56.  •]S.  6d. ; "  but  no  notice  of  the  dictionary, 
which  may  be  as  yet  one  of  those  labors  of  love  for  the  Master  known  only  to 
Him  who  seeth  in  secret. 

There  is  something  startling  in  this  work  of  providing  a  Christian  literature 
for  the  world,  when  looked  at  from  some  points  of  view.     More  than  two  hun- 

ip.  269.  *P-32. 


214  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

dred  and  twenty  years  ago,  God  endowed  a  man  in  England  with  certain  remark- 
able gifts  of  mind  and  heart ;  then,  to  develop  them  as  he  designed  to  have 
them  developed,  he  led  him  through  a  varied  experience  of  trial ;  and  at  the 
right  point  in  that  process  of  education,  events  were  so  ordered  that  he  was  put 
in  prison,  that  there  he  might  write  a  work  the  church  would  not  willingly  let . 
die.  The  work  has  lived  from  that  day  to  this  in  English  language,  and  will 
continue  to  live  while  English  shall  be  spoken  on  the  earth.  But  even  this 
sphere  was  not  large  enough  in  the  divine  plan  ;  so,  in  the  fullness  of  time, 
Christ  sent  some  to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  who  opened  the  lips  of  John 
Bunyan  to  speak  to  the  Hawaiians  in  their  own  language  before  they  passed 
away.  He  sent  another  detachment,  who  made  the  Pilgrim^ s  Progress  a  house- 
hold book  in  Armenian  homes  all  over  the  Turkish  empire.  The  same  work 
was  done  for  the  dwellers  in  Syria  and  the  one  hundred  and  forty  millions  of 
the  Arabic-speaking  races.  It  was  repeated  in  Persia.  The  same  river  of  the 
water  of  life  was  made  to  flow  among  the  millions  of  the  Tamil-speaking  people 
of  India,  and  others  of  her  teeming  population,  to  say  nothing  of  the  work  of 
other  societies,  and  of  what  is  now  being  done  or  yet  to  be  done  by  our  own  ; 
as,  for  example,  among  the  millions  of  Japan,  who  are  eminently  fitted  to  be 
benefited  by  such  a  volume.  No  one  can  cast  even  a  glance  along  the  banks 
of  such  a  stream  of  divine  providence  without  getting  a  new  perception  of  Him 
who  is  wonderful  in  counsel  and  excellent  in  working,  and  singing  with  a  new 
joy,  "  Hallelujah  !  for  the  Lord  God  Omnipotent  reigneth."  And  this  is  only 
one  item  in  a  countless  multitude,  every  one  under  his  personal  supervision, 
Vv^hose  results  are  to  reach  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  in  this  life,  and  show  forth 
his  praise  forever  in  the  life  to  come. 


XII. 
PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 


In  a  volume  of  this  kind,  missionary  periodical  literature  has  a  right  to  a 
separate  mention.  The  distinctively  religious  periodical  is  the  outgrowth  of 
the  Protestant  religious  life  of  the  present  century.  It  might  be  hazardous  to 
affirm  that  the  religious  newspaper  is  still  unknown  in  Papal  Europe  ;  but  in 
1844  an  intelligent  Frenchman  in  Turkey,  a  decided  Romanist,  to  whom  the 
writer  occasionally  lent  a  copy  of  the  New  York  Observer,  not  only  expressed 
great  admiration  for  the  religious  sentiment  that  created  and  sustained  such 
a  paper,  but  affirmed  positively  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  sustain  such  an 
one  among  his  co-religionists  in  France.  The  assimilating  power  of  Protest- 
antism is  more  manifest  in  the  Papal  church  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  religious  periodical  has  the  advantage  over  the  pulpit  in  reaching  a 
larger  number,  though  very  widely  scattered ;  and  it  has  the  advantage  over  the 
book  that  it  can  speak  the  word  demanded  by  the  hour,  and  that,  too,  simul- 
taneously in  many  communities,  on  a  great  variety  of  themes.  It  is  essential  to 
the  force  and  unity  of  every  aggressive  movement  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
Preaching  could  not  now  afford  to  dispense  with  this  invaluable  auxiliary ;  and 
just  as  the  needs  of  the  age  have  called  it  forth  at  home,  so  the  same  needs 
call  it  into  existence  and  sustain  it  in  the  missionary  field. 

The  old  Baptist  mission  at  Serampore  originated  this  kind  of  literature  as 
early  as  18 18,  when  it  issued  the  Samarchar  Darpan,  or  Mirror  of  Intelligence. 
As  early  as  1834  our  missionaries  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  established  the 
Lai7ia  Hawaii,  a  weekly  periodical  of  four  quarto  pages,  one  of  them  being 
always  filled  by  the  pens  of  the  natives.  Another  was  commenced  in  1835, 
and  out  of  ten  periodicals  that  have  made  their  appearance  at  different  periods, 
three  are  still  flourishing :  the  Hoku  Pakifika,  Nupepa  Kuokoa,  and  Hoku  Loa, 
the  last  being  most  distinctively  religious.^  Micronesia  is  too  scattered  in 
space  and  too  polyglot  in  language  to  sustain  such  literature  as  yet,  though  one 
missionary  there  speaks  of  a  quarterly  newspaper.  The  wonder  is,  that  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  succeed  so  well. 

'Anderson's  Hawaiian  Islands,  pp.  261-262.  Thirteen  periodicals  are  mentioned  in  his  later  work  on  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  p.  396. 

(215) 


2l6  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

The  pioneer  of  such  Hterature  in  Turkey  was  the  old  AnoeilKH  TQN  i24'EAl- 
Mi2N  rNi22Ei2N^  published  in  Smyrna,  under  the  editorial  supervision  of  Rev. 
D.  Temple  from  1837  to  1843.  In  1839  i^  had  twelve  hundred  subscribers. 
Vol.  3,  number  31,  for  July  of  that  year,  now  lies  before  the  writer,  a  thin  quarto 
of  sixteen  pages.  This  was  also  published  in  Armenian,  and  in  1854  was 
changed  to  a  semi-monthly  quarto  of  eight  pages,  and  then  to  a  weekly  folio  of 
four  pages.     (See  Avedaper  below.) 

The  first  newspaper  edited  by  a  native  Christian  appeared  in  1840,  yet  as 
late  as  i860  a  newspaper  was  rarely  seen  in  the  hands  of  the  thousands  that 
thronged  the  decks  of  the  steamers  in  the  Bosphorus  or  Golden  Horn  ;  but  six 
years  later  the  newsboy  was  plying  his  vocation  there  as  busily,  if  not  as  suc- 
cessfully, as  in  our  own  cities.  The  influence  of  the  fifty  papers  in  various  lan- 
guages, published  in  Constantinople  alone  —  about  thirty  of  them  dailies — was 
generally  hostile  to  vital  piety,  so  that  there  was  a  good  field  for  any  that 
should  take  the  side  of  Bible  truth. 

The  Avedaper^  a  semi-monthly  in  modern  Armenian,  was  established  in 
1854,  and  in  Armeno-Turkish  in  1857,  with  a  circulation  of  over  a  thousand 
copies  in  each  language.  Rev.  N.  Benjamin  was  the  first  editor,  and  after  his 
death  Dr.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight.  Dr.  E.  E.  Bliss  became  editor  in  1867,  and  esti- 
mated the  number  of  his  readers  at  ten  thousand. 

In  1872  the  Greco-Turkish  edition  called  the  Atigeliophoros  was  added  to 
the  two  other  languages,  and  in  1874  Rev.  J.  K.  Green,  then  editor,  reported' 
that  each  of  the  three  papers,  the  Armenian,  Armeno-Turkish,  and  Greco-Turk- 
ish, contained  as  much  matter  as  one  page  of  The  Congregationalist.  They 
rarely  contained  an  advertisement,  and  no  leads  were  used  to  space  the  lines. 
The  first  page  of  each  was  devoted  to  brief  moral  and  religious  articles  and  dis- 
cussions ;  the  second  to  education,  religious  intelligence,  and  general  topics ; 
the  third  to  native  articles  and  correspondence  ;  and  the  fourth  to  current  news. 
These  papers  furnished  the  only  medium  of  communication  between  the  mission- 
aries and  the  people,  for  either  setting  forth  their  own  views  or  repelling  attacks 
of  other  journals.  They  also  published  reports  of  important  meetings.  They 
v/ere  taken  by  one  in  five  of  the  adult  Protestants,  were  highly  prized,  and 
carefully  preserved.  Afforded  at  the  low  rate  of  a  dollar,  postage  included, 
which  cost  one  third  of  the  price,  they  were  very  popular.  In  1874  the  paying 
subscribers  were  about  thirteen  hundred.  Eighteen  hundred  copies  of  the  weekly 
and  four  thousand  of  the  monthly  were  issued.  Native  papers  had  seldom  more 
than  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  subscribers,  and  charged  three  times 
the  price  of  ours.  They  are  largely  an  evangelizing  agency,  go  into  all  parts 
of  the  empire,  and  into  hundreds  of  families  not  Protestant,  who  are  dependent 
on  them  for  their 'evangelical  knowledge.  Each  paper  is  read  by  from  three  to 
five  persons. 

Besides  these  are  four  illustrated  monthlies  for  children.  They  are  larger 
and  more  beautiful  than  those  just  mentioned.  Three  of  them,  in  the  same 
languages  as  the  weeklies,  were  begun  in  187 1,  and  the  fourth,  in  Bulgarian,  in 
1874,  with  two  thousand  subscribers.     These   are   the    first   periodicals  ever 

'  Magazine  of  useful  knowledge.  -  Messenger.  ■''  Missionary  Herald,  1874,  pp.  298-302. 


PERIODICAL    LITERATURE.  217 

printed  for  children  in  Turkey,  and  they  are  greatly  interested  in  them.     The 
Bulgarians  called  for  more  copies  than  the  press  could  supply. 

The  Turks  allowed  no  printing  for  two  centuries  after  the  press  was  intro- 
duced in  Europe,  and  newspapers  were  unknown  till  about  1834. 

The  Zornitza,  begun  as  a  monthly  for  children,  was  also  issued  as  a  weekly 
in  1877,  with  a  steadily  increasing  circulation,  which  that  year  reached  three 
thousand  copies.  It  is  edited  by  Dr.  E.  Riggs,  and  reaches  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  cities  and  towns  in  European  Turkey. 

In  Syria  a  monthly  missionary  journal  was  for  a  time  published  at  Beirut, 
but  in  1877,  out  of  ten  journals  published  in  that  city  of  eighty  thousand  inhab- 
itants, seven  were  under  the  direction  of  Protestants,  and  exerting  a  wide  influ- 
ence in  the  land.  One  of  these  was  the  Neshra,  a  weekly  paper  published  by 
the  missionaries  ;  another  is  the  Koukab  es  Soobah^  a  monthly  for  the  children, 
edited  by  Dr.  Jessup,  with  a  circulation  of  four  thousand.  The  Mtiktatif,  a 
monthly  journal  of  science  and  art,  has  a  subscription  list  of  six  hundred. 

In  Oroomiah,  Persia,  the  monthly  Rays  of  Light  commenced  to  shine  in 
1848,  and  still  sheds  its  radiance  over  the  plains  of  northwestern  Persia  and 
far  up  into  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  It  is  an  octavo,  and  in  1866  contained 
three  hundred  and  eighty-four  pages.  The  edition  was  four  hundred  copies; 
each  number  containing  a  department  of  religion,  education,  science,  mis- 
sions, and  poetry,  not  forgetting  to  have  something  for  the  children. 

The  writer  cannot  here  forbear  contrasting  the  condition  of  things  when  he 
was  in  Turkey  with  the  present  as  indicated  in  these  facts.  Then,  there  was 
no  paper  published  in  western  Asia,  save  a  few  in  European  languages  at 
Smyrna  and  Constantinople.  In  1842  there  was  no  post  over  so  prominent  a 
route  as  from  the  capital  to  Bagdad.  The  residents  on  that  long  line  of  travel 
had  to  depend  on  an  occasional  government  tatar,  or  the  slow  movements  of 
caravans.  Now,  not  only  are  there  posts  all  through  the  interior,  but  along 
with  business  and  friendly  correspondence  are  these  beginnings  of  a  religious 
periodical  literature  waking  up  new  ideas,  and  each  fresh  arrival  leaving  the 
widely-scattered  readers  thirsting  for  more.  Even  the  telegraph  wire  now 
marks  out  the  lines  of  the  leading  post-routes. 

In  India  the  foundations  of  a  religious  periodical  literature  have  also  been 
laid.  In  1839  the  Oriental  Tejnperancc  Advocate  v^d^  published  at  Ceylon,  in 
an  edition  of  one  thousand  copies,  though  this  may  have  been  only  a  single 
pamphlet  by  that  name.  In  1842  a  monthly  periodical  with  the  appropriate 
name  of  Dnyanodaya'^  was  commenced  at  Ahmednuggur,  on  a  lithographic 
press,  and  in  1845  was  transferred  to  Bombay  and  types.  For  eight  years  it 
was  edited  by  Rev.  R.  W.  Hume.  It  soon  became  a  semi-monthly,  so  eager 
were  the  people  to  receive  it,  and  has  now  long  been  a  weekly  of  twelve  royal 
octavo  pages,  with  an  illustrated  monthly  supplement  for  children.  Each  vol- 
ume contains  four  hundred  pages,  and  is  ably  edited  by  Rev.  C.  W.  Park,  aided 
by  Shahii  Daji  Kuhade,  an  energetic  native  convert.  Its  circulation  equaled 
that  of  all  the  other  Marathi  papers  put  together.  The  Dtiyanodaya  Almanac^ 
forty-eight  pages,  super-royal  octavo,  has  been  published  for  several  years. 

>  Morning  Star.  -  Rise  of  knowledge. 


2l8  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

As  far  back  as  1844,  The  Bombay  Witness,  a  religious  paper  in  English,  was 
published  by  the  missionaries ;  also  The  Bombay  Temperance  Advocate,  a  total 
abstinence  paper.  Rev.  George  Bowen,  who  went  to  India  in  1848  under  the 
American  Board,  established  the  Bombay  Guardian,  also  a  religious  paper.  In 
Ceylon  the  Morning  Star,  a  semi-monthly,  partly  in  English,  but  mostly  in 
Tamil,  was  commenced  some  years  previous  to  1853.  A  monthly  in  Tamil, 
entitled  The  Children's  Friend,  also  issued  from  the  press  in  1868.  At  Madras, 
in  1844,  a  semi-monthly  in  Tamil,  called  The  Aurora,  made  its  appearance.  In 
i86g  Rev.  George  T.  Washburn  commenced  a  monthly  called  The  True  News 
Bearer,  which  is  the  only  distinctively  Tamil  religious  paper  on  the  continent. 
He  is  also  editor  of  the  Satthiawarttama?ii,  in  Tamil  and  English. 

The  Rev.  C.  W.  Park  established  The  Indian  EvaJtgelical  Review,  a  quarterly 
journal  of  missionary  thought  and  effort,  in  1873,  and  closed  his  connection 
with  it  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  volume,  in  1879.  Each  volume  is  an  octavo 
of  about  five  hundred  and  fifty  pages,     A  few  of  the  topics  treated  of  are  : 

I.  Relations  of  the  Native  Aristocracy  to  the  British  Government ;  Early 
Glimmerings  of  Divine  Truth  in  India  ;  Old  Canarese  Literature  ;  Buddhism  ; 
Shiah  Posh  Kafirs  ;  Education  in  Bengal;  Subjects  for  Investigation  in  India; 
The  Garos;  Use  of  Sacrificial  Terms  in  the  Languages  of  India  ;  The  Afghans  ; 
Buddhist  Prayers ;  The  Ram  Sneh  Religion  ;  Notes  on  Indian  Prosody  and 
Poetry  ;  Siam  and  its  Rulers ;  Education  in  India  as  Related  to  Christianity. 

II.  Indian  Disestablishment  and  Disendowment ;  Rights  of  Native  Chris- 
tians; Logic  of  the  Vedanta  ;  Female  Education  in  Benares;  Propagative  Re- 
ligions ;  Late  Lieutenant-Governors  ;  How  to  Teach  Greek  to  Natives ;  Rela- 
tions of  Europeans  and  Natives  ;  Wurm's  Indischen  Religion  ;  Syrian  Christians 
of  Malabar;  Christian  College  for  Southern  India;  Native  Christians  in  Ben- 
gal, by  one  of  them  ;  The  Bhagawad  Gita ;  Cochin  China ;  The  Karens  as  a 
Race ;  Bengali  Christians,  by  one  of  them  ;  Name  of  Our  Lord  in  Urdu  and 
Hindi. 

III.  Apostolic  and  Indian  Missions  Compared  ;  Canarese  Lullabies  ;  Hin- 
doo and  Jewish  Sacrificial  Rituals ;  Social  and  Religious  Movements  among  the 
Mairs  ;  Rise,  Progress,  and  Prospects  of  the  Brahma  Samaj ;  History  of  Protest- 
ant Missions  in  India  ;  Theological  Schools  in  India ;  Caste  in  the  Native 
Church;  John  Wilson,  D.D. ;  Duty  of  Friendly  Relationship  between  Catholic 
and  Protestant  Missionaries  ;  English-speaking  Natives  of  Upper  India,  by  one 
of  them. 

IV.  Work  of  a  Translator  of  the  Bible  in  India  ;  Rome's  Relation  to  the 
Bible;  Gwalior;  The  Kingdom  of  Kashgar;  Indian  Divorce  Act  and  Native 
Christians  ;  Child  Marriage  in  India  ;  The  Gospel  and  Islam  ;  Translation  of 
the  Tract  "Ram  Pariksha  ;  "  Hindoo  and  Mosaic  Cosmogonies,  by  a  native; 
The  Kudumi ;  Our  Indian  Bible;  Ajudhia  as  it  Was  and  Is  ;  Caste  in  its  Rela- 
tion to  the  Church;  Notes  on  South  Indian  Comparative  Philology;  Asceti- 
cism—  its  Relation  to  Mission  Work. 

V.  Christians  of  Salsette  and  Bassein  ;  Sahet  Mahet,  the  Metropolis  of 
B.uddhism  ;  Woman's  Work  for  Woman  ;  Polyandry  in  the  Himalaya ;  French 
Annual  Review  of  Hindoo  Literature,  Dr.  Duff. 


PERIODICAL    LITERATURE. 


219 


VI.  Roman  Catholics  in  South  India;  Self-support  among  the  Bassein 
Karen  Converts;  Oudh  ;  Dr.  Duff;  F\'imine  and  the  Gospel;  The  Parsi  Holy- 
Books  ;  Missionary  Methods  ;  The  Sinless  Prophet  of  Islam  ;  Jagjiwan  Das, 
the  Hindoo  Reformer;  Recent  History  of  Keshab  Chandra  Sen's  Brahmism  • 
The  Bungalore  Conference. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  articles  more  distinctively  religious  or  theoloo'- 
ical,  but  these  give  an  idea  of  the  literary  range  of  the  work,  and  so  are  more 
appropriate  for  quotation  here.  The  Revieiv  is  now  published  at  Calcutta, 
under  the  editorial  care  of  Rev.  R.  S.  Macdonald. ' 

The  need  of  a  Christian  periodical  literature  in  India  will  appear  sufficiently 
from  the  fact  mentioned  as  early  as  1845,^  that  there  were  then  in  Bombay 
three  weekly  newspapers  and  one  monthly  magazine  opposing  Christianity ;  also 
a  paper  at  Poona,  and  a  monthly  magazine  in  the  Gujerati  language,  with 
three  papers  in  the  same  tongue,  besides  two  in  Persian  and  one  in  Hindos- 
tani,  all  uniting  to  retail  the  works  of  Paine,  Voltaire,  and  more  recent 
assailants  of  the  Bible. 

In  Japan,  though  the  work  there  is  so  recent  in  its  origin,  the  Shichi  Ichi 
Zappo'^  was  established  in  1876,  and,  though  thoroughly  Christian,  has  a  large 
and  increasing  circulation.  The  editor  is  Rev.  O.  H.  Gulick.  It  is  met  with 
on  the  railroad  car,  on  the  inland  and  ocean  steamers,  and  on  the  Osaka  river 
boats.  Men  live  in  the  heart  of  the  empire  who  have  never  seen  a  missionary, 
but  have  been  led  to  Christ  by  its  pages.  It  informs  Christians  in  Japan  of 
the  prog]:ess  of  the  Gospel  in  their  own  country  and  throughout  the  world.  It 
is  the  only  Christian  newspaper  in  Japan,  where  Buddhists,  alarmed  for  their 
system,  sent  over  one  of  their  leaders  a  few  years  ago,  to  gather  in  his  drag-net 
every  work  against  Christianity  that  could  be  found,  and  where  several  periodi- 
cals are  dealing  out  to  the  people  the  precious  things  that  he  was  able  to  col- 
lect as  ammunition  for  their  warfare  against  the  truth ;  among  others  a  slanderous 
and  scurrilous  so-called  Life  of  Jesus  Christ.  An  edition  of  eleven  hundred 
and  fifty  copies  is  issued  weekly,  giving  an  account  of  the  religious,  political, 
"and  scientific  progress  of  the  world. 

Besides  its  distinctively  religious  articles,  The  Weekly  Messenger  contains 
articles  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Berry  on  topics  of  social  science,  such  as.  The 
Principles  of  Hygiene;  Wise  Sanitary  Arrangements  and  Proper  Drainage; 
also  on  such  medical  themes  as  vaccination  for  small-pox,  the  treatment  of 
cholera,  fever,  and  the  like. 

Among  the  Zulus  a  periodical  was  issued  in  1861,  called  The  Mor?iing  Star, 
with  quite  a  respectable  native  subscription  list.  It  has  since  given  place  to 
The  Torch-Light^  which  goes  throughout  Zulu-Land,  giving  light  to  them  that 
sat  in  darkness. 

Among  our  own  Indians,  the  Dakota  Lapi  Oaye'^  commenced  its  rounds 
among  that  tribe  in  187 1,  under  the  editorial  charge  of  Rev.  J.  P.  Williamson. 
After  his  death  Dr.  S.  R.  Riggs  and  Rev.  A.  L.  Riggs  took  charge  of  it.  It 
was  received  with  such  enthusiasm  that  in  a  year  the  size  was  doubled,  and 
twelve  hundred  copies  printed  instead  of  five  hundred ;  and  this,  with  its  illus- 

*  Missionary  Herald,  p.  30.  -  Weekly  Messenger.  '  Word  Carrier. 


220  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

trations,  made  it  more  popular  than  ever.  The  Indians  not  only  pay  for  it  — 
they  write  for  it ;  and  its  influence  is  ever  more  salutary,  and  the  circle  which  it 
reaches  continually  increases. 

These  missionary  periodicals,  published  in  so  many  languages  and  in  so 
many  unevangelized  portions  of  the  globe,  furnish  an  instrumentality  full  of 
promise  both  for  bringing  those  now  in  darkness  to  the  knowledge  of  Christ 
and  for  building  up  new  converts  in  the  knowledge  of  his  truth,  and  should 
constantly  enlist  our  prayers  that  their  editors  may  be  so  guided  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  that  He  may  use  the  truth  they  set  forth  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  king- 
dom of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 


XIII. 
MUSIC. 


Missionaries  have  opportunities  to  study  the  music  of  a  people  to  an 
extent  to  which  no  traveler  could  possibly  attain,  and  several  of  them  have 
given  us  the  results  of  their  investigations  in  this  department.  Rev.  A.  L. 
Riggs  ^  gives  us  an  account  of  Dakota  songs  and  music.  He  gives  specimens 
of  war  songs,  love  songs,  songs  of  sacred  mysteries,  and  social  songs.  They  are 
very  simple,  and  abound  in  repetitions,  but  perhaps  for  that  reason  are  the 
more  true  to  nature.  Of  these  we  quote  only  one,  expressive  of  a  widow's 
grief  : 

Lo,  greatly  I  am  distressed, 
Lo,  greatly  I  am  distressed, 

My  child's  father, 

My  child's  father, 

My  child's  father, 

My  child's  father, 
Lo,  greatly  I  am  distressed. 

Sorely  am  I  distressed, 
Sorely  am  I  distressed, 
Sorely  am  I  distressed. 

The  earth  alone  continues  long, 

I  speak  as  one  not  expecting  to  live, 
Sorely  am  I  distressed,  » 

The  earth  alone  continues  long  — 

words  expressing  unutterable  heart-weariness  and  despair. 

Their  music  is  of  the  simplest  kind.  It  has  only  melody  with  rude  accom- 
paniments, more  for  marking  time  than  for  harmonic  effect.  In  their  dances 
the  men  sing  the  song,  and  the  women  a  shrill  falsetto  chorus  of  a  single  note, 
like  "  ai,  ai,  ai,"  keeping  time  with  the  drums.  Like  other  uncivilized  peoples, 
they  do  not  appreciate  harmony.  The  minor  key  is  their  favorite,  especially  in 
their  love  songs,  though  the  major  occurs  in  their  war  songs.  The  following  is 
a  specimen  of  their  amatory  melodies  : 

*  Gospel  A  mo7tg  tlie  Dakoias,  pp.  450-484. 

(221) 


222  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


im^^^^^^mm^^mmmmmi 


y  1/ 

He  uan  zhln  we  He  nan  zliin  we    uk  ta  ce  uk  ta  ke  ya  ca    Warn  <Ji  duta  uk  ta    cc  uk  ta  ke   ya  ca 

Their  instruments  are  the  drum,^  rattle,  and  pipe.  The  hoop  of  the  drum 
is  over  a  foot  in  diameter  and  three  or  four  inches  deep,  sometimes  ten.  It  is 
covered  with  skin  only  on  one  side,  and  beaten  with  one  stick.  The  rattle  is 
made  of  some  hard  segments  of  deer  hoofs  tied  to  a  tapering  wooden  rod  a 
foot  in  leno-th.  The  conjurers  sometimes  use  a  gourd-shell  with  some  smooth 
pebbles  in  place  of  the  original  filling.  The  most  common  pipe  is  made  of 
sumac  wood,  like  a  flageolet,  about  nineteen  inches  long  and  five  eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  interrupted  by  a  peculiar  partition  that  forms  the  whistle. 
Six  holes  are  burnt  on  the  upper  side,  and  a  brass  thimble  forms  the  mouth- 
piece. The  pitch  is  A  prime  changed  to  G  prime  by  a  seventh  hole.  Some- 
times it  is  made  of  the  long  wing  or  thigh  bone  of  the  swan  or  crane. 

The  power  of  Dakota  music  is  not  to  be  measured  by  its  rudeness,  but  by 
the  adaptation  of  its  wild  melody  to  the  wilderness  and  its  savage  life,  where, 
under  misty  moonbeams,  the  night  air  bears  the  plaintive  chant,  with  the  hol- 
low bass  of  the  drum-beat,  along  the  waste,  in  an  atmosphere  palpitating  with 
possible  war-whoops,  and  where  each  bush  may  hide  a  lurking  foe. 

Although  the  Chinese  government  has  a  "  Board  of  Music  "  connected  with 
its  "Board  of  Rites,"  who  *'are  to  study  the  principles  of  harmony  and  melody, 
compose  music,  and  prepare  instruments  suitable  to  play  it  on  public  occa- 
sions," few  nations  have  less  real  melody.^ 

Accordino-  to  them,  only  those  who  understand  the  science  of  music  are  fit 
to  be  rulers  of  men,  and  Confucius  is  said  to  have  been  once  so  ravished  with 
music  that  for  three  months  he  did  not  perceive  the  taste  of  food.^  The  army 
use  chiefly  the  gong  and  trumpet,  but  they  have  almost  every  stringed,  wind, 
and  percussion  instrument  that  we  have.  Dr.  Williams  gives  the  Chinese  char- 
acters and  a  printed  scale."  Their  notes,  beginning  at  the  bottom  of  the  first 
octave,  are  ho  sz  i  chang  che  kung  fan  liu  wu  i  chang  chh  kung  and  fan,  but  their 
succession  is  not  accurately  represented  by  our  staff.  If  the  first  note  be  taken 
as  the  tonic,  they  form  a  diatonic  octave,  with  a  supernumerary  note  an  octave 
above  sz,  ho  being  an  octave  below  liu.  The  semi-tones  i  and  fan  are  seldom 
used.  No  chromatic  scale  exists  among  them,  and  their  written  notes  are 
exceedingly  complicated  and  cumbersome  — each  note  being  a  cluster  of  charac- 
ters deno^ting  a  number  of  different  things  — and  are  different  for  nearly  every 
kind  of  instrument,  so  that  they  usually  learn  by  the  ear  and  not  by  note. 

Their  notes  indicate  only  pitch  in  a  certain  scale,  and  do  not  denote  length 
or  absolute  pitch.  No  time  is  marked.  They  know  nothing  of  counterpoint. 
Flats,  sharps,  ties,  and  other  similar  marks  are  wanting.  Nor  are  their  tunes 
set  to  any  key.  DeGuignes  says  :  "  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  give  a  Chinese 
song  the  proper  tone  without  hearing  it  sung  by  a  native,  and  even  then  on- 

,  ,       w^n^UMtlp  2  Williams'  ;i//V/a?/s  Ar/wr^ow',  Vol.  I,  p.  332. 

1  Chan  chay  ga  =  wood  kettle.  ^  ^^^ 

»  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  IV,  p.  4-  ,  ,  » 


e 


MUSIC.  223 

cannot  perfectly  imitate  their  notes.  They  seem  to  issue  from  the  larynx  and 
nose  ;  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips  having  little  to  do  with  them.  Their  music  is  on 
a  high  falsetto  key,  somewhere  between  a  scream  and  a  squeal ;  yet  it  is  plaint- 
ive -and  soft,  and  not  without  sweetness." 

They  have  seventeen  kinds  of  drums,  from  the  large  ones  in  temples  down  to 
quite  small  ones.  Gongs,  cymbals,  and  tambourines  are  in  great  variety.  They 
have  also  an  arrangement  of  twelve  cups,  more  or  less  filled  with  water  and 
struck  with  rods.  They  are  fond  of  the  sounds  produced  by  striking  together 
small  pieces  of  sonorous  glass.  The  kin,  or  scholar's  lute,  is  their  most  finished 
stringed  instrument.  It  is  very  ancient.  Its  name  means  to  restrain,  because 
they  say  it  restrains  evil  passions.  It  is  a  board  four  feet  by  eighteen  inches, 
convex  above  and  flat  below,  with  seven  strings  of  silk  passing  over  a  bridge 
near  the  wide  end,  and  tightened  by  nuts  beneath.  They  are  fastened  to  two 
pegs  at  the  smaller  end.  The  sounding-board  is  marked  by  thirteen  studs,  so 
that  the  strings  are  divided  into  two  equal  lengths,  then  into  three,  and  so  on  up 
to  eight,  the  seventh  being  omitted.  The  seven  strings  have  a  compass  of  a 
ninth.  Each  of  the  outer  strings  is  tuned  a  fifth  from  the  middle  one,  and  this 
interval  is  treated  like  our  octave,  for  the  kin  is  made  up  of  fifths.  Each  outer 
string  is  tuned  a  fourth  from  the  alternate  string,  so  that  there  is  a  major  tone, 
an  interval  tone  less  than  a  minor  third,  and  a  major  tone  in  the  fifth.  The 
Chinese  leave  the  interval  entire,  and  skip  the  half-tone,  while  we  divide  it  into 
two  unequal  parts ;  so  our  instruments  cannot  play  their  tunes.  There  is  one 
instrument  like  the  kin,  with  thirty  strings,  and  another  with  thirteen,  played 
with  plectrums. 

A  number  of  instruments  resemble  the  guitar  and  spinet,  some  with  strings 
of  silk,  and  others  with  strings  of  wire,  but  none  of  catgut.  The//^^7  has  four, 
secured  like  those  of  the  violin.  It  is  three  feet  long,  and  the  unvarnished  upper 
table  has  twelve  frets.  The  strings  are  tuned  at  intervals  of  a  fourth,  a  major 
tone,  and  a  fourth,  so  that  the  outer  strings  are  octaves  to  each  other.  The 
sail  hien  resembles  a  rebeck,  but  the  neck  and  head  is  three  feet  long,  and  the 
cylindrical  body  is  hollow,  and  usually  covered  with  a  snake's  skin,  on  which  the 
bridge  is  set.  The  strings  are  tuned  as  fourths  to  each  other.  The  yueh  kin  ^ 
has  a  large,  round  body  and  short  neck,  but  with  only  four  strings,  that  stand 
in  pairs,  which  are  unisonous  with  each  other,  with  an  interval  of  a  fifth  between 
the  pairs.  The  rebeck  is  like  the  san  hien,  but  ruder  in  structure ;  merely  a 
bamboo  stick  thrust  into  a  cylinder  of  bamboo,  with  two  strings  passing  over 
a  bridge,  and  tuned  at  intervals  of  a  fifth.  As  the  bow  passes  between  the 
strings,  much  care  is  needed  not  to  touch  the  wrong  string.  We  wonder  how 
any  can  enjoy  the  harsh  grating  of  this  wretched  machine,  but  nothing  is  more 
popular  among  the  Chinese,  and  their  skill  in  playing  it  deserves  a  better  result. 
Sometimes  a  cocoa-nut  is  used  in  place  of  the  bamboo  cylinder,  with  no 
improvement  in  the  music.  The.  ya?ig  kin  is  a  dulcimer,  consisting  of  a  num- 
ber of  brass  wires  of  different  lengths,  fastened  on  a  sounding-board  —  a  sort 
of  incipient  piano-forte.     The  sang  also  is  the  embryo  of  the  organ,  with  a  hol- 

'  Full  moon  guitar. 


2  24  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

iow,  cone-shaped  wind-chest,  having  a  mouth-piece  on  one  side,  and  thirteen 
reeds  of  different  lengths  inserted  in  the  top.  Some  of  these  tubes  have 
valves  opening  upwards,  and  others  downwards ;  So  some  sound  while  the 
breath  is  blown  in,  and  others  when  it  is  drawn  out.  They  stand  in  groups  of 
four,  four,  three,  two,  and  those  with  valves  are  so  placed  that  the  player  can 
open  or  close  them  at  pleasure,  so  that  more  or  less  of  them  can  be  employed, 
greatly  varying  the  sounds.  Even  the  Chinese,  however,  count  it  more  curious 
than  useful. 

Their  wind  instruments  are  more  noted  for  noise  than  sweetness.  The 
Hwang  tih  is  twice  the  length  of  our  fife,  and  its  bamboo  tube  is  pierced  with 
ten  holes  :  two  near  the  end  and  unused,  and  one  midway  between  the  hole 
for  the  lips,  which  is  made  one  third  of  the  way  from  the  top,  and  the  six 
equidistant  ones  for  the  fingers.  The  shu  tih,  or  clarionet,  has  seven  holes,  but 
no  keys.  The  bell  at  the  end  is  of  copper,  and  so  is  the  mouth-piece.  Its 
tones  are  deafening,  and  well  illustrate  Chinese  musical  taste.  A  smaller  one, 
like  a  flageolet,  has  a  curious  reed,  so  shaped  that  it  can  be  blown  by  the  nose. 
So  a  street  musician  fits  one  of  these  to  his  nose,  slings  a  small  drum  under 
one  shoulder,  suspends  four  small  cymbals  on  his  breast,  and,  with  one  monkey 
on  his  head  and  another  on  his  shoulder,  draws  a  crowd  to  listen  to  his  orches- 
tral performance  and  singing.  Their  horn,  like  a  trombone,  can  be  lengthened 
or  shortened  at  pleasure.  In  processions,  its  hollow  booming  contrasts  well 
with  the  shrill  clarionets. 

The  /(?,  or  gong,  is  the  type  of  Chinese  music ;  a  crashing  harangue  of  rapid 
blows  on  this,  with  the  rattling  of  drums,  and  the  shrill  notes  of  clarionets,  and 
cymbals,  constitutes  the  great  body  of  their  music.  They  have  heard  good  Por- 
tuguese bands  for  ages,  but  never  adopt  an  instrument  or  a  tune.  This  want 
of  appreciation  of  pleasant  rhythm  appears  also  in  the  absence  of  meter  in 
their  poetry.  Each  line  consists  of  so  many  words  and  set  pauses,  but  neither 
measure  nor  rhythm. 

A  Chinese  band  makes  a  European  think  of  Hogarth's  picture  of  the  "  En- 
raged Musician."  Each  performer  seems  to  have  his  own  tune,  and  to  be  bent 
on  drowning  the  noise  of  all  the  rest ;  and  yet  they  keep  good  time,  only  no  two 
instruments  are  tuned  on  the  same  key.  Still,  the  pupils  in  mission  schools 
show  a  good  ear  for  music. ^ 

Rev.  E.  Smith,  D.D.,  of  Beirut,  found  that  hymns  composed  according  to 
Arabic  rules  of  prosody  could  seldom,  if  ever,  be  adapted  to  our  tunes  ;  and 
our  musicians  found  it  hard  to  detect  the  nature  of  the  intervals  in  Arab 
music,  or  write  their  tunes.  Arab  singers,  on  the  other  hand,  could  not  repeat 
the  octave  with  one  of  our  musical  instruments.  A  treatise  on  Arab  music,  by 
Michael  Mishakah,  of  Damascus,  explained  the  difficulty,  and  from  that,  together 
with  Kosegarten's  edition  of  Jspahanys  Book  of  Odes,  to  which  is  prefixed 
J^araby"^  on  Ancient  Arab  Music,  and  another  ancient  manuscript,  Dr.  Smith 
wrote  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  subject,  which  was  published  in  the  Journal 
of  the  American  Oriental  Society;'  with  explanatory  notes  by  Prof.  E.  E.  Salis- 
bury. 

'G.  T.  Lay,  in  Ckiiiese  Repository,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  30-54-      The  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  164-172. 
^Obiit  K.  H.  339.  ^Vol.  I,  pp.  171-210. 


MUSIC. 


225 


He  says  that  sound  is  naturally  divided  into  groups  of  seven  tones,  rising 
one  above  the  other,  each  the  response  to  the  one  below  it,  and  the  base  of  the 
next  above.  The  group  is  called  an  octave,^  and  the  octaves  are  composed  of 
tones.^  The  first  is  called  yegah ;  then  follow  in  order,  'osheiran,  'arak,  rest, 
dugah,  sigah,  and  jeharg^h.  This  is  the  first  octave.  The  second  in  the  same 
order  is  nawa,  huseiny,  auj,  mahur,  muhaiyar,  buzrek,  and  mahuran.  The  last 
is  the  response  to  jehargah.  The  first  note  of  the  third  octave  is  remel  tuty, 
and  is  the  response  to  nawa,  and  so  on.  The  next  octave  above  is  response  to 
the  response  of  nawa,  and  so  ad  infinitum.  In  like  manner,  in  the  first  descend- 
ing series  below  yegah,  they  say  the  base  to  jehargah,  the  base  to  sigah,  and 
so  on ;  then  the  base  to  the  base  of  jehargah,  and  so  in  continuance.  The 
intervals  between  these  notes  are  unequal.  The  Arabs  divide  them  into 
two  classes,  the  greater  containing  four  quarters,  and  the  less  containing 
three.  The  former  are  from  yegah  to  'osheiran,  from  rest  to  dugah,  and 
from  jehargah  to  nawa  \  the  latter  from  'osheiran  to  'arak,  from  'arak  to 
rest,  from  dugah  to  sigah,  and  from  sigah  to  jehargah.  The  first  class, 
then,  has  three  intervals  with  twelve  quarters,  and  the  second  class  four 
intervals  with  twelve  quarters.  The  modern  Greeks  divide  the  intervals 
into  seconds,  and  make  three  classes.  One,  corresponding  to  the  first  Arabic 
class,  divides  the  interval  into  twelve  seconds ;  the  second  class  divides 
it  into  nine  seconds,  and  is  from  dugah  to  sigah,  and  from  huseiny  to  auj  ; 
the  third  class,  from  sigah  to  jehargah,  and  from  auj  to  mahur,  has  seven 
seconds  to  the  interval.  So  their  octave  contains  seven  intervals  and  sixty- 
eight  seconds.  The  Arab  and  Greek  scales  coincide  only  at  four  of  the 
sixty-eight  seconds,  or  four  is  their  greatest  common  measure. 

This  is  the  substance  of  only  four  pages  out  of  thirty  devoted  to  Arab 
music.  Chapter  II  describes  melodies  now  in  use,  and  Chapter  III  is 
devoted  to  musical  rhythm.  Then  follows  a  chapter  of  thirteen  pages  on 
musical  instruments,  describing  stringed  instruments,  as  El  tid,^  the  Arab  guitar, 
the  kemenjeh,  tambur,  and  kanun;  wind  instruments,  as  the  nay,  kerift,  mizmar, 
siinnay,  urghun,*  and  jenah.  The  drum  and  tambourine,  as  serving  merely  to 
measure  time,  are  not  described. 

In  India,  music  was  formerly  more  scientific  than  at  present.  Its  martial 
music  has  changed  with  its  government.  Its  religion  had  little  to  do  with 
music,  except  in  connection  with  the  dancing  girls  of  its  temples.  Operas  are 
unknown,  and  theatrical  music  is  of  a  low  order.  Marriages  are  the  principal 
occasions  for  musical  display.  The  Hindoos  have  many  kinds  of  instruments, 
as  drums,  trumpets,  horns,  cymbals,  hautboys,  and  fiddles ;  but  the  performers 
have  little  skill  and  less  taste.  The  marriage  orchestra  varies  from  six  to 
twenty  performers,  and  the  larger  the  company  the  more  noise  and  din.  Sing- 
ing is  an  accomplishment  of  women  of  doubtful  morality,  and  is  a  favorite 
amusement  of  the  wealthy. 

Singing  has  been  introduced  into  Christian  worship  in  India,  and  the  native 
Christians  show  their  love  of  music  in  singing,  not  only  in  their  social  meetings, 
but  in  their  families  and  when  alone.     A  favorite  and  most  successful  method 

1  Arabic,  diwan.  -Arabic,  burj.  s  whence  our  lute.  *  Organ. 

15 


2  26  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

of  introducing  the  Gospel  to  the  notice  of  the  heathen  in  western  India  is  the 
kirttan,  a  name  they  give  to  solo-singing  by  native  evangelists,  with  instrumental 
accompaniment.' 

The  power  of  these  kirttans  over  the  natives  is  illustrated  by  the  following 
incident.  In  September,  1880,  Mr.  Bruce,  of  Satara,  visited  Wai  with  his 
trained  kirttan  choir.  The  people  flocked  from  all  parts  of  the  city  to  hear, 
especially  as  the  leader  was  a  converted  Moslem.  The  question  was  frequent, 
"  Who  taught  them  to  sing  like  our  kirttan  wallas  ?  "  "  Is  the  Moslem  really  a 
Christian  ? "  "  How  did  that  happen  ?  "  The  performance  was  held  in  the 
government  city  office,  which,  as  it  was  open  on  two  sides,  allowed  hundreds  to 
stand  outside  and  hear.  So  a  great  multitude  heard  their  own  countrymen 
singing  of  the  way  of  salvation  through  a  crucified  Saviour,  who  never  heard  of 
him  before ;  and  they  stood  in  the  rain,  too,  to  hear  it  to  the  end.  The  whole 
city  was  moved.  It  was  the  great  topic  for  many  days,  and  the  missionar\^,  as 
he  went  here  and  there  through  the  city,  met  the  inquiry,  '"  When  will  the 
Satara  Sahib  come  and  give  us  some  more  kirttans?  "  - 

Rev.  H.  Ballantine  prepared  a  Marathi  hymnal  for  the  cliurches  in  that 
.  mission,  and  another  for  the  children,  chiefl}^  translations  of  favorite  hymns  at 
home,  which  are  said  to  possess  the  spirit  and  beauty  of  the  originals.  He  has 
been  called  the  Watts  of  Marathi  hymnology. 

Rev.  E.  Webb,  of  the  Madura  mission,  was  much  interested  in  the  researches 
he  made  into  the  principles  of  Tamil  poetry.  Their  lyric  poetry  is  often  ex- 
tremely rhythmical  and  elaborate  in  its  construction  ;  and  though  many  learned 
men  compose  it,  they  cannot  explain  the  principles  of  their  own  compositions. 
The  whole  Ramanayam  is  translated  into  this  style  of  poetry,  and  sung  through- 
out the  country  with  music  and  dancing.  He  found  European  tunes  unsuited 
to  Tamil  taste,  and  our  meters  not  adapted  to  the  language. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1853  he  published  a  Tamil  hymn-book,  divided  into 
four  parts :  hymns  in  English  meter,  children's  hymns,  chants  with  printed 
music,  and  hymns  in  Tamil  meters,  the  last  forming  the  largest  half  of  the 
book.  Many  copies  were  immediately  taken  by  Episcopal  missions  in  Tanjore 
and  Tinnevelly ;  and  the  village  congregations  of  our  own  mission  took  greater 
interest  in  the  service,  and  singing  was  introduced  in  places  where  it  had  been 
unknown  before  in  Christian  worship.  An  edition  of  two  thousand  copies  was 
exhausted  in  a  few  years,  and  a  new  one  was  issued  in  1858  by  the  South  Indian 
Christian  School-Book  Society.  The  Tamil  people  are  passionately  fond  of 
poetry  and  music,  and,  though  they  scarcely  listen  with  patience  to  the  most 
important  truth  in  prose,  their  attention  is  instantly  captivated  by  the  same 
ideas  expressed  in  poetry  and  sung.  When  Mr.  Webb  was  in  this  country  in 
i860,  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  held  at  New  Haven,  in 
October,  he  gave  an  account  of  the  construction  of  Tamil  verse,  defining  first 
the  two  kinds  of  syllables,  then  the  feet,  and,  last,  the  stanzas  in  which  these 
are  combined.  He  said  that  when  it  was  found  that  the  natives  did  not 
recognize  any  measure  in  our  verse,  or  learn  to  sing  our  music,  hymns  were 

'  D.  O.  Allen's  India,  p.  453  ;  Dr.  Anderson's  India,  p.  8g ;  Missionary  Herald,  iSSo,  pp.  521-524. 
2  Rev.  S.  R.  Wells,  in  tlie  Report  0/ the  American  Marathi  Mission  {or  1S80,  p]>.  45-46. 


MUSIC.  227 

procured  to  be  written  by  native  converts,  in  their  own  meters,  and  adapted  to 
their  own  melodies,  with  most  satisfactory  results.  He  translated  a  number  of 
them  to  the  audience,  who  listened  with  much  interest.  He  read  specimens, 
also,  in  the  original,  of  a  highly  artificial  construction,  with  elaborate  rhyme, 
alliteration,  and  assonance. 

He  described,  also,  the  musical  modes  of  the  Hindoos,  known  throughout 
India  under  the  same  Sanskrit  titles,  indicating  their  relation  to  our  own  scale, 
and  showing  their  adaptation  to  the  expression  of  different  emotions.^ 

Rev.  G.  T.  Washburn  took  up  the  work  thus  begun  by  Mr.  Webb,  and  car- 
ried it  on  to  a  larger  success.  In  1863  he  carried  through  the  press  two 
volumes  of  Tamil  lyrics.  These  were  not  translations  of  English  hymns  in 
English  meters,  but  devotional  songs  by  native  converts,  in  Tamil  meters. 
India  excelled  Greece  in  ancient  times  in  her  cultivation  of  music ;  and  though 
no  new  tunes  have  been  written  for  centuries,  those  of  the  best  periods  still 
exist,  and  for  these  the  hymns  were  composed.  Some  of  them  are  equal  to  our 
best  English  hymns. - 

Rev.  W.  W.  Howland  prepared  a  volume  of  tunes  for  the  Tamil  hymn-book 
of  Dr.  Spaulding. 

1  Journal  of  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  V,  p.  271  ;  Vol.  VII,  p.  v.  Missionary  Herald,  1854,  p.  150; 
1858,  pp.  59-60.  ^Missionary  Herald,  1S70,  p.  130. 


XIV. 
BIBLE  TRANSLATIONS. 


English  literature  began  with  our  English  Bible.  There  was  none  before 
the  time  of  Wickliffe,  and  Chaucer  gives  evidence  of  having  read  Wickliffe's 
version  of  the  Scriptures.  Ever  since  then  the  Bible  has  quickened  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  all  who  use  the  English  language.  Take  out  of  the  literature  of 
England  and  America  all  that  has  flowed  into  it  from  the  Word  of  God,  and  a 
few  broken  fragments  only  would  remain  of  the  magnificent  structure  we 
proudly  call  our  English  literature.  Now,  missionaries,  in  translating  the 
Scriptures  into  other  tongues,  seek  to  confer  on  others  the  same  inestimable 
blessings  which  the  Bible  has  conferred  on  us.  Dr.  W.  Goodell  said  :  "  I 
never  saw  anything  do  such  execution  as  the  Bible  does.  It  is  becoming  the 
great  book  in  the  East." 

Not  less  than  one  hundred  and  eighty  ^  translations  of  the  Bible,  in  whole  or 
in  part,  have  been  made  by  modern  missionaries.  Since  1804^  new  translations 
have  been  made  in  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  languages.^  One  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  of  these  were  published  in  connection  with  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  and  forty-one  of  them  by  the  American  Bible  Society. 

The  first  object  of  a  Protestant  mission  is  to  give  the  Word  of  God  to  a 
people  in  their  own  tongue,  wherein  they  were  born,  and  in  which  the  family 
converses  at  home. 

The  first  Bible  printed  in  America  was  John  Eliot's  Massachusetts  or  Mo- 

'  This  is  the  statement  of  Dr.  Mullens. 

2  Rev.  C.  E.  B.  Reed,  Mildmay  Conference,  187S,  pp.  230-231.  Dr.  Anderson,  who  wrote  in  i860,  differs 
from  him  in  his  estimates.  Mr.  Reed  says  the  entire  Bible  has  been  rendered  in  about  fifty-five  languages  (Dr. 
Anderson  thirty-nine),  the  New  Testament  in  eighty-four  (Dr.  Anderson  thirty-tive),  and  parts  only  in  eighty-seven 
(Dr.  Anderson  forty-eight)  (^^r^/|^«  i?//.M/o«.v,  p.  112).  Dr.  Anderson  said,  in  i?,6c)  {Foreign  Missions, -p.  212), 
that  scarcely  less  that  one  hundred  millions  of  copies  of  Scriptures  in  whole  or  in  part  have  been  issued  since  1804, 
and  not  less  than  one  tenth  of  these  have  gone  outside  of  Christendom,  and  these  last  were  more  than  double  the 
whole  number  printed  in  Christiap  lands  up  to  that  date  (1804),  during  three  centuries  and  a  half,  and  more  than 
were  in  existence  from  Moses  to  the  Reformation.  The  difference  between  Dr.  Anderson  and  Mr.  Reed  is  ex- 
plained by  the  later  and  more  complete  investigations  of  the  latter.  See  his  tables  of  new  versions  during  the 
present  century  {Mildmay  Conference,  414-428). 

3  0f  these  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  translations,  fifty-five  are  of  the  whole  Bible,  eighty-four  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  particular  parts  eighty-seven.  In  the  seventy-fifth  Amiual  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  Berlin  Branch,  1S79,  p.  67,  it  is  stated  that  Bibles  or  parts  of  the  Bible  have  been  printed  in  three 
hundred  and  eiglu  languages,  and  sixty  or  seventy  languages  have  been  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries. 
{Foreign  Missions,  by  Chrisllieb,  p.  19.)  The  seventy-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  same  (p.  260)  enumerates 
three  hundred  and  sixteen  versions  of  the  Bible  or  parts  of  it,  which  have  been  published  by  Bible  societies. 

(228) 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS.  22Cf 

hican  Bible,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  1663,  the  New  Testament  having  ap- 
peared two  years  earlier.  The  title  is  Mamussee  Wunneetupanatamwe  Up- 
Biblum  God,  Naneeswe  Nukkone  Testament  kah  wonk  Wusku  Testament. 
Ne  quoshkinnumuk  nashpe  Wuttineumoh  Christ  noh  oscowesit  John  Eliot; 
/.  e.,  the  whole  holy  his  Bible  God,  both  Old  Testament  and  also  New  Testa- 
ment. This  turned  by  the  servant  of  Christ,  who  is  called  John  Eliot.  The 
work  is  now  exceedingly  rare,  and  commands  a  great  price.  The  following  is 
this  version  of  John  1:1-5:    . 

Weske  kutchissik  wuttinn<9^waonk  ohtup,  kah  \^uttoo  wonk 
<9C'wetddtamun  Manit,  and  ne  kuttc(9onk  Manittoooomoo.  2  yeu 
nan  weske  kutchissik  weetchayeutamun  God.  3  Wame  teun- 
teaquassinish  kesteausupash  nashpe  nagiim,  and  matta  teag 
kesteausineup  webe  nashpe  nagum  ne  kesteausikup.  4  Ut  wuh- 
hogkat  pomantamoonkohtop,  kah  ne  pomantamoonk  oowe- 
quaiyeumuneaop  wosketompaog.  5  Kah  wequai  sohsumoomoo 
pohkenahtu,  and  pohkenai  matta  wutattiimunnmooun. 

In  the  fourteenth  verse,  the  clause,  "full  of  grace  and  truth," 
reads  thus :  numwabehtunk  kitteamonteanitteaonk  and  wun- 
namuhkuteyeuonk. 

In  18 18,  Rev.  C.  F.  Dencke,  a  Moravian  missionary  at  New  Fairfield,  in 
Upper  Canada,  sent  the  Epistles  of  John  in  Delaware  to  the  American  Bible 
Society,  and  an  edition  was  published  shortly  after. 

In  1832,  John  and  Peter  Jones,  Ojibwa  Indians  in  the  service  of  the  Method- 
ists, had  their  version  of  the  Gospel  of  John  in  Ojibwa  published  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  London.  In  1838  an  edition  was  issued 
by  the  American  Bible  Society,^  The  same  society  issued  the  entire  New  Tes- 
tament in  1844.  Dr.  James  had  previously  printed  his  own  translation  in  1833. 
The  Gospel  of  Mark  was  translated  by  Peter  Osunkerhine,  a  missionary  of  the 
Board,  into  Abenaquis,  his  native  tongue,  and  printed  at  Montreal  in  1845. 

In  1700  Rev.  Mr.  Freeman  translated  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  into  Mohawk, 
and  some  chapters  were  printed  by  the  Gospel  Propagation  Society,  New 
York,  17 14.  In  1787  another  translation  of  Matthew,^  by  Joseph  Brant,  a  Mo- 
hawk chief,  was  printed  in  London  at  the  cost  of  the  Crown,  and  another 
edition,  with  English  in  parallel  columns,  by  the  New  York  District  Bible 
Society,  in  1829.  The  Gospel  of  John  was  translated  by  a  Cherokee  natural- 
ized among  the  Mohawks,  and  published  in  London,  1805,  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  the  first  year  of  its  existence.  Another  edition  was 
published  in  New  York,  18 18,  by  the  American  Bible  Society.  In  1832,  the  three 
epistles  of  John,  translated  by  Rev.  Mr.  Williams,  and  the  Gospel  of  Luke, 
translated  by  A.  Hill,  a  Mohawk  chief,  were  printed  in  New  York  by  the  Young 
Men's  Bible  Society,  and  in  1835,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Epistles  to 

'  Bagster's  Bible  of  Every  Land,  p.  372. 

2  Do.,  p.  376,  but  the  Brinley  Catalogue  says  that  Mark  appeared  in  1787. 


230  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

the  Romans  and  Galatians,  by  the  same  translator.  In  1836,  the  same  society 
pubUshed  the  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  Colossians,  Thessalonians,  to  Timo- 
thy, Titus,  and  Philemon,  translated  by  an  educated  Mohawk  named  Hess. 
In  1829  the  American  Bible  Society  printed  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  translated  into 
the  Seneca  language  by  Rev.  T.  S.  Harris,  a  missionary  of  the  American  Board. 

In  Cherokee,  the  first  Gospel  printed  was  Matthew,  in  1832,  followed  by 
Acts,  in  1833,  at  New  Echota ;  the  third  edition  of  Matthew  appearing  in 
1840,  at  Park  Hill,  at  the  cost  of  the  American  Board.  In  1844,  the  Gospels, 
Acts,  and  Epistles  to  Timothy  were  printed  at  the  same  place,  in  the  Cherokee 
character,  and  in  1859  the  entire  New  Testament  was  completed  and  printed 
under  the  superintendence  of  Rev.  S.  A.  Worcester  and  Rev.  C.  C.  Torrey. 

The  first  part  of  the  Bible  published  in  Choctaw  was  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  Boston,  1839,  at  the  cost  of  the  American  Board.  The  Epistles  of 
John  appeared  at  Park  Hill  in  1841,  and  the  Epistle  of  James  in  1843  ;  ^^1^1  iii 
1848  the  entire  New  Testament,  prepared  by  Rev.  Alfred  Wright  and  his  asso- 
ciates, was  published  by  the  American  Bible  Society. 

Portions  of  Scripture  had  been  issued  at  different  times  by  our  missionaries 
to  the  Dakotas,  but  the  entire  Bible  was  printed  in  1879.  It  is  a  thorough 
work,  by  thorough  scholars.  Dr.  S.  R.  Riggs  and  Rev.  T.  S.  Williamson,  M.D., 
devoted  themselves  to  it  for  many  years.  But  the  following  account  of  this 
work  from  the  Bible  Society  Record,  mostly  in  the  language  of  the  venerable 
surviving  translator,  tells  the  story  so  graphically  that,  with  a  few  unimportant 
omissions,  it  is  transferred  to  these  pages.  It  is  headed  "The  Making  of  a 
Bible."  1 

The  beginning  of  missionary  work  among  the  Dakotas  dates  from  the  year 
1834,  when  two  brothers  from  Connecticut,  by  the  name  of  Pond,  built  their 
cabin  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Calhoun.  Dr.  Williamson  and  Mr.  Stevens  followed 
the  next  year,  and  on  the  first  of  June,  1837,  after  a  journey  of  nearly  three 
months  from  Massachusetts,  the  Rev.  Stephen  R.  Riggs  and  his  wife  Mary 
landed  from  a  steamer  at  the  point  where  the  Minnesota  empties  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  there  entered  into  the  wilderness  in  which  they  were  to  sojourn 
forty  years  as  the  friends  and  teachers  of  the  Dakota  Indians. 

Their  first  business  was  to  master  the  language,  and  in  this  they  had  the 
meager  aid  of  a  vocabulary  of  five  or  six  hundred  words,  which  Mr.  Stevens 
had  gathered  from  the  brothers  Pond.  Beyond  this  they  must  get  their  ears 
opened  to  catch  strange  sounds,  and  their  tongues  trained  to  utter  them ;  and 
the  fleeting  sound  must  be  presented  to  the  eye  and  perpetuated  by  fixed  char- 
acters upon  the  written  page ;  since,  as  Dr.  Riggs  says,  "  for  the  purposes  of 
civilization,  and  especially  of  Christianization,  we  have  found  culture  in  the 
native  tongue  indispensable."  How  great  the  task,  we  must  let  our  author  tell 
in  his  own  way  : 

"  To  learn  an  unvv^ritten  language,  and  to  reduce  it  to  a  form  that  can  be  seen 
as  well  as  heard,  is  confessedly  a  great  work.  Hitherto  it  has  seemed  to  exist 
only  in  sound.  But  it  has  been,  all  through  the  past  ages,  worked  out  and  up 
by  the  forges  of  Iniman  hearts.  The  human  mind  may  not  stamp  purity  nor 
even  goodness  on  its  language,   but  it  always,   I   think,   stamps  it  with  the 

»E.  W.  Oilman,  D.D.,  in  liible  Society  Record,  iSSo,  pp.  145-6;  he  quotes  from  Mary  aiid  I,  by  Dr.  Riggs. 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS.  23 1 

deepest  philosophy.  So  far,  at  least,  language  is  of  divine  origin.  The  un- 
learned Dakota  may  not  be  able  to  give  any  definition  for  a  single  word  that  he 
has  been  using  all  his  life-time,  yet,  all  the  while,  in  the  mental  workshop  of  the 
people,  unconsciously,  and  very  slowly  it  may  be,  but  also  very  surely,  these 
words  of  air  are  newly  coined.  No  angle  can  turn  up  but  by-and-bv  it  will  be 
worn  off  by  use.  No  ungrammatical  expression  can  come  in  that  will  not  be 
rejected  by  the  best  thinkers  and  speakers.  New  words  will  be  coined  to  meet 
the  mind's  wants ;  and  new  forms  of  expression,  at  first  bungling,  will  be  pared 
down  so  as  to  come  into  harmony  with  the  living  language. 

"  But  it  was  no  part  of  our  business  to  make  the  language.  It  was  simply  to 
report  it  faithfully.  The  system  of  notation  had  in  the  main  been  settled  upon 
before  Mary  and  I  joined  the  mission.  It  was,  of  course,  to  be  phonetic,  as 
nearly  as  possible.  The  English  alphabet  was  to  be  used  as  far  as  it  could  be. 
These  principles  controlled  the  writing  of  Dakota.  In  their  application  it  was 
soon  found  that  only  five  pure  vowel  sounds  were  used.  So  far  the  work  was 
easy.  Then  it  was  found  that  x,  and  v,  and  r,  and  g,  and  j,  and  f,  and  c,  with 
their  English  powers,  were  not  needed.  But  there  were  four  dicks  and  two 
gutturals  and  a  nasal  that  must  in  some  way  be  expressed.  It  was  then,  even 
more  than  now,  a  matter  of  pecuniary  importance  that  the  language  to  be 
printed  should  require  as  few  new  characters  as  possible.  And  so  n  was 
taken  to  represent  the  nasal  ;  q  represented  one  of  the  clicks ;  g  and  r  rep- 
resented the  gutturals  ;  and  c  and  j  and  x  were  used  to  represent  ch,  zh,  and 
sh.  The  other  clicks  were  represented  by  marked  letters.  Since  that  time 
some  changes  have  been  made ;  x  and  r  have  been  discarded.  In  the  gram- 
mar and  dictionary,  which  was  published  fifteen  years  afterward,  an  effort  was 
made  to  make  the  notation  philosophical.  The  changes  which  have  since  been 
adopted  have  all  been  in  the  line  of  the  dictionary. 

"  When  we  had  gathered  and  arranged  the  words  of  this  language,  what  had 
we  to  put  into  it  for  the  Dakota  people  ?  What  will  you  give  me  ?  has  always 
been  their  cry.  We  brought  to  them  the  gospel  of  salvation  through  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ,  as  contained  in  the  Bible.  Not  only  to  preach  Christ  to  them, 
that  they  might  have  life,  but  to  engraft  his  living  words  into  their  living 
thoughts,  so  that  they  might  grow  into  his  spirit  more  and  more,  was  the  object 
of  our  coming.  The  labor  of  writing  the  language  was  undertaken  as  a  means 
to  a  greater  end." 

A    HUMBLE    HOME. 

After  three  months  spent  at  Lake  Harriet,  Mr.  Riggs  joined  Dr.  William- 
son at  Lac-qui-parle,  two  hundred  miles  in  the  interior,  where  the  latter  had 
erected  a  log-house,  a  story  and  a  half  high.  In  the  upper  part  were  three 
rooms,  the  largest  of  which,  ten  feet  by  eighteen,  was  appropriated  to  Mr. 
Riggs  and  his  wife.     He  says  : 

"  That  room  we  made  our  home  for  five  winters.  There  were  some  hardships 
about  such  close  quarters,  but,  all  in  all,  Mary  and  I  never  enjoyed  five  winters 
better  than  those  spent  in  that  upper  room.  There  our  first  three  children 
were  born.  There  we  worked  in  acquiring  the  language.  There  we  received 
our  Dakota  visitors.  There  I  wrote  and  wrote  again  my  ever-growing  diction- 
ary.    And  there,  with  what  help  I  could  obtain,  I  prepared  for  the  printer  the 


232  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

greater  part  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  language  of  the  Dakotas.     It  was  a 
consecrated  room." 

EARLY    ACHIEVEMENTS. 

At  Lac-qui-parle  the  missionaries  had  a  stanch  friend  and  interpreter  in 
Mr.  Renville,  a  Christian  half-breed  and  fur  trader.  "Dr.  Williamson  and  Mr. 
G.  H.  Pond  had  both  learned  to  read  French.  The  former  usually  talked  with 
Mr.  Renville  in  French,  and,  in  the  work  of  translating,  read  from  the  French 
Bible,  verse  by  verse.  Mr.  Renville's  memory  had  been  specially  cultivated 
by  his  having  been  interpreter  between  the  Dakotas  and  the  French.  It  sel- 
dom happened  that  he  needed  the  verse  re-read  to  him  ;  but  it  often  happened 
that  we,  who  wrote  the  Dakota  from  his  lips,  needed  to  have  it  repeated,  in 
order  to  get  it  exactly  and  fully.  When  the  verse  was  finished,  the  Dakota 
was  read  by  one  of  the  company.  We  were  all  only  beginners  in  writing  the 
language,  and  I  more  than  the  others.  Sometimes  Mr.  Renville  showed,  by 
the  twinkle  of  his  eye,  his  conscious  superiority  when  he  repeated  a  long  and 
difficult  sentence,  and  found  that  we  had  forgotten  the  beginning.  By  this 
process,  during  that  first  winter  at  Lac-qui-parle,  a  pretty  good  translation  of 
the  Gospel  of  Mark  was  completed,  besides  some  fugitive  chapters  from  other 
parts.  In  the  two  following  winters  the  Gospel  of  John  was  translated  in  the 
same  way. 

"  Besides  giving  these  portions  of  the  Word  of  God  to  the  Dakotas  sooner 
than  it  could  have  been  done  by  the  missionaries  alone,  these  translations  were 
invaluable  to  us  as  a  means  of  studying  the  structure  of  the  language,  and  as 
determining,  in  advance  of  our  own  efforts  in  this  line,  the  molds  of  many  new 
ideas  which  the  Word  contains.  In  after  years  we  always  felt  safe  in  referring 
to  Mr.  Renville  as  authority  in  regard  to  the  form  of  a  Dakota  expression. 

SOME    PECULIARITIES    OF    THE    LANGUAGE. 

"  The  language  of  counting  in  Dakota  was  limited.  The  '  wancha,  nonpa, 
yamne  '  —  one,  two,  three  —  up  to  ten,  every  child  learned,  as  he  bent  down  his 
fingers  and  thumbs  until  all  were  gathered  into  two  bunches,  and  then  let  them 
loose.  Eleven  was  ten  more  one,  and  so  on.  Twenty  was  ten  twos  or  twice  ten, 
and  thirty,  tejt  threes.  With  each  ten  the  fingers  were  all  bent  down,  and  one 
was  kept  down  to  remember  the  ten.  Thus,  when  ten  tens  were  reached,  the 
whole  of  the  two  hands  was  bent  down,  each  finger  meaning  ten.  This  was 
the  perfected  '  bending  down.'  It  was  opawinge  —  one  hundred.  Then,  when 
the  hands  were  both  bent  down  for  hundreds,  the  climax  was  supposed  to  be 
reached,  which  could  only  be  expressed  by  'again  also  bending  down.'  When 
something  larger  than  this  was  reached,  it  was  z  great  coimt  —  something  which 
they  nor  we  can  comprehend  —  a  million. 

"  On  the  other  side  ol  one  the  Dakota  language  is  still  more  defective.  Only 
one  word  of  any  definiteness  exists — hankay,  half.  We  can  say  hankay- 
hankay  —  the  half  of  a  half;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  much  used. 
Beyond  this  there  was  nothing.  Apiece  is  a  word  of  uncertain  quantity,  and  is 
not  quite  suited  to  introduce  among  the  certainties  of  mathematics.  Thus  the 
poverty  of  the  language  has  been  a  great  obstacle  in  teaching  arithmetic ; 
and  that  poorness  of  language  shows  their  poverty  of  thought  in  the  same  line." 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS. 


233 


COLLATERAL    WORK. 

"A  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Dakota  language  had  been  growing 
through  all  these  years.  It  was  in  the  line  of  our  missionary  work.  The  ma- 
terials came  to  us  naturally  in  our  acquisition  of  the  language,  and  we  simply 
arranged  them.  The  work  of  arrrangement  involved  a  good  deal  of  labor,  but 
it  brought  its  reward  in  the  better  insight  it  gave  of  their  forms  of  thought  and 
expression.  Thus,  when  we  had  been  a  year  or  more  in  the  country,  the  vocab- 
ulary which  I  had  gathered  from  all  sources  amounted  to  about  three  thousand 
words. 

"  From  that  time  onward  it  continued  to  increase  rapidly,  as  we  were  gather- 
ing new  words.  In  a  couple  of  years  more  the  whole  needed  revision  and 
rewriting,  when  it  was  found  to  have  more  than  doubled.  So  it  grew.  Mr.  S. 
W.  Pond  also  entered  into  the  work.  He  gave  me  the  free  use  of  his  collec- 
tions, and  he  had  the  free  use  of  mine.  This  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
way  in  which  the  work  was  carried  on.  How  many  dictionaries  I  made,  I  can- 
not now  remember.  When  the  collection  reached  ten  thousand  words  and 
upward,  it  began  to  be  quite  a  chore  to  make  a  new  copy.  By-and-by  we  had 
reason  to  believe  that  we  had  gathered  pretty  much  the  whole  language,  and 
our  definitions  were  measurably  correct. 

"  It  was  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  185 1  when  the  question  of  publica- 
tion was  first  discussed.  Certain  gentlemen  in  the  legislature  of  Minnesota, 
and  connected  with  the  Historical  Society  of  Minnesota,  became  interested  in 
the  matter.  Under  the  auspices  of  this  society  a  circular  was  printed,  asking 
the  cooperation  of  all  who  were  interested  in  giving  the  language  of  the 
Dakotas  to  the  literary  world  in  a  permanent  form.  The  subscription  thus 
started,  and  headed  by  such  names  as  Alexander  Ramsey,  then  governor  of 
the  Territory,  Rev.  E.  D.  Neill,  the  secretary  of  the  society,  H.  H.  Sibley,  H. 
M.  Rice,  and  Martin  McLeod,  the  chiefs  of  the  fur  trade,  in  the  course  of  the 
summer  amounted  to  about  eight  hundred  dollars.  With  this  sum  pledged,  it 
was  considered  quite  safe  to  commence  the  publication.  The  American  Board 
very  cheerfully  consented  to  pay  my  expenses  while  carrying  the  work  through 
the  press,  besides  making  a  donation  to  it  directly  from  their  treasury. 

"From  these  sources  we  had  $1,000;  and  with  this  sum  the  book  might 
have  been  published  in  a  cheap  form,  relying  upon  after  sales  to  meet  any 
deficiency.  But  after  taking  the  advice  of  friends  who  were  interested  in  the 
undertaking,  it  was  decided  to  offer  it  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  to  be 
brought  out  as  one  of  their  series  of  contributions  to  knowledge.  Prof.  Joseph 
Henry  at  once  had  it  examined  by  Prof.  C.  C.  Felton  and  Prof.  W.  W.  Turner. 
It  received  their  approval,  and  was  ordered  to  be  printed. 

"  I  went  to  New  York  City,  and  was,  the  next  seven  months,  engaged  in  get- 
ting through  the  press  the  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Dakota  language, 

'•Of  the  various  hindrances  and  delays,  and  of  the  burning  of  the  printing 
office  in  which  the  work  was  in  progress,  and  the  loss  of  quite  a  number  of 
pages  of  the  book,  which  had  to  be  again  made  up,  I  need  not  speak.  Early 
in  the  summer  of  1852  the  work  was  done  —  I  believe  to  the  satisfaction  of  all 


234  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

parties.  It  has  obtained  the  commendaticn  of  literary  men  generally,  and  it 
was  said  that  for  no  volume  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  up  to 
that  time,  was  the  demand  so  great  as  for  that.  It  is  now  out  of  print,  and 
the  book  can  only  be  bought  at  fancy  prices. 

"•The  question  of  republication  is  sometimes  talked  of;  and  should  that  take 
place,  some  valuable  additions  can  be  made  to  the  sixteen  thousand  words 
which  it  contains.  The  language  itself  is  growing.  Never,  probably,  in  its 
whole  history,  has  it  grown  so  much  in  any  quarter  of  a  century  as  it  has  in 
the  twenty-five  years  since  the  dictionary  was  published.  Besides,  we  have 
recently  been  learning  more  of  the  Teeton  dialect,  which  is  spoken  by  more 
than  half  of  the  Sioux  nation.  And  as  the  translation  of  the  Bible  has  pro- 
gressed, thoughts  and  images  have  been  brought  in  which  have  given  the  lan- 
guage an  unction  and  power  unknown  to  it  before." 

PROGRESS. 

The  various  steps  of  progress  in  translating  the  Bible  are  not  distinctly 
traced,  but  the  general  outline  is  given  as  follows  : 

"  Late  in  the  fall  of  1839  ^^""^  Gospel  of  Mark  and  some  other  small  portions 
were  ready  to  be  printed,  and  Dr.  Williamson  went  with  his  family  to  Ohio, 
where  he  spent  the  winter.  The  next  printing  of  portions  of  the  Bible  was 
done  in  1842-1843,  when  Dr.  Williamson  had  completed  the  book  of  Genesis. 
We  had  now  commenced  to  translate  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek.  This  was 
continued  through  all  our  missionary  life.  So  far  as  I  can  remember,  there 
was  no  arrangement  of  work  between  the  doctor  and  myself ;  but  while  I  com- 
menced the  New  Testament,  and  having  completed  that  turned  to  the  Psalms, 
and,  having  fmished  to  the  end  of  Malachi,  made  some  steps  backward  through 
Job,  Esther,  Nehemiah,  and  Ezra,  he,  commencing  with  Genesis,  closed  his 
work,  in  the  last  months  of  his  life,  with  Second  Chronicles,  having  taken  in 
also  the  book  of  Proverbs. 

"  In  the  latter  part  of  1863,  Mr.  Riggs  devoted  himself  to  a  revision  and  com- 
pletion of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  the  following  autumn  he  spent  three 
months  in  the  Bible  House,  reading  the  proof  of  the  New  Testament.  Dr. 
Williamson  had  also  added  a  revised  Genesis  and  Proverbs,  and  the  Bible 
Society  began  at  that  time  to  make  electrotype  plates  of  the  version. 

"The  multiplication  of  Dakota  readers  during  the  next  few  years  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  work  of  translating  the  Scriptures,  and  by  1870  the  Psalms, 
Ecclesiastes,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  Isaiah,  together  with  the  other  four 
books  of  Moses,  were  added  to  what  had  been  printed  five  years  before.  In 
the  summer  of  1872  the  book  of  Daniel  was  translated,  and,  in  the  winter  thai 
followed,  the  first  copy  of  the  minor  Prophets  was  made. 

"The  Bible  in  its  complete  form,  translated,  electrotyped,  printed,  ar.d 
bound,  appeared  in  the  spring  of  1879,  and  not  long  after.  Dr.  Williamson,  who 
had  contributed  so  much  to  its  excellence,  fell  asleep  at  the  age  of  eighty  years. 

'•  These  extracts  indicate  with  sufficient  fullness  the  difficulties  and  the  delays 
incident  to  the  rendering  of  the  entire  Bible  into  a  barbarous  tongue  ;  but 
the  Book  has  power  to  waken  thought,  to  quicken  conscience,  to  convict  of 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS. 


235 


sin,  and  to  manifest  the  love  of  God.  It  is  a  civilizing  and  evangelizing 
power,  effectual  in  building  up  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  The  Dakotas  are  a 
different  people  to-day  from  what  they  would  have  been  had  not  Riggs  and 
Williamson  given  them  the  Scriptures."^ 

There  is  one  peculiarity  of  all  the  versions  of  Scripture  made  by  our  mis- 
sionaries in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Each  one  commenced  with  a  Gospel 
translated  and  printed  for  immediate  use,  and  so  grew  up  into  the  form  they 
now  possess.  The  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  John,  in  the  Hawaiian  lan- 
guage, were  printed  at  Rochester,  New  York,  in  1828  ;  Luke  and  Acts  in  1829, 
at  Honolulu.  Other  portions  followed  as  they  were  finished.  The  New  Testa- 
ment was  completed  in  1832,  and  the  whole  Bible,  February  25,  1839,  in  a 
volume  of  fourteen  hundred  and  fifty  pages.  All  these  were  published  at  Hon- 
olulu. Different  revisions  have  since  been  issued.  The  New  Testament  was 
printed  by  the  Bible  Society,  at  New  York,  in  1857,  with  Hawaiian  and  English 
in  parallel  columns.  Quarto  and  octavo  reference  Bibles  were  issued  from 
the  same  press,  and  so  the  Word  of  God  was  given  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Rev.  H.  Bingham,  Jr.,  printed  the  first  chapters  of  Matthew,  in  i860,  in  the 
language  of  the  Gilbert  Islands,  and  completed  the  New  Testament  in  1873,  in 
a  i2mo  of  six  hundred  and  eighty-four  pages.  A  revised  edition  was  issued  at 
Honolulu  in  1878  —  a  priceless  gift  to  thirty  thousand  people. 

The  Gospels  and  Acts  were  issued  for  the  use  of  the  Marshall  Islanders  in 
1875,  though  the  work  was  begun  in  186 1,  by  Messrs.  Doane,  Snow,  and  Whit- 
ney.    The  book  of  Genesis  has  also  appeared  in  that  language. 

Rev.  B.  G.  Snow  prepared  Mark,  John,  and  the  Acts  for  the  natives  of 
Strong's  Island  in  1869,  and  the  remaining  Gosj^els  in  1S71. 

Rev.  L.  H.  Gulick  and  Rev.  A.  A.  Sturges  gave  John  to  the  Caroline  Island- 
ers in  1862.  Luke  and  Acts  were  printed  in  1866,  Matthew  and  Mark  in  1S70, 
Galatians  and  Titus  in  1873,  and  Genesis  and  Exodus  in  1875.  Other  parts 
of  the  New  Testament  are  nearly  ready  for  the  press. 

Rev.  R.  W.  Logan  printed  in  Honolulu,  in  1880,  the  Gospel  of  Mark  for  the 
Mortlock  Islands. 

The  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  printed  at  the  same  place  for  the  Marquesas 
Islands,  in  1853,^  and  in  1857  Mr.  Bicknell  went  in  the  "Morning  Star"  to  that 
port,  to  superintend  the  printing  of  the  Gospel  of  John.^ 

"The  Marquesan  version  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  prepared  by  the 
Rev.  James  Bicknell,  missionary  of  the  Hawaiian  Board  of  Missions,  and  son 
of  an  English  missionary  to  the  Society  Islands,  and  printed  at  Honolulu  about 
1865,  by  the  Hawaiian  Board.  The  Marquesan  language  was  first  reduced  to 
writing  by  the  English  missionaries  to  those  islands,*  early  in  this  century. 
But  the  American  missionaries  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  studied  the  lan- 
guage later  with  still  greater  care,  some  of  the  results  of  which  I  possess  in 
the  form  of  a  manuscript  grammar  and  vocabulary ;  and  as  you  see  by  my  list 
in  Dr.  Anderson's  volume,  they  published  several  works."  '^ 

'^  Bible  Society  Record,  iSSo,  p.  146.  -Dr.  E.  W.  Gilman,  in  Gospel /or  all  Lands,  October,  1S80. 

''Rev.  H.  Hinoham,  Jr.,  in  Story  of  the  Mor7iing  Star,  p.  27. 

*  London  Missio'.'.ary  Society.  ''Letter  of  Rev.  Edward  W.  Gilman,  D.D. 


236  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

A  few  specimens  of  some  of  these  versions  are  here  given  : 

THE    lord's    prayer    IN    HAWAIIAN. 

E  ko  makou  Makua  iloko  o  ka  lani,  e  hoanoia  kou  inoa.  E  hiki  mai 
kou  aupuni ;  e  malamaia  kou  makemake  ma  ka  honua  nei,  e  like  me  ia  i 
malamaia  ma  ka  lani  la  :  e  haawi  mai  ia  makou  i  keia  la  i  ai  na  makou 
no  neia  la ;  e  kala  mai  hoi  ia  makou  i  ka  makou  lawehala  ana,  me  makou 
e  kala  nei  i  ka  poe  i  lawehala  i  ka  makou.  Mai  hookuu  oe  ia  makou  i  ka 
hoowalewaleia  mai ;  e  hoopakele  no  nae  ia  makou  i  ka  ino ;  no  ka  mea, 
nouke  aupuni,  a  me  ka  mana,  a  me  ka  hoonaniia,  a  mau  loa  aku.     Amene. 

IN    MARQUESAN. 

E  to  matoa  Matua  iuna  i  te  aki,  ia  hamitaiia  to  oe  inoa :  la  tuku  mai  to 
oe  basileia ;  la  hakaokohia  to  oe  makemake  i  te  henua  nei  me  ia  i 
hakaokoia  i  te  aki  iuna;  a  tuku  mai  i  te  kaikai  no  matou  i  te  nei  mau  a. 
A  haka  oe  i  ta  matou  pio,  me  matou  e  haka  aku  i  ta  telahi  pio  ia  matou 
nei :  auwe  oe  tilii  ia  matou  ia  oohia  matou  i  te  pio  :  A  hoopahue  ia 
matou  ko  oe  te  basileia  e  ta  mana  e  ta  hanohano  i  te  mau  pokoehu  atoa 
kakoe  e  pato.     Amene. 

IN    THE    GILBERT    ISLAND    LANGUAGE. 

Tamara  are  i  karawa,  e  na  tabuaki  aram.  E  na  roko  ueam  :  E  na 
tauaki  am  taeka  i  aon  te  aba  n  ai  aron  tauana  i  karawa.  Ko  na  ahanira 
karara  ae  ti  a  tau  iai  n  te  boii  aei.  Ao  ko  na  kabara  ara  buakaka 
mairoura  n  ai  arora  hkai  ti  kabara  te  buakaka  mairouia  akana  ioawa 
nako  ira.  Ao  tai  kairira  nakon  te  kaririaki,  ma  ko  na  kamaiuira  man 
te  buakaka;  ba  ambai  te  uea,  ao  te  maka.  ao  te  neboaki,  n  aki  toki. 
Amene. 

IN    THE    MARSHALL    ISLAND    LANGUAGE. 

Jememuij  i  Ion,  en  kwojarjar  et^^m.  En  itok  am  aili;/.  Jen  k^m^nm^n 
ankil  am  i  \o\  enw^t  dri  b;/.  Ranin,  letok  non  kim  kijim  ranin :  Im  jolok 
amuij  jerawiwi,  enwot  kimuij  jolok  an  armij  jerawivvi  jen  kim.  Im  jab 
tellok  7wn  mon,  ak  drcbij  kim  jen  nana.  Bwe  am  aili//,  im  kajur,  im 
wijtak  in  drio.     Amen. 

IN    THE    KUSAIEAN    LANGUAGE. 

Papa  tumus  su  in  kosao,  .£"'108  oal  payi.  Togusai"  lalos  tuku.  Orek 
ma  nu  fwalu,  ou  elos  oru  in  kosao.  Kite  kit  Icn  si  i;a  ma  kut  mo«o 
misi/zi :  A  nunok  munas  nu  ses  ke  ma  koluk  las,  oanu  kut  nunok  munas 
sin  met  orek  ma  koluk  nu  scs.  A  tiu  kol  kit  kut  in  mel,  a  es  kit  la  liki 
ma  koluk,  tu  togusaY  lalos,  a  ku,  a  mwolanu,  ma  patpat.     Amen. 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS. 


237 


A  few  portions  of  the  Bible  were  translated  by  Papal  missionaries  in  China, 
but  no  approach  to  an  entire  version.  In  1307  Pope  Clement  V  made  John 
de  Monte  Corvino  archbishop  of  Cambalu,^  and  he  translated  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Psalms  into  the  language  of  the  Mogul  Tartars.  It  is  with 
great  pleasure  that  the  writer  records  this  exception  to  the  general  custom  of 
Papal  missionaries.^     Neander  says  :   "  This  distinguished  man,  displaying  the 


Uj 


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± 

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m 

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mm 


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MATTHEW   V:  I-13. 


wisdom  of  a  genuine  missionary,  spared  no  pains  in  giving  the  Word  of  God  to 
the  people  in  their  own  language,  in  encouraging  education,  and  training  up 
missionaries  from  among  the  people.'"^ 

Matthew  v  :  1-13  is  here  given  in  the  Mandarin  colloquial  dialect,  as  a  speci- 
men of  the  Bible  in  Chinese. 


'  Peking. 


-  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I,  p.  451 ;  Dr.  Anderson,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1838,  p.  295. 
^History  0/ the  Christian  Religion  and  Church,  Vol.  IV,  p.  57. 


238  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Dr.  Morrison  made  the  nucleus  of  his  version  a  Chinese  manuscript  trans- 
lation from  the  Vulgate,  found  in  the  British  Museum,  and  written  by  order 
of  Mr.  Hodgson,  in  1 737-1 738.  In  1836,  a  revised  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  prepared  by  Messrs.  W.  H.  Medhurst,  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  E.  C.  Bridgman,  of  the  American  Board,  C.  Gutzlaff,  and  J.  R.  Mor- 
rison. The  version  called  the  Delegates'  Bible  vi2.s  published  in  1855.  Dr. 
E.  C.  Bridgman  was  one  of  four  who  prepared  the  New  Testament  of  that 
version.  The  Bridgman  and  Culbertson  version,  prepared  by  those  mission- 
aries, appeared  in  1859.  On  this  Dr.  Bridgman  spent  thirty-two  years  of  his 
missionary  life,  and  Dr.  Culbertson  finished  it  after  Dr.  Bridgman's  death.^ 

Different  editions  were  published  in  186 1,  1863,  and  1865,  and  the  transla- 
tion was  regarded  by  the  Russian  archimandrite  at  Peking,  himself  a  translator, 
as  the  best  that  he  had  seen.  All  these  are  in  the  Wen  Li,  the  classical  or 
written  language.  Besides  this  are  what  some  call  dialects,  but  which  are  hardly 
more  so  than  the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish  languages  are  dialects.  The 
Mandarin  colloquial,  so  called  because  used  by  the  Mandarins  throughout  the 
empire,  and  in  court  circles  at  Peking,  is  called  Kwan  Wha,  and  is  the  spoken 
language  north  of  the  great  Yangtse  Kiang^  River,  Perhaps  two  hundred 
millions  have  some  knowledge  of  this,  and  steam  and  electricity  promise  to 
make  it  the  Chinese  language.  The  Bible  was  translated  into  it,  and  com- 
pleted in  1874,  by  a  committee  of  five,  of  which  Rev.  H.  Blodgett,  D.D.,  was 
an  active  member.  The  Old  Testament  was  translated  by  Dr.  Schereschewsky, 
of  the  American  Episcopal  Mission. 

The  other  dialects  differ  so  much  from  each  other  that  interpreters  are 
needed  between  them,  and  foreigners  sometimes  thus  mediate  between  Chinese. 
The  Shanghai  and  Fuhchau  coUoquials  are  spoken  by  about  eight  millions 
each,  and  that  of  Canton  is  one  of  the  principal  languages  of  the  empire.  The 
colloquial  of  Ningpo  is  spoken  by  about  five  millions.'' 

There  was,  also,  a  New  Testament  printed  in  the  book  language  at  Ningpo, 
in  1853  ;  in  the  Fuhchau  dialect,  1863,  and  1866;  in  the  Ningpo  dialect,  with 
Romanized  letters,  in  1868;  Hong  Kong  dialect,  1870;  Shanghai  dialect, 
1872  ;  Amoy  dialect,  1873;  and  another  in  Ningpo  Romanized,  1874. 

A  version  of  the  whole  Bible  is  now  being  prepared  in  the  Shanghai  dialect, 
and  another  in  the  Fuhchau  dialect  is  also  approaching  completion,  on  which 
several  of  our  missionaries  have  bestowed  much  labor.  Rev.  L.  B.  Peet  trans- 
lated and  published  the  New  Testament  at  his  own  expense,  in  1863.  It 
reached  the  fourth  edition.  Another  version  of  the  New  Testament,  by  Dr, 
C.  C.  Baldwin  and  C.  Hartwell,  aided  by  Dr.  Maclay  and  O,  Gibson,  appeared 
in  1866,  and  a  revised  edition  in  1875. 

These  later  versions  are  a  great  advance  on  those  of  Marshman  and  Mor- 
rison, but  yet  the  work  of  translating  the  Bible  in  China  is  not  complete.  To 
say  nothing  of  unfinished  versions,  scholars  are  not  yet  agreed  on  the  terms 
wherewith  to  render  in  Chinese  our  words  Jehovah,  God,  and  Spirit.  Still,  the 
publications  of  our  North  China  mission  reach  two  thirds  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion of  the  empire. 

1  Bible  Society  Record,  i8So,  pp.  Si-84.       -Son  of  the  great  water.       ■■  Bible  Society  Record,  1.S76,  p.  147. 


BIBLE   TRANSLATIONS. 


239 


The  following  tabular  statement,  prepared  by  Rev.  L.  H,  Gulick,  M.D., 
formerly  a  missionary  of  the  American  Board,  and  showing  the  debt  which 
China  owes  to  so  many  devoted  missionaries,  is  taken  from  the  Annual  Report 
of  the  American  Bible  Society  for  1880,  pp.  114-115  : 


^1 

II 

Dialed. 

Books. 

1859 

Classical 

Bible 

1874 

Mandarin 

Old  Testament 

1872 

** 

New  Testament 

1S72 

Shanghai  Coll. 

" 

1880 

The  Gospels 

18S0 

Ningpo  Coll. 

New  Testament 

Tratislaiors. 


Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman  and  Rev.  M.  S.  Culbertson. 

Rev.  S.  I.  J.  Schereschewsky,  D.D. 

Committee,  consisting  of  Rev.  J.  S.  Burden,  D.D., 
Rev.  H.  Blodgett,  D.D.,  Dr.  Schereschewsky,  Rev. 
J.  Edkins,  Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  D.D. 

Rt.  Rev.  W.  J.  Boone,  Revs.  J.  S.  Roberts,  E.  H. 
Thompson,  J.  M.  W.  Farnham,  D.D. 

Rev.  by  committee  of  Revs.  J.  M.  W.  Farnham,  D.D., 
E.  H.  Thompson,  and  J.  VV.  Lambuth. 

Rt.  Rev.  W.  A.  Russell,  Revs.  H.  V.  Rankin,  W.  A. 
P.  Martin,  D.D.,  W.  T.  Morrison,  and  others.  Re- 
vised, 1S6S,  by  Revs.  F.  F.  Gough  and  J.  H.  Taylor. 
Again  revised,  1S79,  by  Rev.  F.  F.  Gough. 


I87I 

" 

Genesis  and  Exodus 

Rev.  H.  V.  Rankin. 

1879 

" 

Isaiah 

Rev.  E.  C.  Lord,  D.D. 

1 855 

Fuhchau  Coll. 

Matthew 
Mark 

Rev.  R.  S.  Maclay,  D.D. 
Rev.  0.  Gibson. 

" 

« 

Luke 

Rev.  C.  C.  Baldwin,  D.D. 

" 

It 

John 

Rev.  C.  Hartwell. 

•  ( 

*' 

Acts 
Romans 

Revs.  Gibson  and  Hartwell. 
Dr.  R.  S.  Maclay,  D.D. 

<( 

« 

ist  and  2d  Cor.  and  Gal 

Eph.,   Phil.,  Col.,  ist 

2d  Thess.,  Tim.,  and 

Rev.  0.  Gibson, 
and" 
Ti-f-Rev.  C.  Hartwell. 

tus. 

« 

(( 

Hebrews 

Rev.  R.  S.  Maclay,  D.D. 

<( 

« 

James  to  Revelation 

Rev.  C.  C.  Baldwin,  D.D. 

X87S 

K 

Genesis 

1 

1876 

« 

Exodus 

i-Rev.  C.  C.  Baldwin,  D.D. 

1878 

ii 

Leviticus,  Numbers 

I 

1878 

" 

Deuteronomy 

J 

187s 

" 

Joshua 

Rev.  J.  R.  Wolfe. 

1S78 

" 

Judges 

Dr.  C.  C.  Baldwin. 

1875 

" 

Ruth,  I  Samuel 

1878 

" 

2  Samuel 

•  Rev.  S.  F.  Woodin. 

1879 

(( 

I  Kings 

1880 

" 

2  Kings 

1879 

" 

Ezra,  Neh.,  Esther 

Dr.  C.  C.  Baldwin. 

1866 

<( 

Job 

Dr.  R.  S.  Maclay,  D.D. 

1867 

« 

Psalms 

Revs.  L.  B.  Peet,  S.  F.  Woodin. 

1866 

<• 

Proverbs 

Rev.  S.  L.  Baldwin,  D.D. 

1880 

« 

Ecc.  and  Song  of  Sol. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Baldwin. 

1866 

« 

Daniel 

Dr.  C.  C.  Baldwin. 

'873 

Amoy  Coll. 

Psalms 

Rev.  J.  Stronach. 

1872 

" 

Matthew 

Rev.  J.  V.  N.  Talmage,  D.D. 

1863 

« 

Mark 

Rev.  A.  Ostrom. 

1S68 

" 

Luke 

Rev.  J.  V.  N.  Talmage,  D.D. 

1871 

•' 

John 

Rev.  E.  Doty. 

1867 

" 

Acts 

Rev.  J.  Stronach. 

1871 

" 

Gal.,  Eph.,  Phil.,  Col. 

Rev.  J.  V.  N.  Talmage,  D.D. 

1 868 

" 

ist  and  2d  Peter 

Rev.  J.  Stronach. 

1869 

« 

Epistles  of  John 

Rev.  J.  V.  N.  Talmage,  D.D. 

1S6S 

ti 

The  Revelation 

Rev.  J.  Stronach. 

1879 

Swatow  Coll. 

Genesis 

Rev.  William  Ashmore,  D.D.,  and  Miss  A.  M.  Fields 

1872-3 

Canton  Coll. 

Matthew,  Mark,  Luke 

Rev.  G.  Piercy. 

1S72-3 

" 

John,  Acts 

Rev.  C.  F.  Preston. 

240  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

In  Japan,  though  it  is  too  soon  to  look  for  a  complete  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible,  the  work  has  been  well  begun.  As  far  back  as  1837-1839,  Rev. 
Charles  Gutzlaff  and  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  improved  their  acquaintance  with 
some  shipwrecked  Japanese  in  Macao,  in  making  a  beginning.  The  former 
translated  the  Gospel  of  John,  which  was  printed  at  Singapore  in  1838,  in  the 
Katakana  character,  at  the  press  of  the  American  Board.  The  latter  trans- 
lated Genesis  and  Matthew,  but  they  were  never  printed.  He  sent  the  manu- 
scripts to  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  in  Japan,  but  they  were  burnt  with  his  house 
in  1867.  Rev.  B.  J.  Bettleheim,  M.D.,  translated  the  New  Testament  into  the 
dialect  of  the  Lewchew  Islands.  He  printed  one  of  the  Gospels  at  Hong 
Kong ;  afterwards  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  printed  Luke,  John, 
and  Acts,  at  Vienna,  in  1872.  The  first  part  of  the  Bible  printed  in  Japan  was 
Mr.  Goble's  version  of  Matthew,  in  187 1.  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn,  with  the  aid  of 
Mr.  Okuno,  a  native  Christian,  had  translated  the  four  Gospels  previous  to 
1870,  and  published  Mark  and  John  in  the  autumn  of  1S72,  and  Matthev/  in 
the  spring  of  1873.  The  American  Presbyterian,  Episcopal,  Baptist,  and  Re- 
formed Missions,  together  with  that  of  the  American  Board,  united  to  form  a 
committee  of  one  from  each  mission,  for  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
Japanese,  which  began  its  work  in  June,  1874,  and  finished  the  translation  and 
revision  of  the  New  Testament  November  3,  1879.  Dr.  S.  R.  Brown,  of  the 
Reformed  Mission,  was  chairman  of  the  committee  ;  J.  C.  Hepburn,  M.D., 
LL.D.,  represented  the  Presbyterians  ;  Dr.  R.  S.  Maclay  the  Methodists ;  and 
Dr.  D.  C.  Greene  the  American  Board.  The  Gospel  of  Luke  was  printed  in 
August,  1875  ;  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  in  March,  1S76  ;  Hebrews  and  Mat- 
thew,^ January,  1877  ;  Mark,-  April,  1S77  ;  Epistles  of  John,  June,  1877  ;  Acts, 
September,  1S77  ;  Galatians,  January,  1S78;  Gospel  of  John,''  JNIay,  1878;  i 
Corinthians,  August,  1878;  2  Corinthians,  September,  1878;  Ephesians, 
Philippians,  and  i  and  2  Thessalonians,  June,  1879  ;  and  Philemon,  James, 
I  and  2  Peter,  Jude,  Colossians,  and  Revelation,  April,  1880.  So  that  the 
New  Testament  appears  under  the  sanction  of  a  committee  representing  most 
of  the  Protestant  missionaries  in  JajDan. 

In  a  country  where  Chinese  literature  has  had  such  an  influence  on  the  lan- 
guage, it  was  difficult  to  know  in  what  literary  style  the  translation  would  be 
most  useful;  but  the  translators  avoided  on  the  one  hand  the  quasi-Chinese 
style,  intelligible  only  to  the  highly  educated,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  vulgar 
colloquial,  v^^hich  would  make  the  work  contemptible,  and  chose  a  style  which, 
while  respected  by  the  literati,  was  intelligible  to  all  —  a  pure,  classical  Japan- 
ese style ;  and  the  result  shows  the  wisdom  of  their  choice. 

No  foreigner  could  make  an  idiomatic  translation  without  the  aid  of  a 
mative  scholar,  and  Mr.  Okuno,  Mr.  Takahashi,  Mr.  Miwa,  and  Mr.  Matsuyama 
were  the  native  assistants  in  the  work.  The  first  had  more  to  do  than  the 
•others  in  the  first  work  of  translation  till  other  duties  obliged  him  to  leave;  and 
whatever  value  there  is  in  the  text  is  mainly  owing  to  the  scholarly  ability  of 
the  last,  his  perfect  knowledge  of  his  own  language,  and  his  conscientious  care. 
Dr.  Hepburn  and  he  led  the  committee  in  thanksgiving  to  God  at  the  conclu- 

1  Revised.  -Revised.  s  Revised. 


BIBLE   TRANSLATIONS.  24! 

sion  of  their  labors  on  the  New  Testament.  Dr.  N.  Brown  also  made  a  version 
for  the  Baptists,  having  clone  a  like  work  before  in  Assam,  and  published  it 
some  months  previous  to  the  version  of  the  committee.  The  Old  Testament 
will,  doubtless,  be  rendered  into  Japanese  as  soon  as  possible.  Dr.  Greene  in 
1879  prepared  Bridgman  and  Culbertson's  Chinese  New  Testament  for  use  in 
Japan,^  the  same  as  the  Kunten  mentioned  below. 

The  American  Bible  Society  has  published  an  edition  of  the  Japanese  New 
Testament,  as  translated  by  the  committee,  in  Roman  type,  prepared  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Hepburn,  who  feels,  in  common  with  many,  that  there  is  im- 
perative need  of  reform  in  the  mode  of  writing  Japanese.  It  has  been  said 
that  ideographic  written  characters  are  a  great  obstacle  to  progress  in  China,  and 
the  same  burden  is  carried  by  Japan  in  her  swift  advance,  for  they  are  used 
in  that  empire  also.  A  printer  in  Yokohama,  who  had  metal  type  for  fifty 
thousand  Chinese  characters,  still  needed  to  cut  three  or  four  new  characters 

every  day.  A  man  who  knows  seven 
or  eight  thousand  characters  will 
find  reading  comparatively  easy; 
yet  even  he  will  often  need  the  dic- 
tionary, unless  he  is  content,  like 
many  of  the  Japanese,  to  guess  at 
the  meaning.  Few  among  the  work- 
ing classes  can  acquire  and  retain 
even  two  thousand  characters.  It 
is  safe  to  say  that  three  fourths  of 
the  adult  Japanese  cannot  read  the 
better  class  of  newspaper  editorials ; 
and  if  the  more  popular  papers  add 
^  ^^  '^^  phonetic   characters  to  explain  the 

others,  this  renders  their  pages  dis- 
tasteful to  scholars.  There  ought,  then,  to  be  a  phonetic  literature  for  those 
who  have  not  time  to  commit  to  memory  so  many  Chinese  characters.  Half 
of  the  time  now  vainly  spent  on  the  Chinese  characters,  if  given  to  the  study 
of  Roman  letters,  would  make  reading  a  delight  to  millions  who  now  regard  it 
as  an  odious  task. 

Besides  this  edition  in  Roman  type,  the  same  society  has  published,  or  is 
publishing,  four  other  stereotype  editions,  samples  of  which  are  given  :  (i)  is 
the  Kunten.  This  name  is  given  to  the  small  Japanese  phonetic  characters 
written  on  the  right  of  the  Chinese  ideographs,  to  give  the  termination  of 
Japanese  verbs  and  particles,  not  found  in  Chinese.  Then  certain  numerals 
and  arbitrary  signs  are  also  placed  on  the  left  of  the  column,  to  mark  the  Japan- 
ese order  of  thought.  The  Chinese  classical  version  of  Bridgman  and  Culbert- 
son  is  thus  translated  substantially  into  Japanese.  (2)  is  the  Katakana,  for 
the  use  of  scholars,  but  not  familiar  to  female  readers.  (3)  is  the  Hirakana, 
intended  for  those  more  dependent  on  phonetic  helps  ;  and  (4)  is  a  tentative 
edition,  in   which  the  Chinese  is  used,  and  always  in  subordination  to  the 

1  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn,  in  Bid/e  Society  Record,  iSSo,  pp.  81-84. 
16 


(4) 

(3) 

(2) 

(I) 

W  7C 

7C 

A  ill 

>5  m 

1/)    y] 

m 

5I 

242  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Hirakana.  It  is  written  on  one  side  of,  and  not  in,  the  column.  The  standard 
edition  is  printed  in  the  type  marked  (3).^ 

In  India^  Messrs.  G.  Hall  and  S.  Newell  commenced  a  version  in  Marathi, 
and  the  New  Testament  was  issued  before  Mr.  Hall's  death,  in  1826  ;  a  revised 
edition  was  printed  in  1831,  and  a  second  revision,  to  which  Rev.  H.  Eallan- 
tine  devoted  several  years  of  assiduous  labor,  appeared  in  1845.  The  Bible 
followed  in  1847,  and  a  thorough  revision  in  1855.  Two  years  later  saw 
another  revision,  and  in  1858  a  New  Testament  with  references  —  revised  again 
in  1868;  for  the  motto  of  our  missionaries  is,  "As  nearly  perfect  as  possible, 
and  still  more  perfect."  ^  Mr.  Ballantine's  revision  was  used  for  ten  years, 
and  was  the  basis  of  the  standard  version  now  in  use ;  Dr.  A.  Hazen  and 
others  being  prominent  in  its  preparation.  The  Old  Testament  has  also  under- 
gone careful  revision,  so  that  a  most  excellent  version  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  the  fifteen  millions  of  the  Marathi  people. 

Dr.  S.  B.  Fairbanks  furnishes  these  additional  facts:  Dr.  D.  O.  Allen  trans- 
lated the  books  of  Samuel  previous  to  1S46,  and  edited  the  larger  part  of  the 
first  comJ>/efe  edition  of  the  Bible,  1850-1852.  Mr.  Graves  was  a  careful  and 
exact  translator,  and  gave  the  best  part  of  his  missionary  life  to  that  work. 
He  always  used  a  common  word  if  there  was  one. 

Dissatisfied  with  the  New  Testament  then  in  use,  the  Ahmednuggur  mission 
published  another  translation  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts.  It  was  the  work 
chiefly  of  Mr.  Ballantine.  Then  Dr.  Hazen  took  up  the  work  of  revision,  and 
edited  the  Jubilee  edition  of  the  Bible,^  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  minor 
Epistles,  is  the  one  now  published  by  the  Bombay  Bible  Society.  Dr.  Hazen's 
edition  is  nearer  the  originals  than  any  other,  especially  in  the  New  Testament. 

The  Lord's  Prayer  in  Marathi  and  Gujerati,  in  two  different  types,  is  here 
given  as  a  specimen  of  those  languages. 

The  Tamil  version  is  pronounced,  by  competent  judges,  one  of  the  best  ver- 
sions to  be  found  in  any  language.  First  appearing  in  1S44,  a  revised  edition 
was  issued  in  1850,  and  on  that  Drs.  M.  VVinslow  and  L.  Spaulding,  both  accu- 
rate Tamil  scholars,  spent  many  years  of  unremitting  toil.  Few  will  ever  know 
how  much  time  and  strength  was  given  to  this  life-work,  or  how  much  the  in- 
creased perfection  of  different  editions  was  due  to  untiring  effort.  The  notes 
left  upon  it  are  a  valuable  legacy  to  future  revisers.  Dr.  Anderson  says  that  in 
accuracy,  conciseness,  elegance,  and  idiomatic  correctness,  it  is  a  great  advance 
on  anything  before  it.  The  Madras  Bible  Society  calls  it  the  standard  version. 
Rev.  G.  T.  Washburne  pronounces  it  truer  to  the  original  than  our  English 
version.     What  a  boon  to  the  almost  fifteen  millions  of  the  Tamil  people ! 

The  Nestorians  had  the  Bible  in  the  ancient  Syriac,  but,  as  modern  Syriac 
is  their  vernacular,  they  needed  a  version  in  that,  also.  When  the  mission  was 
established,  that  language  was  not  reduced  to  writing.  There  were  no  printed 
books,  and  but  few  manuscripts,  in  what  was,  to  them,  an  unintelligible  lan- 
guage. The  four  Gospels  were  translated  into  the  modern  Syriac,  and  printed 
in  Oroomiah,  in  1844,  and  the  whole  New  Testam.ent,  with  ancient  and  modern 

1  Dr.  David  C.  Greene,  in  Missionary  Herald  for  iSSi,  pp.  2S-29.  '  1868. 

"Dr.  Anderson's  hidia,  p.  109-110. 


u^  mk.     wr  BTrTrr^Ttrf  rrm*  q"*-?T^rf^  5#  f=EgT  ^rrc^  sirrfr. 

(J^lje  same,  in  small  t^pe. 

3TRrr5rr^  ?t#  T^t^w  ^?Fr  c^^r  =^r  ^rfr.     ^nr^  Trr%\TfTr%  ^vt  "^rir  ^- 
^r^  ^.     m^  i(b  ^Tfifr  ^ft^^  w^\^  mrim,  ^^  ^  ^fjt^f  ^^  ^FfTF^r  ^ft- 


€1S)C  ItotD'^  l^tapct,  in  <25ujctati. 

2iL^*  ^s-Ht^i  <in^L  ^uc-ii  2>iL6/  iS>in  5>iiH*   n  ^^'m  ia>i 
■^■nl  ^16/  n^i  H^Li^s.'H  n^i  '^(II'hi  xi^iiH^icn  s^Hi  ni^SL^i 

(l\]t  same,  in  small  tupc. 

^14  <5v>i  >>ii5si^i>ii  ci>i  H3,2{'-(l  H3,  cti(ii<l  ^--^i  m'^*  (t'nRi  <ln*ti 
^uc-ti  ^iT/  tt>\^  ^iH*  ^  <f/>i  ^>\  (§>ii?,i  ^Hi^i'^in  >ii!^  ^<l^--^^"=^ 

5,1  %*  ■»ni>{l*t* 


EIBLE    TRANSLATIONS. 


4J. 


Syriac  in  parallel  columns,  in  1846.  Before  the  close  of  1852,  the  entire  Bible' 
had  issued  from  the  press.  New  editions  of  the  New  Testament  appeared  in: 
1853  and  1854,  and  in  i860  the  Bible  with  references.  Dr.  Perkins,  who  was 
at  the  head  of  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  for  nearly  twenty  years,  also 
published  a  commentary  on  Genesis,  in  1867.  In  the  work  of  translation  he 
was  aided  by  the  revision  of  the  scholarly  Stoddard,^  and  the  fine  taste  and 
linguistic  attainments  of  Rev.  A,  H.  Wright,  M.D.,  who  received  the  formal 
thanks  of  the  mission  for  his  careful  revision  of  the  modern  Syriac  New  Testa- 
ment, and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  at  work  on  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  the  Tartar,  or  Azerbijan  Turkish. 

The  amiable  Stoddard  thus  writes  of  the  modern  Syriac  Bible  :  ^  "  That 
Bible  which  we  clasp  so  joyfully  to  our  hearts,  which  is  the  basis  of  our 
heavenly  hopes,  is  now  given  in  simple  language  to  the  entire  people.  It  is  to 
visit  their  rude  homes  and  sit  beside  them  in  their  daily  employment.  This  is 
a  work  which  cannot  die.  We  may  all  pass  away,  and  much  that  we  have  done 
be  forgotten ;  but  this  Bible  will  live  and  preach  to  young  and  old,  on  the  plain 
and  in  the  mountains,  and  bring  forth  the  fruits  of  righteousness  long  after  we 
slumber  in  the  dust.  Had  the  churches  of  America  conferred  on  the  Nes- 
torians  no  other  blessing,  this  one  thing  would  amply  repay  their  efforts." 

lord's    prayer    in    KOORMANJIE    KURDISH. 

Matthew  vi:g.  Ya  have  m^,  ko  tu  lu  «zman<?,  Nave  ta  pakuj 
bub^.  10  Hoonkar^t^a  ta  be.  Hostuna  ta  bub^,  chawa  ko  lu 
rt'zman,  oosaje  lu  sar  arde ;  1 1  Nane  mae  hame  rojan  ^ro  ju 
mara  huda.  12  Oo  daened  ma  ju  mara  harda,  chawa  ko  am]e 
b^zrdudun  ju  daendared  mara.  13  Oo  ma  maha  jarubandune 
le  m^  ju  hurab^e  azabuka,  chuma  ko  hoondkar£.'t^,  00  kawat  oo 
az(?t,  ya  t^^ya  ahade.     Amen. 

Pronunciation.  A,  as  in  far;  a,  as  in  fat;  e,  as  in  me;  e,  as  in  met;  z^,  as 
in  fur ;  o,  as  in  note  ;  and  00,  as  in  moon ;  ea,  ee,  ae,  ae,  and  ee,  pronounced 
separately  as  eo  in  meteor,  or,  as  having  the  mark  called  diaeresis. 

Notes.  Bave,  the  p  of  our  papa,  or  the  b  of  the  Turkish  baba,  is  softened 
into  its  correlate  v.  Azvazx\e  sounds  more  like  Zeman  =  time,  than  semaa  = 
heaven,  yet  the  final  n  must  be  an  addition  to  the  last.  Lu  seems  to  be  the 
preposition  1'  in  the  sense  of  in.  See  v.  10,  twice.  Nave  is  our  English  and 
German  name,  Latin  nomen,  French  noni,  with  the  m  softened  into  v. 

10.  Hoonkaret  seems  to  be  related  to  the  Turkish  Hoondikar,  one  of  the 
names  in  that  language  for  ruler.  Ta  here,  and  tu  in  verse  nine,  remind  us  of 
the  Latin  tuus,  tua,  and  English  thy.  Be  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  verb  boa 
=  to  come ;  and  bub^  may  be  a  form  derived  from  that,  in  the  sense  of  be- 
come. Chawa  is  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Assyrian  kma,  with  ??t  softened  into 
w.     Arde  is  the  Arabic  ard. 

11.  Nane  seems  related  to  the  Hebrew  nathan  =  to  give,  and  the  Assyrian 

^ Missiojuiry  Herald,  1S53,  p.  20S.  -Memoir,  p.  357. 


244  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

ifldin,  with  the  same  meaning.     Hame  is  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  yom,  Syriac 
yoma,  Assyrian  yamu. 

12.  Oo  is  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  S3Tiac,  and  Assyrian  wa  or  ve=and. 
Daened  and  Daendared  remind  one  of  the  Arabic  Deen  or  Deenet  =  a  debt, 
and  the  Hebrew  dan  =  to  judge  or  condemn.  Is  haix\a  bar  =  righteous,  and 
the  causative  d  ? 

13.  Is  hurabee  related  to  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  hharab  =  destruction,  or 
w^asteness,  desolation  ?  Kawat  is  the  Arabic  koowet ;  and  azat  is  the  Arabic 
izzat.  Abade  in  Arabic,  el  abadeh,  or,  as  it  reads  in  this  place,  "ila  el 
abadeh." 

Several  small  portions  of  Scripture  were  also  printed  in  the  language  of  the 
Kurds. 

The  Turkish  Bible  is  already  printed  in  the  Armenian  character  for  the 
Turkish-speaking  Armenians,  and  in  the  Arabic  character  for  the  Turks.  The 
Armenians  and  the  Bulgarians  have  it  also  in  their  own  languages.  The 
diversity  of  language  has  required  a  translation  of  the  Bible  for  each  of  the 
leading  races.  The  Arabic  is  spoken  not  only  in  Arabia,  but  also  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  Mesopotamia,  and  is  read  by  Moslems  from  western  Africa  to 
China,  and  from  central  Africa  to  Tartary.  A  translation  into  this  language 
gives  the  Word  of  God  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of  our  race. 
Oriental  churches  have  tried  to  do  this  at  different  times.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighth  century,  John,  Bishop  of  Seville,  translated  the  Vulgate  into 
Arabic,  The  four  Gospels  were  printed  at  Rome  in  1591,  in  a  translation 
from  the  Greek.  In  1616,  Erpenius,  at  Leyden,  issued  the  New  Testament, 
from  a  version  made  by  a  Coptic  bishop  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  1662 
the  Pentateuch,  in  Hebrew  letters,  from  a  translation  by  an  African  Jew  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  first  complete  Arabic  version  in  Europe  was  in  the 
Paris  Polyglot,  1645.  This  was  reprinted  in  England,  by  Walton,  in  his  Poly- 
glot, in  1657  ;  but  both  were  very  inaccurate.  A  Bible  was  printed  at 
Bucharest  in  1700,  and  the  Gospels  at  Aleppo  in  1706.  In  1727,  the  Chris- 
tian Knowledge  Society  published  the  New  Testament,  and  the  Polyglot  edi- 
tion was  reprinted  at  Newcastle,  England,  in  181 1.  But  the  Propaganda 
edition  of  1671  claims  special  notice,  as  it  was  the  only  version  that,  till 
recently,  could  be  circulated  in  the  East.  Undertaken  by  order  of  Urban 
VIII,  at  the  request  of  some  Oriental  bishops,  forty-six  years  were  consumed 
in  the  work  ;  but  the  result  did  not  justify  the  time  spent  on  it.  The  meaning 
of  the  Epistles  is  often  made  obscure,  and  their  doctrinal  statements  pointless. 
Much  of  the  Old  Testament  is  either  unmeaning  or  in  bad  taste,  and  the  whole 
is  neither  classical  nor  grammatical.  It  could  not  be  given  to  an  Arabic 
scholar  without  an  apology,  or  read  in  public  without  previous  revision. 

When  such  a  version  was  the  best  to  be  had,  a  new  one  was  needed. 
Rev.  C.  Schlienz  undertook  to  supply  the  need  at  Malta,  with  an  Arab  named 
Fares  for  an  assistant,  but  he  did  not  succeed.  Dr.  E.  Smith  devoted  the  last 
ten  years  of  his  life  to  the  work.  He  procured  the  best  philological  helps,  both 
printed   and    in    manuscript,  from    Europe    and    the    East.     The   best   native 


^>^ 


lotd's     ^ 


®  i'4/, 


^/ 


e?<_ 


MODERN    SYRIAC. 

!  ^  fio  ^S  v..^3  ;ii2   :  ;33oi^  ^  ^,?!?^  ^° 

:  f  X<..a3.jcXo      :  !\«mO 
:  ^^  i   :  pci  >^ 

.  ^2 


^^1 


^  ^^r^!^^ 
•v^^^^^^^ 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS.  245 

scholars  were  employed,  and  in  1848  his  preparation  was  complete.  At  his 
death,  in  1S57,  the  New  Testament  and  Pentateuch  were  nearly  ready  for  the 
press ;  seven  of  the  minor  prophets,  and  fift}'^-two  chapters  of  Isaiah ;  but  his 
standard  was  so  high  that  he  regarded  only  Genesis  and  Exodus,  with  ten 
chapters  of  Matthew,  as  really  finished.  After  his  death  the  work  was  com- 
pleted by  Rev.  Dr.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  whom  Providence  had  fitted  for  the 
place  by  his  wonderful  mastery  of  the  Arabic.  The  New  Testament  was  pub- 
lished early  in  i860,  and  the  whole  finished  in  August,  1864,  and  printed  in 
March,  1865.  So  great  was  the  demand  for  it  that  ten  editions,  containing 
forty  thousand  copies,  appeared  that  year.  The  accuracy  of  its  renderings,  the 
idiomatic  excellence  of  the  style,  and  even  the  beauty  of  the  type,  which  Dr. 
Smith  had  prepared  especially  for  it,  and  which  surpassed  all  that  had  gone 
before  as  much  as  the  translation  excelled  all  previous  effort,  made  it  popular 
among  all  classes,  so  that  even  the  Moslem  was  forced  to  commend  the  Bible 
of  the  Christian.  The  completion  of  the  great  work  was  celebrated  with  fitting 
services,  amid  general  rejoicing.  No  literary  work  of  the  century  exceeds  it  in 
importance,  and  it  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  best  translations  of  the 
Bible  ever  made. 

As  Rev.  S.  H.  Calhoun  has  beautifully  said  in  one  of  his  letters,  just  as 
Syria,  once  lighted  up  with  the  oil  made  from  her  own  olives,  is  now  illumi- 
nated by  oil  transported  from  America,  so  the  light  of  revelation  that  once 
burned  brightly  there,  lighting  up  the  whole  earth  with  its  radiance,  long  suf- 
fered to  go  out  in  darkness,  has  been  rekindled  by  missionaries  from  America, 
in  the  translation  of  her  own  Scriptures  into  the  spoken  language  of  her  present 
inhabitants.^ 

The  effect  of  its  distribution  was  as  marvelous  as  the  eagerness  to  obtain  it. 
It  is  undermining  error  on  all  sides,  and  vindicating  the  truth  from  all  misrep- 
resentation wherever  it  goes.  Voweled  Testaments  go  among  the  Moslems, 
Bibles  enter  the  convents,  and  copies  go  to  Liberia  on  the  west  and  Canton  on 
the  east. 

Ghubreen,  an  influential  Greek  ecclesiastic  in  Syria,  said  :  "  But  for  the 
American  missionaries  the  Word  of  God  had  well-nigh  perished  out  of  the  lan- 
guage; but  now,  through  the  labors  of  Eli  Smith  and  Dr.  Van  Dyck,  they  have 
given  us  a  translation  so  pure,  so  exact,  so  clear,  and  so  classical,  as  to  be 
acceptable  to  all  classes  and  all  sects."  ^ 

If  any  wonder  why  so  much  pains  should  be  taken  to  make  a  version  not 
only  accurate  but  idiomatic,  let  them  read  the  following  words  of  Luther  in 
1530:  "In  translating,  I  have  striven  to  give  pure  and  clear  German,  and  it 
has  verily  happened  that  we  have  sought  a  fortnight,  three,  four  weeks  for  a 
single  word,  and  yet  it  was  not  always  found.  In  Job  we  so  labored,  Philip 
Melancthon,  Aurogallus,  and  I,  that  in  four  days  we  sometimes  barely  finished 
three  lines."  Again  he  writes  :  "We  must  not  ask  the  Latinizers  how  to  speak 
German  ;  but  we  must  ask  the  mother  in  the  house,  the  children  in  the  lanes, 

'  See  Forei^^n  Missionary,  1S75. 

■  Annual  Report,  1866,  p.  102;  Missionary  Herald,  1S60,  p.  176. 


246  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

the  common  man  in  the  market-place,  and  read  in  their  mouths  how  they 
speak,  and  translate  accordingly.  Then  they  understand,  for  they  see  that  we 
are  speaking  German.  Take  that  word  of  Christ,  Matthew  xii :  34,  /.  c,  now 
should  I  follow  the  asses  ?  They  would  thus  translate  :  '  Out  of  the  super- 
abundance of  the  heart  speaks  the  mouth.'  Now  tell  me,  is  that  spoken  Ger- 
man.? No  German  would  say  that — for  'superabundance  of  heart 'is  no 
German,  any  more  than  superabundance  of  house,  superabundance  of  bench  — 
but  thus  speaks  the  mother  in  the  house  :  '  Whose  heart  is  full,  his  mouth  runs 
over.'  That  is  Germanly  spoken,  as  I  have  tried  to  do,  but,  alas !  not  always 
succeeded." 

The  following  words  from  the  venerable  Rev.  E.  Riggs,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  of 
Constantinople,  who  has  stood  at  his  post  in  Turkey  for  fort3^-eight  years,  are 
worthy  to  come  after  these  of  the  Reformer.  In  a  letter  to  the  writer,  dated 
August  5,  18S0,  he  raises  the  question,  "Why  does  a  missionary  require  eight 
or  ten  years,  at  least,  to  complete  a  translation  of  the  Bible  in  a  foreign  lan- 
guage ?     Let  the  candid  friends  of  the  Bible  consider  : 

"  First.  The  amount  of  matter  comprised  in  the  volume.  Let  him  count 
the  number  of  words  on  a  page,  multiply  it  by  the  number  of  pages,  and  then 
compare  the  amount  with  that  found  in  ordinary  volumes,  and  he  will  find  that 
he  has  in  the  Bible  a  library  rather  than  a  single  volume. 

"  Second.  The  conscientious  translator  cannot  give  a  hasty  or  superficial 
rendering,  or  one  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  any  commentator,  unless, 
after  thorough  investigation,  he  has  made  them  his  own.  Few  form  an  idea  of 
the  work  of  thoroughly  mastering  any  document  in  a  dead  language. 

"Third.  The  translator  of  the  Bible  must  not  only  be  master  of  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  and  Greek,  but  also  of  the  language  into  which  he  translates.  Is  it 
said  he  should  have  this  knowledge  before  he  begins  ?  I  reply  that,  however 
thorough  that  previous  knowledge  may  be,  experience  will  soon  show  him  that 
in  the  field  of  every  language  are  terrce  incog}iit(Z  which  he  must  explore  and 
map  out  before  he  can  go  on  with  confidence;  e.  g.,  names  of  trees,  plants,  ani- 
mals, and  gems  may  be  little  regarded  by  common  readers,  yet  the  translator 
cannot  neglect  them,  and  must  bestow  much  labor  to  form  a  decided  judgment 
as  to  the  meaning  of  the  original  words,  and  then  of  the  right  terms  to  express 
that  meaning  in  his  translation.  So  of  the  orthography  of  proper  names.  It 
would  be  a  blemish  if  the  same  name  were  spelled  in  four  or  five  different 
ways ;  yet  this  is  true  of  our  own  justly  esteemed  English  version.  To  secure 
the  right  spelling  of  proper  names,  a  complete  list  should  be  made  out  and  be 
at  hand  for  reference.  The  Old  Testament  contains  more  than  twenty-six 
hundred  such  names. 

"Fourth.  If  one  knows  a  foreign  language,  let  him  try  the  experiment  of 
translating  the  amount  of  a  page  in  the  Bible  from  that  language,  or  from  Eng- 
lish into  it.  Then,  after  some  days,  let  him  carefully  revise  it,  or  get  another 
familiar  with  both  languages  to  look  it  over  with  him,  so  as  to  secure  accuracy. 
Now  let  him  multiply  this  by  the  number  of  pages  in  the  Bible,  and  he  will 
know  something  of  the  time  needed  for  such  a  work.  Then  there  is  the  time 
required  for  comparing  the  different  parts,  in  order  to  secure  consistency  in 
the  renderincr  of  the  same  terms. 


BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS.  247 

"  Fifth.  Sometimes  tlie  strange  language  has  not  been  previously  used  for 
the  expression  of  Christian  ideas.  In  this  case  it  is  hard  to  set  a  limit  to  the 
labor,  investigation,  and  care  needful  to  secure  the  right  terms  for  these  ideas, 
and  avoid  those  that  would  be  misleading  and  injurious." 

It  may  deepen  our  impression  of  the  greatness  and  the  difficulty  of  the  work 
of  translating  the  Bible  into  a  foreign  language,  if  we  remember  that  while  at 
the  Reformation,  and  afterwards,  learned  men  in  Europe  rendered  it  into  their 
own  languages  that  they  had  used  from  childhood,  our  missionaries  are  called 
to  transfer  it  into  a  language  that  they  never  knew  till  they  had  reached  adult 
years,  and  in  some  cases  had  not  even  an  alphabet  till  they  gave  it  one. 

Then  the  very  words  of  a  language  are  so  contaminated  by  heathenism  that 
it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  find  terms  for  Christian  ideas.  The  Teloogoo 
Bible  unfortunately  employed  the  word  bailiox  sacrifice,  and  not  until  after  it 
had  been  in  circulation  some  time  was  it  discovered  that  that  term  denoted  "  a 
bloody  offering  to  a  malignant  deity ; "  while  in  the  Vedas,  yagna  meant  "  a 
sacrifice  to  a  propitious  God."  It  is  not  necessary  to  enlarge  on  the  mischief 
wrought  by  such  a  rendering.  No  one  can  read  the  article  of  Dr.  S.  W,  Will- 
iams, on  "The  Proper  Translation  of  the  words  'God'  and  'Spirit'  into  Chi- 
nese,"^ and  not  be  profoundly  impressed  with  the  magnitude  of  some  of  the 
difnculties  our  missionaries  meet  with  in  this  work. 

Then  every  translator  has  his  own  peculiar  difficulties.  Read  Dr.  Van 
Dyck's  account  of  the  labor  attending  his  translation  of  the  Old  Testament : 
"  In  the  first  place  it  must  be  carefully  made  from  the  Hebrew ;  then  compared 
with  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Maronites,  and  the  Septuagint  of  the  Greeks  ; 
the  various  readings  given,  and  in  difficult  places  the  Chaldee  Targums  must 
be  consulted,  and  hosts  of  German  commentators  ;  so  that  the  eye  is  constantly 
glancing  from  one  set  of  characters  to  another ;  then,  after  the  sheet  is  in  type, 
thirty  copies  are  struck  off  and  sent  to  scholars  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  even  Ger- 
many. These  all  come  back  with  notes  and  suggestions,  every  one  of  which 
must  be  well  weighed.  Thus  a  critic,  by  one  dash  of  his  pen,  may  cause  me  a 
day's  labor;  and  not  till  all  is  set  right  can  the  sheet  be  printed."^ 

Rev.  D.  C.  Greene  says :  "  We  have  been  surprised  to  find  that  the  Gospel 
of  John  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  books  in  the  New  Testament  to  render  into 
Japanese.  It  abounds  in  passages  which,  while  they  seem  natural  enough  in 
Greek  or  English,  would,  translated  literally,  almost  destroy  the  connection  of 
thought.  Even  the  long  involved  sentences  of  Paul  are  often  easier  to  manage 
than  the  seemingly  simple  statements  of  John."  ^ 

And  another  missionary  says  :  "The  Japanese  have  never  cultivated  their 
own  language,  but  spent  their  time  in  corrupting  the  Chinese.  No  one  here 
reads  a  Chinese  book  as  it  is  written.  It  has  to  be  translated  into  a  mongrel 
dialect  by  the  reader  as  he  goes,  and  the  Chinese  characters  shifted  about  in 
the  sentences  to  make  them  intelligible." 

Then  the  want  of  a  native  literature  increases  the  difficulty  of  translation. 
They  have  no  literary  standard  by  which  we  may  measure  the  adaptation  of 

"^ Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Vol.  XXXV,  pp.  n2-n?>.  -Bible  Society  Record,  1862,  p.  M/- 

3  Do.,  1S7S,  p.  57. 


248  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

our  work  to  meet  their  wants.  The  best  informed  among  themselves  are 
unable  to  agree  as  to  what  will  best  suit  the  people,  and  much  less  can  we 
decide  for  them.  An  intelligent  native,  who  had  devoted  himself  to  the  culti- 
vation of  his  own  language,  said  to  a  missionary  in  Yeddo,  that  he  hoped  the 
Bible  would  supply  this  need  of  his  countrymen.^ 

The  accompanying  specimen  is  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Japanese.  The  reader 
will  notice  that  where  a  Chinese  character  is  used  a  Japanese  one  is  placed  by 
the  side  of  it,  to  assist  the  reader.  The  Japanese  begin  at  the  right  hand  and 
read  each  column  from  top  to  bottom.  Though  this  type  occupies  so  much 
space,  the  same  sounds  printed  in  English  letters  would  occup}^  only  one  sixth 
of  it. 

Before  looking  at  Dr.  Goodell's  labors  as  a  translator,  it  is  well  to  read 
his  own  account  of  the  difficulties  he  encountered.  The  great  work  of  his  life 
was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Armeno-Turkish,  or  Turkish  written  in  the 
Armenian  character.-  His  attention  was  called  to  it  on  his  first  arrival  in 
Malta,  in  1823,  and  his  final  revision  was  completed  in  1863.  The  printing  of 
the  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  begun  at  Malta  in  1835,  ^"<^^  ^^ 
November,  1S41,  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  was  finished,  and 
printed  at  Smyrna.  A  second  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  also  printed 
there  in  1843.  After  he  went  to  Constantinople  ^  he  tried  to  carry  it  on  with 
other  missionary  work,  but  accomplished  next  to  nothing.  His  room  must  be 
a  study,  not  a  church ;  his  mind,  instead  of  being  distracted,  needed  to  be  com- 
posed, like  that  of  Elisha  and  the  inspired  writers  whose  words  he  would  trans- 
late ;  and  his  attention  strictly  confined  to  this  work  alone.  It  was  not  like 
giving  the  Gospel  at  first  to  the  heathen,  where  haste  is  more  needed  than 
accuracy,  and  a  more  critical  examination  of  difficult  passages  reserved  for  the 
future ;  but  it  was  giving  the  Scriptures  to  a  nation  that  had  them  in  two  lan- 
guages already,  though  neither  tongue  was  generally  understood,  and  the  more 
learned  of  the  people  were  more  ready  to  compare,  in  order  to  find  discrepancies, 
than  to  be  guided  into  the  truth.  In  some  cases  he  spent  more  time  on  a  single 
passage  than  he  should  have  employed  on  a  whole  chapter,  had  he  been  throwing 
out  to  a  starving  population  for  the  first  time  this  bread  of  heaven.  In  doing 
this  his  feelings  often  went  along  with  those  of  the  sacred  writers,  so  that,  when 
reading  a  page  alone  perhaps  for  the  seventh  time,  he  had  to  wipe  away  the 
tears,  or  offer  up  the  prayer  or  praise  of  which  his  heart  was  full.  He  said 
that  he  could  almost  wish  that  all  the  Lord's  people  were  translators,  that  they 
might  see  with  their  own  eyes  the  very  words  and  style 'in  which  God  expressed 
his  thoughts  to  man.  God's  Word  is  indeed  a  great  deep.  It  is  divinely  beau- 
tiful ;  it  is  fraught  with  the  riches  of  eternity. 

His  helpers,  when  they  learned  from  him  the  peculiar  idioms  of  the  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  insensibly  tried  to  conform  their  translation  to  it;  so  that  he 

1  B/i/e  Society  Record,  i?s-]i>,  pp.  53-54. 

2  Armeno-Tuikish  and  Greco-Turkisli  lequire  a  word  of  explanation.  Many  Armenians  and  Greeks  read 
tlieir  own  characters,  but  are  not  able  to  read  the  Arabic  letters  in  which  Turkish  is  usually  printed,  and  perhaps  a 
third  of  the  Armenians  have  lost  the  use  of  their  own  language,  and  tan  speak  only  Turkish.  To  accommodate 
Ihese  the  Bible  is  translated  into  Turkish,  but  printed  in  their  own  characters,  with  which  they  are  already  familial-. 

3  June  9,  1S31. 


THE    LORD'S    PRAYER    IN    JAPANESE,    TRANSLATED    BY 
AMERICAN    MISSIONARIES. 


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BIBLE    TRANSLATIONS. 


249 


needed  constantly  to  guard  against  that  tendency,  which  would  have  made  the 
work  of  little  use.  Then  he  put  parts  of  it  into  the  hands  of  men  in  various 
positions,  to  see  whether  the  style  was  intelligible.  Sometimes  he  did  the 
same  with  men  esteemed  as  scholars,  but  carefully,  so  as  not  to  get  the  style 
above  the  comprehension  of  the  masses.  His  proof-reading,  too,  cost  him 
sleepless  vigilance ;  for  he  found,  by  dear  bought  experience,  that  natives  could 
not  be  relied  on  for  accuracy ;  and,  after  all,  he  felt  that  he  only  approximated 
the  perfection  he  desired.^ 

In  the  early  part  of  his  work  Dr.  Goodell  was  aided  by  the  Armenian 
Bishop,  Dionysius  Carabet ;  and  later  his  most  efificient  helper  was  Panayotes 
Constantinides,  with  whom  he  was  associated  for  thirty  years.  Together  they 
revised  the  New  Testament  three  times,  and  the  Old  Testament  once.  "  We 
pressed  on  together,"  says  Dr.  Goodell,  "  returning  thanks  at  the  end  of  every 
chapter,  that  we  had  been  brought  so  far  together  on  our  journey;  but  his 
strength  failed  him  when  yet  there  was  but  a  little  further  to  go,  so  he  laid 
himself  down,  and  the  angels  carried  him  to  his  home  in  heaven."  On  the  day 
of  the  completion  of  the  work,  he  wrote  to  his  old  teacher  at  Andover,  John 
Adams,  LL.D.,  "Thus  have  I  been  permitted  by  the  goodness  of  God  to  dig  a 
well  in  this  distant  land,  at  which  millions  may  drink  ;  or,  as  good  brother 
Temple  would  say,  to  throw  wide  open  the  twelve  gates  of  the  new  Jerusalem 
to  this  immense  population." 

A  version  in  modern  Armenian  was  issued  in  several  editions,  for  those 
Armenians  who  still  use  their  ancestral  tongue.  Dr.  E.  Riggs  devoted  most  of 
his  time  to  its  preparation  and  revision  for  seven  years,  aided  at  first  by  Rev. 
J.  B.  Adger.  Dr.  Riggs  also  prepared  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  in 
ancient  Armenian,  and  in  Greco-Turkish.  Dr.  W.  G.  Schauffler,  aided  by  Rev. 
Mr.  Farnam,  of  the  London  Jews'  Society,  and  Rev.  Mr.  Schwartz,  of  Berlin, 
prepared  several  editions  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew-Spanish,  printed 
first  at  Vienna,  and  afterwards  at  Smyrna,  for  the  Jews  in  Turkey;  also  an 
edition  in  Hebrew-German.  After  the  giving  up  of  the  mission  to  the  Jews,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  preparation  of  a  version  in  the  Osmanli-Turkish,  which 
was  thoroughly  revised  by  Dr.  Riggs,  Rev.  A.  T.  Pratt,  M.D.,  until  his  death, 
and  Rev.  G.  F.  Herrick,  aided  by  a  missionary  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society.  In  this  they  had  also  the  cooperation  of  a  native  pastor  and  some 
learned  Moslems,  and  the  result  is  a  standard  version  in  the  Turkish  language, 
which  it  is  intended  shall  supersede  the  Greco-Turkish  and  Armeno-Turkish 
versions,  so  that  the  testimony  of  the  Word  may  be  the  same  in  all.  That  is, 
it  will  be  printed  in  Greek  letters  for  Greeks,  in  Armenian  characters  for 
Armenians,  and  in  Arabic  letters  for  Moslems  ;  for  the  process  of  assimilation 
has  gone  so  far  among  the  different  races  in  the  Turkish  empire,  that  it  is  no 
longer  needful  to  accommodate  the  different  dialects  that  once  existed,  caused 
by  the  use  of  different  languages  ;  but  all  can  understand  the  same  version,  and 
derive  more  advantage  from  the  present  uniformity  of  the  text,  than  from 
former  accommodation  to  their  provincialism.     The  version  which  thus  unifies 

1  See  his  letter  to  Rev.  S.  H.  Calhoun,  Nove.Tiber  6,  1841,  in  his  Memoir,  pp.  266-272. 


'■5° 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


the  language  of  the  empire  was  completed  May  25.  1S78,  and  the  event  was 
celebrated  by  appropriate  religious  services.     It  is  now  in  use. 

Previous  to  this,  another  very  important  version  was  prepared  for  the  Bul- 
garians in  European  Turkey.  Methodius  and  Cyril  gave  the  Bible  to  the 
Sclavs  in  their  own  language  one  thousand  years  ago  ;  but  the  Sclavic  is  no 
longer  a  spoken  language.  The  four  Gospels  translated  by  Seraphim,  of  Eski 
Zagra,  and  Sapoonoff,  of  Trevna,  was  published  at  Bucharest  in  1828.  In  1840 
n  native  version  of  the  New  Testament  was  published,  and  the  Old  Testament 
had  been  translated  by  Mr.  Constantine  Photinoff,  at  Smyrna,  who  died  just  as 
he  was  about  to  revise  it  with  Dr.  Riggs.  Since  then  the  language  itself  has 
undergone  a  change,  conforming  more  to  the  Eastern  dialect,  or  Sclavic,  which 
now  takes  precedence.  The  need  of  revision  was  so  manifest  that  even  the 
government  censor  encouraged  Dr.  Riggs  to  go  on.  Two  Bulgarian  scholars, 
skilled  in  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  dialects,  were  called  to  his  aid,  as  well 
as  Dr.  A.  L.  Long,  of  the  Methodist  mission.  Dr.  Riggs  devoted  to  this  version 
the  most  of  his  time  for  twelve  years;  the  first  edition  was  printed  in  an 
imperial  octavo  of  ten  hundred  and  fifty-four  pages,  with  the  references  of  our 
English  Bible,  and  at  the  first  annual  meeting  of  the  newly  organized  Bulgarian 
mission,^  Dr.  Riggs  laid  on  the  table  the  only  copy  that  had  come  from  the 
bindery  in  Constantinople.- 

Now  the  Bible  is  sold  all  over  the  Turkish  empire,  and  the  Bible  House  at 
Constantinople  is  quite  as  prominent  t/iere  as  either  the  Bible  House  at  New 
York  is  Aere,  or  as  the  one  in  London  is  in  Great  Britain.  The  Scriptures  are 
sold  there  in  more  than  twenty  languages,  and  infuse  new  life  into  both  litera- 
ture and  religion.^ 

1 1871.  "^ Missiotiary  Herald,  1872,  pp.  76-79. 

3  As  an  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  these  translations  find  their  way  to  the  people  for  whose  benefit  they 
were  made,  read  the  following  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  American  Bible  Society  for  iSSo: 
At  Constantinople  the  following  editions  left  the  press  in  1879  : 

5,000  copies  Imperial  Svo  Reference  Bible  in  Turkish  (Armenian  letter). 

1,000       "  "  "  "  "       "  Armenian  (from  plates). 

3,100       "      New  Testament  in  .Armenian  (from  plates). 
300       "      Imperial  Svo  Reference  Testaments  in  Turkish  (Armenian  letter). 

2,000       "      Psalms  in  Armenian. 

2,000       "      Proverbs  in  Armenian. 

1,100      "      Psalms  in  Armenian  (.Ancient). 

1,500       "      Proverbs  in  Turkish  (Osmanli). 

(,500       "      Job  " 

MaWnga  total  at  Constantinople  of  17,500  copies. 
At  Beirut  there  were  printed  : 

4,000  Bibles  in  Arabic. 

4,100  Testaments  in  Arabic. 

4,852  Portions  in  Arabic. 
Making  a  total  at  Beirut  of  12,952  copies. 

The  entire  production  of  these  two  centers  amounted  to  30,452  copies,  or  11,304  more  than  in  1S78. 
The  work  of  the  American  Bible  Society  [Annual  Report  for  iS8i]  in  the  Turkish  Empire  has,  under  the 
rbiessing  of  God,  seen  from  year  to  year  a  gradual  but  most  encouraging  increase.     The  following  tabulated  view  of 
statistics,  taken  from  the  reports  of  1S70,  1875,  and  18S0,  will  indicate  the  progress  in  each  period  of  five  years  : 

1870.  1S75.  1880. 

Books  printed S.ooo  22,500  35>2io 

Additions  to  stock 15. 594  24,552  50,080 

Circulation '7.554  27.483  40,123 

Colporters  and  booksellers 34  66  129 

Receipts  from  sales $5,098.60       $8,190.22     sJi2, 727.29 


BIBLE   TRANSLATIONS. 


251 


In  Africa  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  translated  into  Mpongwe  by  Rev,  W. 
Walker,  was  printed  at  the  Gaboon  River  in  1850.  The  Gospel  of  John, 
translated  into  the  same  language  by  Rev.  A.  Bushnell,  and  revised  by  Dr.  J. 
L.  Wilson,  was  printed  in  New  York  by  the  American  Bible  Society,  in  1852  ; 
i2mo,  144  pp.     As  a  specimen  of  it,  John  xv  :  1-5  is  here  appended  : 

EWONJO    XV. 

Mie  nle  ogale  reti,  nla  Reri  yam  nle  oma  o  penjavenja  wo. 

2  Ivare  yedu  gore  mie  ny'ayana  ilonda,  e  tomba  nyo  :  nl'ivare 
yedii  nyi  jana  ilonda,  e  senga  nyo,  inle  ;  nyi  ga  wunie  ilonda 
imienge. 

3  Vena  anuwe  re  pupu  nrigamba  ny'awulini  mie'niiwe. 

4  Loanlani  nla  mie,  ka  mie  nla'nuwe.  Ga  ntaga  ivare 
ny'alenge  ngulu  yi  jana  ilonda  nyome,  kao  nyi  doana  nl'ogale  : 
yena  re  ke  anuwe  ayana  ilonda,  kao  anuwe  doana  nla  mie. 

5  Mie  nle  ogali,  anuwe  nle  ampare'.  Omedu  o  doana  nla 
mie,  ka  mie  nla  ye,  oma  me  e  jana  ilond'  imienge';  kande  aza 
mie,  anuwe  lenge  ngulu  denda  mpongwa. 

Mr.  Walker  translated  the  book  of  Proverbs  into  Mpongwe  in  1853,  but  it 
was  not  printed  till  1859,  when  it  was  printed  in  New  York,  along  with  Genesis, 
Exodus  and  Acts,  under  Mr.  Walker's  supervision.  Paul's  Epistles  appeared 
at  New  York  in  1867.  A  third  edition  of  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles  of  Paul, 
Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Songs,  Daniel,  the  minor  Prophets,  and  Isaiah  i-xxix 
appeared  in  1879,  from  the  press  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  in  New 
York,^  and  from  that  edition  the  Lord's  Prayer  herewith  presented  is  taken : 

Reri  yazyo  yi  re  g'orowa,  ini  nya  nyi  ga  loanl'  orunda; 

2  Inlanga  nya  nyo  ga  vie ;  ntandinli  ya  yo  ga  yanjo  go  ntye 
ga  nte  dendo  yo  g'orowa. 

3  Va  zue  inya  si  keka  zue  nlanla  winla. 

4  Nyeza  zue  inuani  sazyo,  ga  nte  nyeza  zue  mengi  wi  nuana 
zue. 

5.  Arcianla  zue  gw'isyario,  ndo  romba  zue  avila  gw'ibe. 
Kande  ipanginla,  nli  ngulu,  nl'ivenda  iya  egombe  zodu. 
Amen. 

Matthew  and  a  few  of  the  Psalms  were  prepared  by  Mr.  Preston  in  the 
Dikele  language,  and  the  Gospel  of  John  was  printed  in  New  York  in  1879. 

The  American  Bible  Society  issued  from  its  press  in  New  York,  in  the 
Benga  language,  Matthew  in  1858,  Mark  in  186 1,  Luke  and  Genesis  in   1863, 

1  Letter  of  E.  W.  Gilman,  D.D. 


252  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

and  John  and  Acts  in  1864,  and  a  new  edition  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  in 
1881. 

Mr.  Preston  wrote  in  January,  1865/  "  I  know  nothing  of  printing  except 
what  I  have  taught  myself  here  in  Africa," — and  for  tools  he  had  only  an  old 
hand  press  and  ink  balls ;  but  the  Gospel  of  Luke  had  been  printed  and  sent 
to  New  York  to  be  bound ;  Mark  had  been  revised  and  printed ;  and  the 
Psalms  translated  by  Mr.  Walker  had  been  printed  as  far  as  Psalms  Ixv  :  10, 
In  what  language  this  work  was  done  he  does  not  say. 

The  Gospel  of  John  was  translated  into  the  language  of  the  Zulus  in  i860, 
and  printed  in  1861.  The  New  Testament  appeared  in  1865,  at  Natal,  a 
second  edition  in  1872,  and  a  third  in  1879  ;  the  two  books  of  Kings,  Ezra, 
Daniel,  and  the  minor  prophets  in  1868-1869.  The  report  of  the  Bible  Society 
for  1880  states  that  the  whole  Bible  in  the  Zulu  tongue  will  soon  be  complete. 

lord's    prayer    in    ZULU. 
Father   our    who    (art)   in    heaven.      Let     it     be     hallowed     name     thy, 
Ubaba    wetu    o    s'ezuluini,       Ma    li    dunyisiie    igama   lako, 
Kingdom     thy     let     it     come.        Will     thy     let     it     be      done      on      earth 
umbuso  wako  ma  u  ze,     Intando  yako  ma  y'enziwe  emhlabeni 
here        as        in        heaven.  Us       give       to-day       bread       daily       our. 

apa  jenga  s'ezuluini,  Si  pe  namhla  isinkua  semihla  setu, 
Us  forgive  sins  our,  like  as  we  them  forgive  those 
Si   yekele    izono    zetu,    jengokuba    tina    si    ba    yekela    bona 

who       sin       against       us.  Thou       not      us        lead        into        temptation, 

abonayo       ku         ti,  U        nga       si       zisi       eku-lingueni, 

but       us       deliver       from        evil.  For        kingdom        it        is        thine. 

kodua-  si    kulule    eku-oneni,       Gokuba   uiiibuso   u   ngo   wako 
and     power     it     is     thine,     and     glory     it     is     thine,     forever,     Amen, 
n'amanhla  a  nga  ako,  nobukosi  bu  ngo  bako,  kubengunapakade. 
Amen.^ 

As  a  specimen  of  the  changes  that  have  to  be  made  in  the  first  tentative 
translation  of  Scripture  after  missionaries  become  more  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  language,  the  version  of  the  same  prayer,  from  the  second  edition 
printed  at  Natal,  in  1872,  is  here  subjoined : 

I  Baba  wetu  o  sezulwini,  Ma  li  hlonitywe  igama  lako ; 
2  Umbuso  wako  ma  u  ze ;  Intando  yako  ma  yenziwe  em- 
hlabeni njenga  sezulwini ;  3  U  si  pe  nahmla  ukudhla  kwetu 
okwaneleyo  ;  4  U  si  tetelele  amacala  etu  njengokuba  si  ba 
tete-lela  aba  namacala  kiti ;  5  U  nga  si  ngenisi  ekuli-ngweni, 
kodwa  u  si  sindise  koku-bi ;  6  ngokuba  umbuso  u  ngowako 
namandhla,  nobukosi,  ku  ze  ku  be  pakade.     Ameni. 

'  A  nmial  Report  of  A  vierkan  Board,  1S65,  p.  59. 

-'Rev.  James  C.  Bryant,  in  Jviirna.1 0/ the  A  vtericau  Ori.iital  Society,  Vcl.  I,  pp.  3<J3-304- 


BIBLE   TRANSLATIONS.  253 

Since  this  chapter  was  stereotyped,  a  page  of  the  new  Ponapean  (or  Caro- 
line Islands)  version  has  come  to  hand,  which  is  here  subjoined  : 

MONIN  PA.\''  MATU  RON  A  MA  U. 
[MATTHEW   I:   1-6,    9-18,    EDITION   OF    iSSl.] 

Puk  en  uatauatak  apena  ti  kan  me  tapia  ta  Jijoj  Kraij  me 
nain  Tepit,  me  nain  Epream. 

2  Epream  me  uia  ta  Aijak;  Aijak  me  uia  ta  Jekop;  o  Jekop 
me  uia  ta  Jutaj  o  ri  a  kan ; 

3  Jutaj  me  uia  ta  Pare]  o  Jara  nain  Temar ;  Parej  me  uia  ta 
Ejrom  ;   Ejrom  me  uia  ta  Aram  ; 

4  Aram  me  uia  ta  Aminatap  ;  Aminatap  me  uia  ta  Naajon  ; 
Naajon  me  uia  ta  Jalmon ; 

5  Jalmon  me  uia  ta  Paaj ;  nain  Rekap;  Poaj  me  uia  ta  Opet 
me  nain  Rut ;  Opet  me  uia  ta  Jeji ; 

6  Jeji  me  uia  ta  Tepit  me  Nanmaraki ;  Tepit  Nanmaraki 
me  uia  ta  Jolomon,  me  nain  li  oti  en  Uraioj. 

9  Ojaia  me  uia  ta  Jotam ;  Jotam  me  uia  ta  Eaj ;  Eaj  me  uia 
ta  Ejikaia ; 

10  Ejikaia  me  uia  ta  Manaja;  Manaja  me  uia  ta  Emon  ; 
Emon  me  uia  ta  Jojaia; 

1 1  Jojaia  me  uia  ta  JeI<:onaia  o  ri  a  kan,  nin  tokan  ar  jalia  ue 
on  Papilon; 

12  Irail  jalia  ue  on  Papilon,  muri,  Jekonaia  me  uia  ta  Ja- 
letiel;  Jaletiel  me  uia  ta  Joropepel; 

13  Joropepel  me  uia  ta  Apaiot ;  Apaiot  me  uia  ta  Elaiakim; 
Elaiakim  me  uia  ta  Ejor; 

14  Ejor  me  uia  ta  Jetok;  Jetok  me  uia  ta  Ekim  ;  Ekim  me 
uia  ta  Eliot; 

15  Eliot  me  uia  ta  Elieja;  Elieja  me  uia  ta  Matan ;  Matan 
me  uia  ta  Jekop ; 

16  Jekop  me  uia  ta  Jojep,  me  likont  aoki  la  Meri,  me  naitika 
ta  Jijoj,  me  mmaranaki,  Kraij. 

17  Ti  kan  jo;^  Epream  lei  Tepit  me  ek  paiu,  A  jo?^  Tepit  lei 
ar  jalia  ue  oji  Papilon  me  ek  paiu,  A  ]on  ar  jalia  ue  on  Papilon 
lei  Kraij  me  ti  ek  paiu. 

18  Nan  iet  tuen  Jijoj  Kraij  a  ipui  tar:  In  a  Meri  me  kijinnin 
io7^  Jojep,  ni  ara  kaik  ata  ko  pena,  a  lijean  aki  tar  yVen  Jaraui 


254  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

The  following  article,  written  for  the  Presbyterian  Board  by  the  late  Mrs.  S. 
Wells  Williams,  who  spent  a  number  of  years  with  her  husband  in  China,  has 
just  come  to  hand  ;  and  as  it  is  among  the  last  things,  if  not  the  very  last,  that 
came  from  her  pen,  it  is  here  condensed  as  a  postscript  to  this  chapter,  though 
some  of  the  facts  have  already  been  narrated : 

The  preparation  of  an  accurate  version  of  the  Bible  in  the  Chinese  language  has  engaged 
the  attention  of  many  missionaries  since  a  very  early  period.  The  translations  of  the  Nesto- 
rians,  during  their  residence  in  China  for  nearly  eight  hundred  years,  have  not  reached  us ; 
but  it  is  unwise  to  infer  that  they  did  nothing  in  this  direction,  for  how  else  could  they  have 
taught  the  messages  of  their  God  and  Saviour  to  a  literary  people.  The  Roman  Catholics, 
who  came  to  China  about  three  hundred  years  ago,  have  had  many  learned  and  earnest  men  in 
their  missions,  some  of  whom  have  turned  their  attention  to  a  translation  of  the  Bible.  The 
portions  which  are  found  in  their  Missals  were  translated  soon  after  gathering  congregations ; 
and  as  early  as  1636,  one  of  them  published  a  careful  version,  with  comments,  of  all  the  por- 
tions read  on  Sundays  and  feast-days.  Others  of  them  prepared  similar  treatises  for  their  con- 
verts; but,  though  often  proposed,  none  of  the  hundreds  of  their  missionaries  in  China  have 
ever  put  into  the  hands  of  their  disciples  a  complete  version  of  the  Bible.  One  is  said  to  have 
been  made  about  1700.  The  New  Testament  was  used  in  Ripa's  College  at  Naples  a  hundred 
years  ago,  where  young  Chinese  were  educated  for  the  priesthood.  A  number  of  manuscript 
copies  of  this  or  other  versions  are  probably  extant,  but  no  encouragement  is  ever  given  to 
printing  and  distributing  the  Word  of  God  among  the  thousands  of  native  Catholics  in  China. 

The  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  by  Protestants  has,  however,  excited  the  oj^position  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Bishops,  who  have  issued  their  orders  to  the  faithful  not  to  read,  keep,  or 
lend  such  publications,  but  to  burn  them  immediately.  Still,  copies  are  constantly  coming  into 
the  hands  of  their  people. 

The  following  extract  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society's  Report  for  1805  shows 
the  first  steps  taken  in  regard  to  Protestant  versions  :  "  Having  been  informed  that  a  manu- 
script version  of  the  New  Testament  in  Chinese  was  deposited  in  the  British  Museum,  your 
Committee  were  led  to  hope  that  it  might  afford  the  means  of  introducing  divine  truth  into  the 
Chinese  empire.  They  sought,  therefore,  to  procure  from  gentlemen  conversant  with  the  Chi- 
nese language,  the  most  accurate  information  respecting  the  manuscript."  They  also  applied 
to  Sir  George  Staunton  for  his  opinion  on  the  practicability  of  circulating  the  Scriptures  in 
China,  as  well  as  the  proper  channel  through  which  it  should  be  attempted,  and  came  to  the 
following  results :  First,  that  the  manuscript  contained  a  harmony  of  the  four  Evangelists,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Epistles,  as  far  as  that  to  the  Hebrews.  Secondly,  that  although 
the  translation  may  be  considered  accurate,  and  of  elegance  superior  to  any  known  Chinese 
translation  from  European  languages,  it  appears  to  have  been  made  from  the  Vulgate,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Jesuits ;  and,  thirdl)-,  that  the  expense  of  printing  five  thousand  copies  would 
exceed  six  thousand  pounds.  Considering  all  the  circumstances,  therefore,  the  "Committee 
determined  not  to  print  the  manuscript." 

In  the  second  report  of  the  Bible  Society,  in  1806,  they  state  :  "  That  a  commencement  has 
been  made  at  Seramporc,  in  translating  the  Scriptures  into  the  Chinese  language,  with  advan- 
tages unattainable  in  this  country."  This  was  undertaken  by  Dr.  Marshman  and  his  son,  with 
the  assistance  of  Mr.  Lassar,  an  Armenian,  who  had  studied  Chinese  at  Macao.  These  gen- 
tlemen labored  earnestly  to  accomplish  the  good  work  under  great  difficulties.  At  first  the 
printing  was  all  done  from  blocks,  but  in  1812  Cary,  Marshman,  and  Ward,  say,  in  a  letter  to 
the  Bible  Society:  "  We  are  revising  a  third  time  the  Gospel  of  John  in  Chinese,  with  a  view 
to  having  it  printed  with  movable  metallic  types,  by  which  we  believe  we  shall  excel  the 
Chinese  themselves  in  beauty  of  printing,  while  the  expense  will  be  reduced  almost  beyond 
belief."  By  the  labor  of  Dr.  Marshman  principally,  aided  by  competent  Chinese  assistants,  the 
whole  Bible  was  completed  in  1S20,  and  printed  in  1S22,  at  Serampore.  This,  which  was  the 
first  known  version  of  the  Scriptures  in  Chinese,  must  rank  as  not  the  least  among  the  multi- 
farious labors  of  the  devoted  and  scholarly  Marshman,  sixteen  years  having  been  spent  in  its 
production.  The  version  is  rude  and  unidiomatic,  as  most  first  versions  in  Oriental  languages 
necessarily  are;  but  it  has,  doubtless,  been  useful  in  promoting  the  great  object  of  missions. 


r.IBLE    TRANSLATIONS.  25^ 

Soon  after  this  translation  was  commenced,  tlie  London  Missionary  Society  deteiniined  to 
open  a  mission  in  China,  and  appointed  R.  Morrison  as  their  first  missionary,  in  1804.  The 
manuscript  spoken  of  above  was  put  into  his  hands,  and  with  the  assistance  of  Yung  Sam-tak, 
a  Chinese  then  in  London,  he  transcribed  the  whole.  This  formed  the  basis  of  his  future 
work.  So  little  favor  did  this  mission  receive  from  the  East  India  Company,  ):hat  Morrison 
was  refused  a  passage  in  their  ships,  and  had  to  proceed  to  New  York,  whence  he  arrived  in 
Canton  September  4,  1S07.  From  that  time  he  set  himself  to  complete  liis  translation.  Many 
of  the  gentlemen  of  the  East  India  Company  at  Canton  looked  with  jealousy  on  the  work, 
while  others  were  favorable.  The  remarks  of  Mr.  Robarts,  its  chief,  on  his  death-bed,  are 
worthy  of  the  representative  of  a  Christian  nation  :  "  I  see  not  why  your  translating  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  into  the  Chinese  language  might  not  be  avowed  if  occasion  called  for  it;  we  could 
with  reason  answer  the  Chinese  thus :  This  volume  we  deem  the  best  of  books ;  Mr.  Morrison 
happened  to  be  able  and  willing  to  render  it  into  your  language,  that  it  may  be  accessible  to 
vou ;  your  approval  or  disapproval  rests  entirely  with  yourselves  ;  we  conceive  he  has  done  a 
good  work." 

Dr.  Morrison  toiled  single-handed  till  the  summer  of  1813,  when  Rev.  W.  Milne  arrived. 
The  two  friends  continued  the  work  of  translating  the  Bible,  each  taking  separate  books, 
and  the  whole  passing  through  the  revising  hand  of  Morrison.  Their  work  Vvfas  finished 
in  1823,  but  before  it  was  published.  Dr.  Milne  died,  in  June. 

Next  year  the  work  was  printed,  two  years  after  Dr.  Marshman's.  It  was  the  result  of 
seventeen  years  of  close  application  and  prayer.  Though  Dr.  Morrison  never  gave  it  out 
as  a  perfect  translation,  we  cannot  too  highly  value  the  efforts  of  these  two  men ;  and  while  it 
cannot  rank  high  among  the  literary  productions  of  the  empire,  it  is  faithful,  and  we  have  rea- 
son to  believe  has  been  instrumental  in  shedding  the  light  of  divine  truth  on  the  minds  of 
many  readers. 

About  the  year  1826,  Dr.  Morrison,  impressed  with  the  importance  of  its  thorough  revision, 
entered  into  a  correspondence  with  Rev.  W.  H.  Medhurst,  who  had  been  about  ten  years  in 
the  Chinese  mission,  and  asked  him  to  join  in  a  new  translation.  Dr.  Medhurst,  doubting  his 
own  proficiency  at  that  time,  and  feeling  that  Dr.  Morrison  was  the  fittest  person  for  the  work, 
gave  up  all  idea  of  it.  Still,  the  deficiencies  in  the  style,  and  obscurities  in  the  meaning  of  the 
translation,  led  the  missionaries  to  urge  a  revision.  Its  importance  Dr.  Morrison  fully  con- 
curred in,  and  it  had  been  already  arranged  that  his  son  should  undertake  the  revision,  and  the 
American  Bible  Society  had  made  provision  for  sustaining  the  son  in  the  undertaking,  when 
the  death  of  his  father  disarranged  the  plan. 

Soon  after  this,  a  new  translation  was  made  by  Mr.  Medhurst,  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  and  Mr.  E.  C. 
Bridgman,  who  completed  the  New  Testament  by  the  end  of  1835.  ^^  ^^'^^  ^^^  o"^y  version 
used  by  the  Protestant  missionaries  for  the  next  ten  or  twelve  years. 

By  the  treaty  of  Nanking,  in  1842,  five  ports  were  opened  to  foreign  residents,  and  the 
island  of  Hong  Kong  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  Most  of  the  missionaries  who  had  before 
resided  in  the  outlying  stations  removed  to  the  newly  opened  ports.  Shortly  after,  at  a  con- 
ference held  in  Hong  Kong  by  all  the  missionaries  of  the  three  denominations  then  in  the 
field,  it  was  resolved  to  attempt  a  new  version.  Four  societies  were  represented,  one  English, 
two  American,  and  one  local.  The  result  of  six  meetings  was  the  allotment  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  five  portions,  to  the  different  missionaries  at  their  respective  ports,  subject  to  a  final 
revision  in  concert.  A  general  committee  of  delegates  met  at  the  house  of  Dr.  Medhurst,  in 
Shanghai,  in  June,  1847.  The  work  was  continued,  with  some  interruptions,  till  July,  1S50, 
when  the  New  Testament  was  completed.  It  was  soon  after  printed  with  the  imprimatur  of 
the  five  delegates  —  Boone,  Medhurst,  Bridgman,  W.  C.  Milne,  and  J.  Stronach.  This  admir- 
able translation,  known  as  the  Delegates'  Version,  was  in  the  classical  style,  and  has  since 
been  extensively  circulated. 

Soon  after  this,  a  revision  of  the  Old  Testament  was  commenced,  but,  owing  to  a  division 
among  the  members,  the  committee  separated,  and  the  result  was  two  versions.  One,  carried 
through  by  the  English  missionaries,  Messrs.  Medhurst,  Milne,  and  Stronach,  was  uniform  in 
style  with  the  Delegates'  Version.  The  other  was  issued  about  the  same  time  (1S62),  by  Ers. 
Bridgman  and  Culbertson,  American  missionaries.     It  made  the  fourth  translation  of  the  Bible 


256  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

into  the  Chinese  language ;  a  fifth  had  been  previously  made  and  printed  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  who 
circulated  it  mostly  in  the  province  of  Kwangtung.  Dr.  Marshman's  translation  had  been 
chiefly  used  by  the  Baptist  missionaries  in  China.  It  was  revised,  however,  by  the  Rev.  Josiah 
Goddard.  The  New  Testament  was  completed  and  printed  by  him  in  1S53.  The  following 
year  he  died  at  Ningpo,  and  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  has  since  been  carried  on  by 
l^r.  Dean,  of  Bangkok. 

A  committee  was  engaged  for  six  years  on  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  collo- 
quial language  called  the  Mandarin  dialect.  This  was  published  in  1872.  The  Old  Testament, 
in  the  same  dialect,  was  translated  by  Mr.  (now  Bishop)  Schereschewsky,  of  the  American 
Episcopal  Church,  and  published  in  1S74;  it  made  the  last  of  six  complete  versions  of  the 
Bible  which  have  been  made  into  the  Chinese  language.  Its  general  acceptance  is  proved  by 
the  great  number  purchased  by  the  people.  In  style,  idiom,  and  diffusiveness  of  expression,  it 
approaches  the  spoken  language  more  than  the  Delegates'  Version,  and  is,  therefore,  more 
easily  understood  by  the  common  people,  who  have  only  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  higher 
style  of  their  own  literature. 

In  addition  to  these  versions,  the  missionaries  in  the  southeastern  provinces  of  Kwang- 
tung, Fuhken,  and  Chehkiang,  have  prepared  ether  translations  in  the  local  dialects.  At 
Ningpo  and  Amoy,  these  translations  have  been  written  in  what  is  known  as  Romanized  char- 
acters ;  at  Shanghai,  Fuhchau,  Swatow  and  Canton,  the  Chinese  characters  have  been  used, 
and  the  copies  widely  circulated.  These  translations  are  quite  a  novelty  in  the  native  litera- 
ture, for  the  cultivated  scholars  never  think  of  writing  a  book  in  the  bii-pah  or  pak-wa,  th^ 
patois  of  a  place;  hardly  a  specimen  of  such  compositions  existed  in  all  these  six  dialects 
when  the  versions  of  the  New  Testament  appeared.  There  is  now  no  legal  hindrance  to  the 
circulation" of  God's  Word  throughout  the  eighteen  provinces  of  China,  and  in  all  of  them 
copies  now  come  into  the  hands  of  persons  of  every  class. 


XV. 
RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS. 


Missionaries  have  unusual  facilities  for  learning  the  religious  beliefs  of  the 
people  among  whom  they  labor,  and  we  give  a  brief  compend  of  papers  written 
by  several  of  them  on  this  subject.  The  first  is  an  account  of  the  religious 
ideas  of  the  Dakotas,  by  Rev.  A.  L.  Riggs.^ 

The  essence  of  a  Dakota's  religion  is  demon  worship.  His  faith  rests  not 
so  much  in  his  gods  as  in  a  mysterious  something  embodied  in  them,  which  he 
calls  Wakan.  This  word  represents  all  mystery,  occult  power,  and  Deity.  To 
him  all  life  is  Wakan,  whether  active  as  the  winds  and  running  waters,  or 
passive  as  the  boulder  rock.  He  is  oppressed  by  the  feeling  that  while  all 
about  him  is  beyond  his  control,  or  even  comprehension,  he  himself  is  exposed 
to  all  evil.  All  nature,  streams,  lakes,  hills,  forests,  and  plains  are  to  him  full 
of  awful  mystery.  The  heavenly  bodies  look  down  on  him  in  silent  awfulness. 
The  game  which  he  pursues,  to-day  eludes  him  with  a  quasi  human  cunning, 
and  to-morrow  seems  bereft  of  instinct ;  so  he  regards  with  awe  even  the  dead 
beast  that  lies  before  him.  He  sees  one  man  struck  down  suddenly,  and 
another  die  of  lingering  decay,  and  again  he  feels  the  power  of  the  Wakan. 
To  him  heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  malignant,  warring  demons,  and  he  is  a 
slave  to  the  Wakan.     The  following  are  the  principal  gods  of  the  Dakotas : 

First.  The  Oon-ktay-he,-  representing  the  most  powerful  vital  force,  having 
the  forms  of  oxen,  whose  horns  and  tails  —  the  organs  of  their  power — reach 
the  skies.  Like  all  their  gods,  these  are  male  and  female,  the  male  dwelling 
in  the  water,  and  the  female  in  the  earth ;  so  when  the  Dakota  seems  to  worship 
earth  and  water  he  really  worships  these.  One  of  them,  he  believes,  dwells 
under  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony,  in  a  den  of  vast  extent. 

Second.  The  VVa-ke-yan."  These  are  monster  birds ;  the  lightnings  are 
the  movements  of  their  wings,  and  the  thunders  their  voice.  Of  these  there 
are  two  sexes  and  four  varieties  —  one  blue  and  spherical  in  form,  with  neither 
eyes  nor  ears  ;  lines  of  lightning  form  their  eyebrows,  and  from  under  them 
shoot  downward  chains  of  fire.  The  palace  of  these  gods  is  on  the  top  of  a 
high  mountain,  its  gates  open  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass.  A  butterfly 
sentinels  the  eastern  entrance,  a  bear  the  western  •  a  reindeer  guards  the  north, 

^  Gospel  A  iiiong;  the  Dakotas,  pp.  54-103.  -  Gods  of  the  waters.  ^  Thunder  gods. 

17  (257) 


258  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

and  a  beaver  the  south.      These  gods  are  the  gods  of  war,  cruel,  destructive, 
and  ever  on  the  war-path.     They  are  the  deadly  foes  of  the  Oon-ktay-he. 

Third.  The  Ta-koo-shkan,'  invisible,  omnipresent,  ruling  mind  and  passion. 
He  can  make  man  a  beast,  and  vice  versa.  He  rejoices  in  human  suffering  and 
death.  His  symbol  is  the  boulder,  also  the  consecrated  spear  and  tomahawk, 
and  his  home  the  four  winds.     The  raven,  buzzard,  and  wolf  follow  in  his  train. 

Fourth.  The  Toon-kan,^  dwelling  in  stones.  The  Dakota  paints  a  round 
paving  stone  red,  puts  swan's  down  on  it,  and  then  prays  to  the  god  who  takes 
possession  of  it.  Compare  Isaiah  Ivii :  6,  and  similar  stones  worshiped  by 
some  tribes  in  India. 

Fifth.  The  Ha-yo-ka."  Of  these  there  are  four  varieties,  all  armed  with 
bow  and  arrow  and  deer-hoof  rattles  charged  with  electricity.  One  set  carries 
a  drum,  using  a  miniature  Wa-ke-yan  as  a  drumstick.  One  of  them  reveals 
himself  in  the  gently  whirling  wind  that  just  stirs  the  grass  on  the  prairie  or 
the  dry  leaves  in  the  woods.  These  gods  express  joy  by  groans,  and  pain  by 
songs.  Heat  makes  them  to  shiver,  and  cold  to  perspire.  When  the  mercury 
congeals  they  shield  themselves  from  the  sun  and  fan  themselves,  but  in  July 
thev  bury  themselves  in  furs,  and  shake  with  the  cold.  They  feel  safe  in  peril, 
and  quake  in  its  absence.  With  them  good  and  evil,  truth  and  falsehood  are 
reversed,  and  their  aid  is  sought  in  amorous  intrigues.  Their  worshipers 
meet  in  a  lodge,  nearly  naked,  wearing  conical  hats,  sing  and  dance  round  a 
pot  full  of  boiling  meat,  snatching  pieces,  which  they  bolt  at  once,  throwing 
the  boiling  water  over  their  bodies,  complaining  that  it  is  cold.  The  skin, 
however,  has  been  previously  deadened  by  rubbing  with  sorrel. 

Sixth.  The  sun  and  moon.  The  moon  is  regarded  as  the  representative 
of  the  sun  ;  and  though  they  do  not  look  on  him  as  malignant,  they  worship 
him  by  making  an  incision  in  the  muscles  of  the  breast  and  arms,  suspending 
themselves  by  cords  attached  at  one  end  to  the  top  of  a  tall  pole,  and  at  the 
other  to  the  muscles  which  they  cut  [compare  hook-swinging  in  India]  ;  so 
without  food  or  drink  they  remain  hanging  for  days,  fixing  their  minds  on  the 
object  they  seek,  and  waiting  for  a  vision  from  above.  Others  cut  into  the 
muscles  of  the  back  and  hang  buffalo  heads  to  them  by  hair  ropes,  which  jerk 
the  wounded  part  as  they  iBOve  in  the  dance.  Sometimes  skewers  are  passed 
under  the  muscles  and  the  cords  attached  to  both  ends  of  them  ;  then  they 
pull  till  either  skewer  or  muscle  breaks,  or  till  the  same  result  is  produced  by 
the  jerking  of  the  heavy  heads  in  dancing,  while  the  eye  faces  the  sun  unflinch- 
ingly, waiting  for  the  vision. 

Seventh.  The  armor  gods.  These  are  the  tutelar  deities  assigned  to  young 
men  on  coming  of  age,  and  residing  in  their  consecrated  armor  ;  consisting  of  a 
spear,  an  arrow,  and  a  small  bundle  of  paint,  which  is  a  sacred  thing,  and  all- 
powerful  to  control  their  future  destiny.  Similar  is  the  eighth,  the  spirit  of  the 
medicine  sack,  conferred  on  initiation  into  the  order  of  the  sacred  dance.  The 
Dakotas  have,  also,  penates  in  the  form  of  a  human  image  enclosed  in  a  round 
wooden  box  and  enveloped  in  sacred  swan's  down. 

Ninth,  and  last,  is  the  Wa-kan-tan-ka.*     This  is  sometimes  rendered  Great 

1  The  moving  gnd.  -  Stone  god.  ■''■  The  aiui-iiatural  gods.  <  Great  Wakan. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  259 

Spirit,  but  he  is  the  least  and  most  recent  of  their  gods,  not  worshiped  or 
mentioned,  only  before  white  men.  The  word  itself  is  not  primitive,  but  deriva- 
tive, like  others  devised  to  designate  objects  unknown  till  recently.  They  sup- 
pose that  the  white  man's  Wakan  must  be  greater  than  theirs,  and  hence  the 
term.     There  are  other  gods  besides  these,  but  these  may  suffice. 

Their  most  primitive  mode  of  worship  is  the  making  of  offerings ;  as  on 
recovery  from  sickness  they  offer  a  piece  of  red  cloth,  or  a  few  skins.  Some- 
times a  pan  or  kettle  is  dedicated  for  a  time.  Red  paint  is  used  for  offerings  ; 
so,  also,  is  blue.     No   worship  is  complete  without  the  sacred  application  of 

paint.  Swan-down  colored 
scarlet,  is  also  needful  in  - 
offerings.  Tobacco  and  to- 
bacco smoke  are  also  offered, 
the  mouth-piece  of  the  pipe 
being  turned  toward  the  god, 
or  smoke  blown  on  his  image. 
A  dog  is  counted  an  accept- 
able offering.  Food  is  often 
offered  to  the  spirits  of  the 
dead,  and  if  left  on  the  grave 
becomes  public  property.  A 
Wakan  feast  is  often  made  to 
the  gods ;  invited  guests  eat 
it,  but  the  offerer  may  not 
share.  The  drumming  and 
singing  that  precedes  such  a 
feast  belongs  to  the  worship. 
Particular  parts  of  each  ani- 
mal killed  in  hunting  are 
offered  to  the  gods ;  as  the 
head  or  heart  of  a  deer,  the 
wing  or  head  of  a  duck. 

Another  prominent  idea  in 
their  worship  is  purification, 
^■■",^,^^      ^-^    ^::r~~~^  and  this  is  effected  by  the  E'^ 

THE  MEDICINE  MAN.  HBc  pcc,^  whlch  Is  produced 

by  throwing  water  on  hot 
stones  under  a  frame-work  covered  with  robes  or  blankets.  New  fire,  produced 
by  friction,  enters  into  many  sacred  ceremonies,  and  sacred  dances  and  feasts 
are  the  chief  public  ceremonials  of  their  religion.  Among  these  are  the  Wakan 
feasts,  or  feasts  of  first  fruits,  the  feast  to  Hayoka,  and  the  raw  fish  feast,  when 
fish,  just  out  of  the  water,  are  devoured  in  a  frenzied  way,  without  touching 
them  with  the  hands. 

The  Dakotas  have  no  proper  priesthood  ;  still  there  is  a  special  class  wha 
are  generally  employed  as  priests,  conjurors,  and  sorcerers,  known   among  the 

'  Vapor  bath. 


26o  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

whites  as  medicine  men.  They  are  regarded  as  not  properly  men,  but  gods  in 
human  form.  Originally  waking  into  existence  in  the  upper  air,  they  floated 
away  among  the  gods,  becoming  assimilated  to  them,  and  learning  from  them 
all  the  mysteries  of  their  profession.  When  they  die,  they  are  said  to  return  to 
the  gods  to  receive  a  fresh  inspiration  and  a  new  incarnation.  They  can  do 
this,  however,  only  four  times ;  after  the  fourth  incarnation  they  pass  into  what 
a  Buddhist  would  call  Nirvana.  In  their  performances  is  a  good  deal  of 
sorcery ;  professed,  and  possibly  real  converse  with  evil  spirits,  who  enable  them 
to  inflict  sickness  and  death,  and  also  to  heal  disease.  Along  with  this  is  a 
great  deal  of  unmistakable  jugglery  and  imposture.  Like  noted  mediums 
among  us,  they  untie  themselves  however  securely  bound,  and  profess  to  bring 
communications  from  departed  friends. 

They  suppose  each  man  has  four  spirits.  One  dies  with  the  body,  the 
second  remains  near  it,  the  third  gives  account  for  the  deeds  done  in  the  body, 
and  passes  over  the  Milky  Way,  which  they  call  the  path  of  spirits,  and  the 
fourth  lingers  with  the  small  tuft  of  hair  kept  by  relatives  till  they  can  throw  it 
into  a  hostile  territory,  where  it  becomes  a  messenger  of  disease  and  death  to 
their  enemies. 

Let  us  now  pass  from  these  beliefs  of  the  tribes  of  our  own  continent  to  the 
religious  ideas  of  the  Battas  in  Sumatra. 

Rev.  J.  Ennis,  when  in  Natal,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  that  island,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1837,  learned  from  some  of  them  their  ideas  of  God.  They  call  him 
Debata  hasi  asi,  the  creator  of  all  things,  who  can  do  all  things,  and  sees  all 
things,  even  the  hearts  of  men  ;  yet  he  does  nothing  but  sleep,  though  once  a 
year  he  eats.  Then  his  head  is  anointed  with  fragrant  oil,  music  plays,  his 
attendants  stand  around  him,  and  the  feast  lasts  seven  days.^  He  has  three 
sons,  who  govern  the  world."  But  they  delegate  the  government  mostly  to  in- 
ferior spirits  called  Debatas  and  Begus,  and  tliese  are  the  principal  objects  of 
worship.  The  Debatas  are  divided  into  three  classes  :  First,  those  above,  who 
rule  in  heaven,  a  delightful  region,  full  of  fine  houses,  and  fields,  and  trees,  the 
abode  of  the  souls  of  the  blessed.  Second,  those  in  the  middle  region,  who 
govern  the  earth.  Third,  those  below,  who  rule  over  a  wretched  abode  of 
misery,  where  dwell  evil  spirits  and  the  souls  of  bad  men.  Among  their  prin- 
cipal deities  are  Batara  guru,  the  god  of  justice,  Soripada,  the  god  of  mercy, 
and  Mangana  mulan,  or  bulan,  the  author  of  evil,  who  has  the  principal  man- 
agement of  human  affairs,  and  can  at  any  time  thwart  the  good  intentions  of 
the  rest.  So  the  Battas  are  most  anxious  to  secure  his  favor,  and  care  little 
how  the  others  regard  them,  if  they  have  his  good  will.  Batara  guru,  as  his 
name  denotes,  is  the  instructor  of  men  ;  and  when  Soripada  thinks  his  dealings 
too  severe  he  moderates  them.  Besides  these,  they  worship  the  serpent  Nag- 
apadoka,  that  has  horns  like  a  cow,  and  bears  up  the  earth. 

The  Be""us  are  inferior  to  the  Debatas,  and  live  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  in 
impenetrable  swamps,  and  under  the  earth.      They  hover  under  dark,  heavy 

1  Has  this  any  connection  with  the  Sabbath  ?  -  Is  this  a  dim  tradition  of  the  Trinity  ? 


RELICIOUS    BELIEFS.  261 

clouds,  and  are  spirits  without  bodies.  The  Battas  think  the  dead  become 
Begus,  of  two  kinds,  the  bad  and  the  good.  As  they  are  very  numerous, 
people  Hve  in  great  fear  of  them,  and  every  village,  house,  and  person  has  a 
guardian ;  yet  myriads  wander  about,  inflicting  trouble.  The  evil  Begus  are 
especial  objects  of  worship,  in  order  to  avert  their  displeasure.  They  are 
thought  sometimes  to  appear  to  men  when  alone,  and  make  known  their 
will  in  various  ways.  Skill  in  understanding  them  fits  a  man  to  become  a 
priest.  In  every  village  are  two  or  three  priests,  called  Sibasa.  Sometimes 
one  of  these,  seated  and  holding  his  hands  in  a  certain  position,  with  anointed 
head  and  hair  flowing  loose,  under  the  influence  of  music  begins  to  tremble  and 
act  like  a  man  intoxicated;  then  the  Begu  enters  him  and  speaks  through  him 
his  will  to  men,  especially  in  times  of  prevailing  sickness,  and  in  war.  The 
numerous  offerings  made  on  such  an  occasion  are  afterwards  eaten  by  those 
who  offered  them,  as  a  sacred  feast. ^ 

Rev.  H.  R.  Hoisington  introduces  us  to  much  of  the  ancient  literature  of 
the  Hindoos.  He  wrote  for  the  American  Oriental  Society  a  syllabus  of  the 
Siva  Gnana  Potham,"'  a  Tamil  translation  of  an  old  Sanskrit  Agama,  which, 
after  a  preface  on  logic,  treats  in  a  concise,  poetic  style,  of  deity,  soul,  and  mat- 
ter. He  also  gives  us  a  translation  cf  the  same  work,'''  with  an  introduction 
and  notes,  and  a  translation  of  the  law  of  the  Tuttivam,*  a  synopsis  of  the  mys- 
tical philosophy  of  the  Hindoos,  presenting  the  standard  doctrines  of  the  ortho- 
dox Saivas  of  southern  India,  besides  a  translation  of  the  Light  of  Sivan,^  a 
metaphysical  and  theological  work  written  by  a  Vaishnava  Brahman  not  more 
than  two  centuries  ago,  and,  with  the  previous  works,  giving  a  good  resume  of 
the  tenets  of  philosophical  Hindooism.  In  addition  to  these  he  wrote,  himself, 
an  essay  on  that  system,'^  in  which  he  tells  us  that  the  Hindoos  were  not  the 
first  inhabitants  of  India.  Remnants  of  the  aborigines  still  exist,  whose  dia- 
lects have  no  affinity  to  the  Sanskrit,  and  whose  creeds  bear  no  traces  of  Hin- 
dooism. They  seem  to  be  descendants  of  Shem,  and  entered  India '^  across  the 
Indus.  They  also  came  by  sea  to  the  southwestern  coast.  Their  Hindoo  con- 
querors probably  descended  from  Cush,  and  entered  India  by  the  Punjaub. 
Buddhism,  a  school  of  primitive  Hindooism,  allied  itself  with  the  Lunar  line  of 
Hindoo  kings.  The  Brahmans,  who,  as  some  think,  did  not  belong  originally  to 
the  Hindoo  family,  sided  with  the  Solar  line,  the  rivals  of  the  others,  and  war 
raged  between  the  two  till  the  Buddhists  were  driven  into  Ceylon  and  further 
east. 

The  Brahmans  now  constructed  their  system,  engrafting  on  previous  sys- 
tems that  type  of  idolatry  which  has  molded  India  so  long.  This  includes  not 
only  the  Hindoo  Pantheon,  with  its  rites,  but  also  the  institution  of  caste,  by 
which  they  made  themselves  supreme  in  Church  and  State.  That  there  was  at 
first  only  one  caste  is  admitted  in  the  Puranas.  The  struggle  between  the  Brah- 
mans and  Kshatriyas,  a  Scythic  race,  was  long,  till  the  latter,  subdued  at  length, 
became  the  warrior  caste,  inferior  to  their  conquerors.     The  Vaishyas,  another 

^  Missionary  Herald,  1838,  pp.  403-404.  -  Jotir.  Amer.  Oriental  Soc,  Vol.  II,  pp.  135-154. 

3  Do.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  31-102.  -"Do.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  1-30.  ^Do.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  125-244. 

^ Biblioikeca  Sacra,  1852,  pp.  237-25S.  ^  Allen's  India,  p.  23. 


262  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Scythic  tribe,  were  next  subdued,  and,  as  merchants  and  farmers,  became  sub- 
ordinate to  both.  The  Sudras,  probably  the  Sudrakai  of  Strabo,  when  con- 
quered became  the  servant  caste.  Combining  all  these  into  one  body  involved 
some  friction,  so  the  Vayu  Purana  makes  Brahma  assign  each  caste  its  occupa- 
tion, to  prevent  wrangling.  The  subdivisions  of  caste  are  as  various  as  human 
occupations.  The  palmy  days  of  Brahmanism  were  the  thousand  years  preced- 
ing the  Moslem  invasion  of  India. 

The  original  form  of  Hindooism  was  probably  that  of  the  Vedas,  the  oldest 
Sanskrit  writings.^  Their  style  is  so  unlike  that  of  the  polished  epics  of  the 
Ramayana  and  Mahabharata,  that  the  readers  of  these  cannot  understand 
them.  The  original  form  of  worship  was  Sabian,  and  the  ritual  of  the  Puranas 
is  so  different  that  a  Vedantist  would  now  be  looked  on  as  an  infidel. 

The  two  epics  were  composed  in  the  Punjaub  about  300  B.  C,  as  well  as  the 
institutes  of  Menu,  and  probably  some  of  the  Puranas.  These  are  the  materials 
for  Hindoo  mythology.  They  are  old  legends  committed  to  writing,  and  form 
the  sources  of  the  eighteen  great  Puranas.  In  these  last,  antiquity  is  forced  to 
conform  to  modern  puerilities,  and  in  them  all  are  traces  of  a  previous  philo- 
sophical religion.  Ostensibly,  the  Brahmans  hold  to  the  Vedas  ;  but  practically 
they  deny  them,  and  base  their  system  of  incarnations  on  their  mystic  phi- 
losophy. 

The  Bhagavat  Geeta  is  an  episode  in  the  Mahabharata,'^  discussing  the 
nature  of  God  and  the  destiny  of  man.  In  it  Krishna  encourages  the  hero 
Arjuna  to  fight  against  his  kindred,  because  mind  and  matter  are  distinct,  and 
duties  must  be  done  without  regard  to  consequences ;  that  death  and  life  are 
only  slight  modifications  of  the  same  being,  and  hence  the  slaughter  of  a  friend 
is  a  matter  of  indifference.     He  says  : 

"  Ne'er  was  the  time  when  I  was  not,  nor  thou,  nor  yonder  things  of  earth. 
Hereafter  ne'er  shall  be  the  time  when  one  of  us  shall  cease  to  be ; 
The  soul  within  its  mortal  frame  glides  on  through  childhood,  youth,  and  age, 
Then  in  another  form  renewed,  renews  its  stated  course  again, 

Whence  on  to  battle  Bharatha. 
Soul  is  not  born.     It  doth  not  die.     Past,  present,  future,  knows  it  not. 
Ancient,  eternal,  and  unchanged,  it  dies  not  with  the  dying  frame. 
Who  knows  it  incorruptible,  everlasting  and  unborn, 
What  recks  he  whether  he  may  slay,  or  fall  himself  in  battle  slain? 
As  their  old  garments  men  cast  off,  anon  new  raiment  to  assume, 
So  casts  the  soul  its  worn-out  frame,  and  takes  at  once  another  form. 
Thus  deeming,  wherefore  mourn  for  it  ?  " 

This  poem  does  not  wholly  reject  the  Vedas,  but  speaks  of  them  as  deficient, 
and  without  true  purity  of  mind.  From  these  works  Hindooism  was  easily  de- 
veloped in  the  Puranas,  the  last  of  which  are  only  three  hundred  years  old. 
They  complete  the  Brahmanical  writings. 

Hindooism  may  be  divided  into  three  periods  :  (a.)  The  patriarchal  period  of 
the  unwritten  Vedas,  when  Hindoo  ideas  resembled  those  of  Noah  and  Abra- 

1  These  were  put  into  llieir  present  form  fourteen  centuries  B.  C.     Allen's  India,  p.  23. 
'■'This  is  described  in  Allen's  India,  p.  25. 


IfELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  263 

ham.  (b.)  The  philosophical,  when  these  doctrines,  losing  their  purity,  were 
molded  into  a  system  of  philosophical  religion.  It  lies  back  of  300  B.  C.  (c.) 
The  Puranic,  or  mythologic,  when  the  Brahmans  became  supreme,  and  founded 
the  Hindoo  Pantheon  and  temple  worship.  Its  earlier  form  was  the  Epics  and 
Institutes  of  Menu,  its  later  the  Puranas.  These,  though  alike  in  many  things, 
differ,  in  that  some  make  Brahma  supreme,  some  Vishnu,  and  others  Siva, 
The  two  schools  of  Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  include  the  whole. 

The  Brahman  can  quote  Sastras  either  to  support  idolatry  or  prove  the 
unity  of  God  ;  for  while  they  hold  one  God  eternal,  self-existent,  all-pervading, 
formless,  and  unchangeable,  without  emotion  or  desire,  yet  he  can  be  manifested 
through  material  organisms.  He  exists,  moreover,  as  Purusha  and  Sakti,^  and 
each  divine  act  is  by  the  cooperation  of  these  two.  In  acting,  each  must  have . 
its  organism.  Many  symbols  represent  this,  especially  the  Linga.  This  is 
usually  compound,  representing  the  two  in  cooperation,  and  is  an  object  of 
worship  superior  to  most  of  their  idols.  The  proboscis  of  the  elephant  is  an- 
other ;  hence  PuUiyar  is  adored  more  than  any  other  god,  for  he  is  the  god  of 
action,  the  reproducer.  As  these  two  energies  may  be  developed  any  number 
of  times,  the  number  of  their  gods  is  without  limit. 

They  hold  that  the  production  and  government  of  the  universe  involve  five 
divine  operations,  and,  as  each  must  have  its  organism,  ten  gods.  These  in- 
clude Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva,  also  the  Obscurer,  and  the  Illuminator,  or 
grace-giver,  inferior  to  the  three  first,  but  dealing  with  spiritual  beings,  and, 
therefore,  with  organisms  more  ethereal.  The  others  manage  the  material 
universe.  Some  make  Vishnu  supreme,  and  others  Siva,  but  only  as  the  index 
of  the  eternal  God. 

Of  these  deities,  the  first  is  the  Illuminator,  with  a  form  which  is  a  complete 
development  of  the  perfections  of  the  five.  In  him  divine  wisdom  is  supreme. 
He  dwells  in  light.  The  soul  to  whom  he  reveals  himself  sees  things  as  they 
are,  and  freed  from  its  organism,  will  not  be  born  in  another  body;  for  they 
hold  that  every  soul  undergoes  many  births,  till  it  exhausts  all  the  good  and 
evil  retribution  it  deserves. 

The  second  is  the  Obscurer,  born  of  the  first.  His  form  is  deficient  in 
wisdom,  but  possesses  the  attributes  of  the  others,  and  in  him  action  is  su- 
preme. He  guides  the  soul  through  all  its  transmigrations,  while  working  out 
its  salvation  from  matter ;  and,  as  he  keeps  men  ignorant  of  spiritual  things, 
that  they  may  work  out  their  fated  courses  of  action,  he  is  named  the  Obscurer, 
though  they  regard  this  action  of  his  as  benevolent. 

The  third  is  Rudra,  or  less  correctly,  Siva,  born  of  the  second,  with  a  form 
deficient  in  the  characteristics  of  the  first  two,  but  with  more  of  wisdom  than 
the  two  which  follow.  He  is  the  Triad,  the  three  so-called  being  only  an  ex- 
pansion of  him.  His  office  is  to  continue  the  universe  in  existence  through 
generation,  growth,  and  destruction,  with  reproduction ;  hence  called  the  De- 
stroyer, but  more  properly  the  Reproducer,  since  he  destroys  in  order  to  repro- 
duce. 

The  fourth  is  Vishnu,  born  of  Siva,  and  his  office  is  to  cause  growth  from 
birth  to  maturity,  whence  he  is  called  the  Preserver, 

'  Male  and  female  energy. 


264  THE    ELY    VOLUME.* 

The  fifth  is  Brahma,  born  of  Vishnu.  He  is  the  generator,  and  properly 
the  agent  of  all  the  others,  and  so  not  generally  recognized  as  a  distinct  god. 
His  name  should  not  stand  first  in  the  Triad.  Pulliyar,  son  of  Siva,  is  the 
active  deity  in  production,  and  through  him  Siva  effects  the  work  of  genera- 
tion ;  as  his  agency  is  involved  in  producing  the  form  of  Siva,  he  has  been 
called  "The  son  who  was  born  before  his  father." 

These  principles,  variously  combined,  form  the  fabric  of  Hindooism.  The 
initiated  see  them  in  the  forms  and  dresses  of  idols,  the  ornaments  of  temples, 
the  sacrifices,  festivals,  and  performances  of  dancing  women. 

The  Hindoos  have  several  Triads ;  Siva,  Vishnu,  and  Brahma  are  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  physical  powers  of  deity,  but  tl\e  government  of  man  belongs 
to  a  higher  god.  The  first  three  of  the  five  gods  form  another  Triad;  in  this 
Siva  is  held  to  contain  the  last  two.  This  Triad  is  known  only  to  the  initiated. 
A  third  one  is  seen  in  the  three  gods  usually  drawn  on  the  festival  cars,  repre- 
senting the  supreme  deity,  whose  form  embraces  two  divine  energies,  and  also 
these  energies  separately  embodied.  The  former  is  always  a  male,  and  the  two 
latter  a  male  and  a  female,  symbolizing  the  unity  of  the  godhead,  and  the 
divine  modus  operandi.     Hence  Juggernaut  is  called  "  The  Universal  Lord." 

Passing  on  to  China,  we  condense  the  following  account  of  Confucius  from 
S.  W.  Williams'  Middle  Kingdojii,  Vol.  I,  pp.  519-532,  and  China  and  the  Chi- 
nese, by  Rev.  John  L.  Nevius,  pp.  46-54. 

Confucius,  of  the  family  named  Kung,  and  generally  called  by  his  disciples 
Kung  fu'ts,  /.  <?.,  Kung  the  teacher.  Latinized  into  Confucius,  was  born  in  the 
province  of  Shantung,  and  department  of  Yin  chau,  B.  C.  551.  His  parents 
were  poor  but  respectable.  Commencing  study  very  young,  the  same  year 
that  Cyrus  became  king  of  Persia,  he  became  a  teacher  at  twenty-two,  and  soon 
had  many  disciples.  Several  petty  princes  asked  his  aid  in  administering  their 
government,  and  the  measures  he  introduced  proved  beneficent.  His  ethics, 
however,  were  so  severe  that  he  did  not  remain  long  in  one  place.  His  life 
was  spent  in  going  here  and  there,  vainly  trying  to  reform  abuses,  studying  and 
teaching.  He  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-three,  B.  C.  479,  leaving  only  a  grand- 
son. Little  appreciated  while  living,  since  his  death  he  has  been  exalted  to 
divine  honors,  and  a  perfection  ascribed  to  him  which  he  clearly  and  repeatedly 
repudiated.  He  says :  "  How  dare  I  rank  myself  with  the  sage  and  the  per- 
fect man ;  I,  who  simply  strive  after  virtue  without  satiety,  and  teach  others 
without  weariness  ?  In  letters  I  perhaps  equal  others,  but  I  have  not  yet 
attained  to  practice  what  I  profess.  My  failure  to  cultivate  virtue  properly, 
my  not  mastering  what  I  learn,  or  moving  toward  the  good  I  know,  occasions 
me  solicitude.  I  was  not  born  in  the  possession  of  knowledge.  I  love 
antiquity,  and  seek  knowledge  there  —  a  transmitter,  not  a  creator."  He  seems 
to  have  arisen  when  tradition  had  so  much  worth  preserving  that  a  compiler 
was  needed,  and  he  was  specially  qualified  for  the  work. 

As  he  says  himself,  he  originated  no  new  doctrine  ;  he  simply  expounded  the 
teachings  of  his  predecessors.     His  works  show  that  the  Chinese  had  no  more 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  265 

originality  two  thousand  years  ago  than  now.  His  constant  reference  to  a  past 
golden  age  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  moral  and  mental  culture  of  the  founders 
of  Chinese  civilization.     Some  of  his  maxims  are  as  follows: 

Grieve  not  that  men  know  you  not,  but  that  you  are  so  ignorant  of  men. 
Without  virtue,  both  riches  and  honor  seem  to  me  like  the  passing  cloud. 
The  sage's  conduct  is  benevolence  in  operation. 
I  have  found  no  man  who  esteems  virtue  as  men  esteem  pleasure. 
The  perfect  man  is  never  satisfied  with  himself.      He  that  is  satisfied  with 
himself  is  not  perfect. 

Patience  is  the  most  needful  possession  in  this  world. ^ 

The  Chinese  classics  comprise  "the  five  classics  and  the  four  books."  Four 
of  the  classics  existed  before  his  day,  and  the  fifth  was  a  historical  work  from 
his  pen.  Of  the  four  books,  the  first,  called  Ta  Hioh,  or  great  learning,  con- 
tains the  teachings  of  Confucius,  as  recorded  and  digested  by  his  disciples  after 
his  death.  The  second,  called  Chung  Yung,  or  Due  Medium,  is  ascribed  to 
Kung  Kih,  the  grandson  of  Confucius.  Both  these  have  exerted  great  influ- 
ence on  China.  The  other  two  are  small,  and  really  antedate  Confucius. 
These  are  almost  the  only  text-books  in  the  schools  of  China,  and  are  regarded 
as  the  ne plus  tiltra  of  knowledge.  They  are  made  up  of  ethics,  history,  politi- 
cal economy,  biography,  and  poetry.  The  religious  element  hardly  exists  in 
them.  His  disciples  say  that  he  did  not  speak  of  the  gods,  probably  through 
ignorance  about  them.  He  taught  positive  truth  in  opposition  to  what  was 
uncertain,  and  where  he  could  not  speak  with  certainty,  chose  not  to  speak  at 
all.  Once,  when  asked  about  death,  he  replied  :  "  Imperfectly  acquainted  with 
life,  how  can  I  know  of  death  ?  "  -  This  is  probably  a  later  legend,  but  it  indi- 
cates the  popular  estimate  of  the  man.  Yet  toward  the  end  of  his  life  he  wrote 
a  solemn  dedication  of  his  writings  to  heaven.  He  assembled  all  his  disciples, 
and  led  them  out  of  the  town  to  a  hill  where  sacrifices  had  been  offered  for 
many  years,  erected  a  table,  or  altar,  on  which  he  placed  the  books  ;  and  then, 
turning  to  the  north,  adored  heaven,  and  on  his  knees  gave  thanks  for  life  and 
strength  granted  to  complete  them,  and  prayed  that  their  benefit  to  his  people 
might  not  be  small.^ 

His  system  sets  forth  five  relations,  viz. :  between  emperor  and  officer,  father 
and  son,  husband  and  wife,  brothers,  and  friends.  The  principles  connected 
with  the  first  constitute  Chinese  political  economy,  and  form  a  large  part  of  his 
teachings.  The  next  three  relations  belong  to  the  family,  regarded  as  the  true 
foundation  of  the  state.  Here  is  inculcated  a  regard  for  law,  which  prepares 
one  to  be  a  good  citizen,  as  he  says :  "  Few,  being  filial  and  fraternal,  love  to 
offend  their  superiors  ;  none,  not  liking  to  offend  superiors,  have  stirred  up 
confusion." 

Mencius,  a  disciple  and  editor  of  Confucius,*was  born  about  371  B.  C,  in 
the  city  of  Tsau,  in  Shantung.     His  father  died  soon  after  and  left  him  to  the 

^Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  p.  520.  ^Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  236. 

3  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XI,  p.  421,  and  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  p.  529. 


266  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

care  of  his  widow,  who  has  been  cited  as  a  model  for  mothers.  Living  near  a 
butcher's  premises,  she  removed  from  there,  lest  the  sight  of  blood  should 
harden  the  heart  of  her  son  to  suffering.  Her  next  home  was  near  a  cemetery, 
and  she  left  that  lest  he  should  lose  the  solemn  impression  of  funeral  services, 
from  their  constant  repetition. 

Mencius  was  the  scholar  of  Tsz'sz',  the  grandson  of  Confucius.  After  com- 
pleting-his  studies  he  taught  the  king  of  Wei,  till  he  found  his  teachings  were 
not  regarded,  when  he  went  into  retirement,  completed  editing  the  works  of 
Confucius,  and  composed  his  own  great  work.  He  died  28S  B.  C,  and  after 
death  received  the  title  of  "  Holy  Prince,"  and  in  the  temple  of  the  literati  is 
placed  next  to  Confucius,  and  only  regarded  with  less  reverence  than  that  sage. 
Some  of  his  sayings  are  : 

He  who  gains  the  hearts  of  the  people  secures  the  throne,  and  he  who  loses 
them  loses  it. 

Good  laws  do  not  win  the  people  like  good  instruction. 

To  a  king  consulting  him  about  the  conquest  of  a  neighbor,  he  replied : 
^'  Take  his  kingdom  if  the  people  would  like  it ;  if  not,  let  it  alone." 

"  I  love  life  and  justice,"  he  said,  "but  if  I  cannot  have  both  I  would  give 
up  life  and  retain  justice."  "Though  I  hate  death,  there  is  that  I  hate  more 
than  death." 

In  many  of  his  teachings  he  endorsed  Confucius.  In  native  vigor  he  ex- 
ceeded him.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that,  like  him,  Confucius  also  had  a 
mother  who  carefully  fostered  in  him  a  love  of  morality,  and  directed  his 
studies.^ 

Filial  piety  is  the  foundation  of  Chinese  religion  ;  disrespect  to  parents  has 
been  punished  with  death.  A  Chinaman  dreads  no  epithet  more  than  "  undu- 
tiful."  From  childhood  he  is  taught  to  be  respectful  ;  to  cherish  his  parents 
when  they  are  old,  and  when  they  die  to  worship  them.  He  is  exhorted  to 
avoid  vice,  lest  it  injure  the  body  he  derived  from  his  parents.  One  of  his 
strongest  motives  to  virtue  is  to  be  able  to  honor  and  not  disgrace  his  ances- 
tors. 

The  relation  between  husband  and  wife  is  not  made  much  of.  Woman  is 
made  the  servant  and  not  the  companion  of  her  husband.  One  adage  is  : 
"  The  elder  brother  is  to  love,  and  the  younger  one  to  honor." 

The  five  virtues  are  benevolence,  or  humanity  —  it  is  hard  to  say  which  of 
these  words  best  renders  the  original  ^  —  righteousness,  propriety,  knowledge, 
and  faith.  It  is  noticeable  that  benevolence  is  first.  Cqnfucius  had  so 
exalted  an  idea  of  this  that  he  held  that  few  even  of  the  ancients  attained  to  it. 

"Tsz  kung  asked  :  '  Is  there  one  word  which  may  serve  as  a  rule  of  practice 
for  all  of  one's  life  ? '  The  master  said  :  '  Is  not  shu^  such  a  word  ?  What 
you  do  not  want  done  to  yourself  do  not  do  to  others.' "  This  is  the  nearest 
approximation  ever  made  by  man  to  the  rule  of  Christ,  though  it  is  negative 
and  not  positive,  as  his  is,  and  was  also  a  saying  of  the  rabbis  before  Christ. 
Yet  he  says  again  :  "When  one  improves  his  nature  to  the  utmost,  and  acts  on 

^  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  pp.  521-526.     Ste  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XVHI,  pp.  337-341. 

=  Letter  of  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams.  •'  Ueciiirocity. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  267 

the  principle  of  reciprocity,  he  is  not  far  out  of  the  way.  In  the  way  of  the 
superior  man  are  four  things,  to  none  of  which  I  have  attained  :  to  serve  my 
father  as  I  would  require  service  from  my  son  ;  to  serve  my  prince  as  I  would 
have  my  servant  serve  me  ;  to  serve  my  elder  brother  as  I  would  be  served  by 
my  younger  brother ;  and  to  behave  to  my  friend  as  I  would  require  him  to  be- 
have to  me." 

The  next  virtue  is  defined  as  that  which  ought  to  be  done,  as  set  forth  by 
the  conscience. 

The  third  virtue  relates  to  outward  forms,  each  inward  state  being  supposed 
to  have  its  own  proper  outward  expression,  the  cultivation  of  which  fosters  the 
inner  virtue.  Certain  rules  of  propriety  are  also  attached  to  difTerent  times, 
ranks,  positions,  and  occasions  in  life,  and  are  regarded  as  the  chief  corner 
stones  of  society  and  government.  Confucius  did  much  to  produce  the  formali- 
ties and  conventionalities  of  the  Chinese,  though  aristocratic  etiquette  in 
Europe  is  sometimes,  perhaps,  equally  exacting. 

The  fourth  virtue  relates  to  general  intelligence,  especially  a  knowledge  of 
one's  self  and  men,  and  of  the  practical  way  of  dealing  with  others.  For  men 
in  office  he  insisted  on  a  life  of  se\ere  study  and  patient  investigation. 

The  fifth  virtue  includes  both  faith  and  truthfulness  as  the  ground  of  faith. 
Sincerity  of  heart  is  much  insisted  on,  and  he  spoke  of  the  difficulty  of  control- 
ling the  tongue,  from  his  own  experience. 

While  Confucius  refers  to  the  sages  of  the  past  as  the  authors  of  his  system, 
he  rests  its  authority  on  conscience,  to  which  he  constantly  appeals.  He 
sought  to  interpret  and  follow  the  suggestions  of  man's  moral  nature.  This 
has  so  molded  the  intellect  of  China  that  appeals  to  the  fixed  principles  of  right, 
as  attested  by  conscience,  are  common,  even  among  the  masses. 

His  ultimate  object  was  the  promotion  of  good  government.  He  sought  to 
qualify  his  disciples  to  control  men,  by  giving  rules  for  self-government  and 
culture,  rather  than  by  devising  the  best  code  of  laws,  or  of  governmental 
coercion.  He  relied  on  moral,  not  on  physical,  force  ;  on  example,  rather  than 
punishment.  He  believed  that  if  rulers  were  themselves  good,  the  people 
would  obey  them.  Yet  it  is  to  be  regretted  that,  following  his  predecessors,  he 
sanctioned  the  worship  of  idols  and  ancestors,  encouraged  national  self-conceit, 
and  made  it  obligatory  on  a  son  to  revenge  the  murder  of  his  father.  He  was 
a  practical  philosopher  rather  than  a  metaphysician ;  a  close  observer  of  men, 
and  sincerely  desirous  to  teach  the  truth  and  do  good.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  his  system  of  ethics  is  the  purest  that  has  originated  outside  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  that  he  has  exerted  a  greater  influence  for  good  than  any  other 
uninspired  writer. 

Rev.  I.  Tracy  has  also  given  an  account  of  Confucius  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra)  In  some  things  he  brings  out  the  dark  side  of  his  character  more 
clearly,  as  where  he  says-  that  on  one  occasion  he  was  guilty  of  lying,  and  that 
he  divorced  his  wife.  He  speaks  of  him  as  "  a  proud  and  ambitious  man," 
though  he  sought  office  that  he  might  be  more  useful.  Again  :  "  Religion 
formed  scarcely  any  appreciable  part  of  his  character."^     When  asked  about 

1  Vol.  in,  pp.  284-300.  2 Do.,  p.  2S8.  3 Do.,  p.  289. 


268  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

the  service  of  the  gods,  he  said,  "  Not  yet  do  we  serve  men  ;  how  can  we  serve 
the  gods  ?  "  He  taught  that  men  are  naturally  virtuous,  and  attributed  their  vices 
to  ignorance  and  bad  example.  Mr.  Tracy  gives  us  another  extract  from  his 
writings  :  "  The  ancients  first  promoted  good  order  in  their  own  provinces,  and, 
in  order  to  do  that,  first  regulated  their  own  families.  They  who  wished  to  do 
this,  first  became  virtuous  themselves,  and  for  this  purpose  first  rectified  their 
hearts,  and  as  a  means  to  that,  first  purified  their  motives.  Purification  of  mo- 
tives depends  on  perfection  of  knowledge,  and  that  again  on  investigation ;  for, 
things  being  thoroughly  investigated,  knowledge  is  perfected  —  so  motives  be- 
come pure,  the  heart  right,  the  character  virtuous,  the  family  well  regulated, 
the  nation  governed,  and  all  under  heaven  enjoy  peace." 

Some  of  his  sayings  indicate  that  he  was  a  fatalist,  but  in  others  he  uses  the 
word  heaven  in  the  sense  of  God.  His  chief  aim  was  to  make  men  virtuous 
in  this  life.  He  told  his  disciples  that  the  people  of  the  west  also  have  their 
sages,  and  this,  some  say,  induced  Mingti  to  send  messengers  to  find  Christ 
A.  D.  60,  who  went  no  further  than  India,  and  brought  back  Buddhism ;  but  it 
is  now  known  that  Mingti  was  pretty  well  aware  of  the  Buddhism  he  sent  for. 

BUDDHISM.  1 

A  religion  that  boasts  more  followers  than  any  other  on  the  face  of  the  earth 
is  certainly  worthy  of  our  study,  and  that  can  be  pursued  to  the  best  advantage 
by  looking  at  its  own  account  of  its  founder,  and  then  glancing  at  some  of  the 
changes  his  system  of  religion  has  gone  through  since  his  death.  The  highly 
interesting  nature  of  the  subject  must  excuse  the  going  outside  of  the  writings 
of  missionaries  of  the  American  Board,  and  collecting  a  few  statements  from 
the  recent  work  of  Rev.  Joseph  Edkins,  D.D.,  a  missionary  of  the  London 
Society. 

Shakya,  Shakyamuni,  Sarvartha,  Sidda,  Siddharta,  and  Buddha,  also  in  Chi- 
nese Fuh,  Gautama,  and  Julai,-  for  he  is  known  by  all  these  names,  was  the  son 
of  Suddhodana,  king  of  the  city  of  Kapilavastu,  near  the  borders  of  Nepaul, 
who  was  subject  to  the  king  of  Magadha,  a  country  in  southern  Bahar.  Of 
these  names,  Siddharta  was  his  original  name,  by  which  he  was  known  in  his 
father's  house.  Sidda  and  Sarvartha  seem  to  be  variations  of  this ;  Shakya- 
muni, or  S'akyamuni,  means  "  the  sage  of  the  house  of  Shakya  or  S'akya,"  his 
native  tribe;  Gautama  is  a  patronymic,  and  Buddh,  or  Buddha,  is  the  title  of  a 
superior  position  in  the  universe,  which  a  man  may  attain  to  through  knowledge 
and  negation  of  self,  and  which  now  belongs  to  him.  Fuh  is  the  Chinese  form 
of  this,  pronounced  differently  in  different  provinces,  as  Fat,  Hut,  Veh,  etc. 

The  Chinese  say  he  was  born  in  the  year  B.  C.  1027,  and  that  his  mother's 
name  was  Maya.  The  Ceylonese  assign  that  event  to  the  year  B.  C.  623. 
The  Siamese  say  B.  C.  653.  Other  dates  are  assigned  by  different  authorities 
from  B.  C.  1800  down  to  B.  C.  457.^  Dr.  Edkins  prefers  the  date  of  B.  C.  623. 
At  fifteen  years  of  age  he  was  formally  invested  with  the  rank  of  heir  apparent, 
and  at  seventeen  he  was  married  to  a  Shakya  maiden  named  Yashodarn.     He 

1  Allen's  India,  p.  34  ;  Middle  Kingdom,  by  S.  Wells  Williams,  Vol.  II,  pp.  249-260. 

=  Edkins'  Chinese  Buddhisir,  p.  4-  "  !->"••  PP    '5-'6. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  269 

was  taught  every  accomplishment,  and  supplied  with  all  that  rank  and  wealth 
could  procure,  but  he  soon  learned  to  despise  them.  The  tradition  is  that,  in 
the  year  after  his  marriage,  he  met  at  the  east  gate  of  the  city  a  Deva  in  the 
form  of  an  aged  man  with  white  hair.  Again  the  same  Dev  appeared  at  the 
south  gate,  as  a  man  laboring  under  disease.  At  the  west  gate  he  saw  a  dead 
body  carried  out  to  be  buried,  and  at  the  north  gate  a  begging  priest  in  the 
garb  of  an  Ascetic.  To  the  question  who  he  was,  the  priest  replied,  "  I  am  a 
Bikshu,'  practising  sacred  duties  and  obtaining  the  reward  of  freedom  from 
action,"  then  vanished  from  sight.  The  prince  felt  "This  man  knew  my  fears 
of  old  age,  sickness,  and  death,  and  has  pointed  out  the  way  of  deliverance," 
and  from  that  time  resolved  to  become  an  Ascetic. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-five,  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  second  month,- — though 
according  to  a  statement  on  page  thirty-four,  it  was  in  his  twentieth  year  —  three 
years  after  his  marriage,  while  thinking  of  the  life  of  a  recluse,  light  shone  out 
from  his  body  and  reached  to  all  the  palaces  of  the  Devs  —  we  give  the  story 
wiithout  note  or  comment — who  came  to  congratulate  him,  and,  by  their  aid, 
he  left  his  father's  house  in  the  night,  and  went  forth  to  the  lonely  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas.  There  he  lived  on  hemp  and  barlej^,  and  drank  melted  snow,  till, 
at  thirty  years  of  age,  he  attained  the  knowledge  of  the  true  condition  and 
wants  of  men.  After  having  passed  through  the  grade  of  Piisa,^  he  attained  to 
the  rank  of  Buddha  in  his  thirty-fifth  year,  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  second 
month.  Thirty-five  days  after  that  he  went  to  Benares,  having,  at  the  urgent 
request  of  Brahma  and  Indra,  refrained  from  entering  the  state  of  Nirvana,*  and 
consented  to  open  the  gate  of  "  the  sweet  law  "  to  mortals.  On  the  way  he 
sat  by  a  pool  in  a  state  of  ecstatic  trance  ^  for  seven  days,  and  the  light  that 
radiated  from  him  restored  a  blind  snake  in  the  pool  to  the  form  of  a  young 
man,  who  then  became  his  disciple.  On  the  seventh  day  of  the  third  month, 
the  spirit  of  the  tree  under  which  he  lay  in  his  trance,  troubled  at  his  long  fast, 
induced  two  merchants  passing  by  to  give  him  barley,  mixed  with  honey,  in  four 
bowls  of  fragrant  stone.  He  took  them,  and  in  their  sight  formed  the  four  into 
one,  and  administered  the  vows  of  discipleship  to  the  two  merchants,  imposing 
on  them  the  five  prohibitions. 

At  Benares  he  discoursed  on  the  fact  of  misery,  the  need  of  separation  from 
the  entanglements  of  the  passions,  and  the  extinction  of  these  miseries  and 
entanglements  by  reformation.  Godinia  and  four  others  listened  and  asked 
permission  to  begin  the  monkish  life.  This  he  granted,  and  discoursed  further 
of  the  non-permanence  of  human  actions,  the  emptiness  of  the  outer  world,  the 
non-existence  of  the  Ego,  deliverance  from  thraldom  by  the  cessation  of  faults, 
and  the  consequent  attainment  of  the  rank  of  Arhan'' — the  highest  of  the  four 
grades  of  disciples.  Thus  the  world  had  six  Arhans,  and  the  three  precious 
ones,  viz. :  Buddha,  Dharma,  i.  e.,  the  revolving  of  the  wheel  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  four  truths,  and  Sanga,  /.  e.,  the  company  of  the  five  Arhans.  This  was  the 
foundation  of  the  Buddhist  assembly  of  believers  distinguished  by  vows  of 

1  Religious  mendicant.  -  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  18.  3  Inferior  god. 

*  Eternal  unconsciousness.  ''Samadhi. 

«  Fourth  grade  of  wisdom.     The  fourare  Sudawan,  Sidagam,  Anagam,  and  Arhan.—  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  182. 


270  .  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

celibacy,  abstinence  from  animal  food,  and  the  occupations  of  social  life.  The 
Sangarama'  and  Vihara,"  or  monastery,  was  soon  a  necessity. 

Upasakas,  or  lay  brothers,  who  kept  the  rules  at  their  own  homes,  were  also 
received,  and  as  soon  as  the  whole  number  reached  fifty-six  Shakyamuni  dis- 
missed them  all,  to  go  about  living  on  the  alms  they  begged,  and  everywhere 
preach  the  doctrine  of  the  four  miseries.  Thus  monastic  vows,  living  in 
communities,  voluntary  poverty,  and  universal  preaching  formed  the  basis  of 
the  structure  of  Buddhism.  In  a  few  years  India  was  filled  with  communities 
of  monks,  and  in  the  cool  season  Bikshus,  or  mendicant  preachers,  everywhere 
taught  the  true  way  to  Nirvana. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Nairanjana  Buddha  again  met  the  king  of  the  devils, 
who  had  once  tried  to  prevent  his  attaining  to  that  rank,  but  now  himself 
sought  to  enter  the  Nirvana.  Buddha,  however,  refused  him,  as  not  vientally 
prepared  for  that  change.  He  did  not,  however,  refuse  applicants  from  other 
worlds.  He  ascended  to  the  Tushita  paradise,  one  of  the  four  Buddhist  para- 
dises, to  teach  the'new  law  to  his  mother.  On  the  banks  of  the  same  river, 
five  hundred  Guebres  were  led  by  his  discourse  on  the  four  miseries  to  become 
Arhans  and  throw  their  implements  of  fire  worship  into  the  stream.  The  king 
of  Rajagriha  and  all  his  leading  men,  Brahmans,  and  people,  became  disciples, 
and  here  Buddha  taught  for  many  years.  Three  years  later  he  was  invited  to 
Shravasti,  to  the  house  and  garden  of  Jeta,  provided  for  him  by  the  king's 
eldest  son  and  a  rich  noble  ;  and  here  he  made  laws  for  the  punishment  of 
theft,  slander,  and  assassination. 

After  twelve  years'  absence,  his  father  sent  for  him  to  return.  Buddha  sent 
a  disciple  to  perform  certain  magical  works  before  him,  and  the  king  came  out 
thirteen  miles  with  an  escort  of  ten  thousand  to  welcome  him,  and  ordered  five 
hundred  noble  youths  to  become  monks.  Buddha's  own  son,  Rahula,  joined 
the  number,  with  fifty  youth  of  the  nobility  as  his  companions.  While  boys 
were  received,  with  their  parents'  consent,  from  twelve  years  of  age  and  upward^ 
they  did  not  take  the  full  vows  till  they  were  twenty.  Women  also  asked  and 
received  permission  to  take  them.  Thus,  in  twelve  years,  Buddhism  had  spread 
over  sixteen  kingdoms  of  India. 

Buddha  taught  morality  by  rules  of  great  strictness,  and  made  metaphysics 
the  staple  of  his  teaching.  That  took  the  place  of  theology,  and  duty  was 
viewed  only  on  its  human  side.  Obedience  to  the  law  of  God  was  not  taught ; 
hence  the  absence  o£  the  idea  of  sin  against  God  in  his  teaching,  which  dealt 
only  with  human  misery,  and  ignored  human  guilt.  A  charm  was  employed  to 
rescue  a  disciple  from  the  snares  of  a  harlot,  and  then  Buddha  sought  to 
strengthen  him  against  temptation  by  a  grand  display  of  dialectics.  Philo- 
sophical negations  were  his  cure  for  immorality.  He  failed  to  express  the 
relation  of  morality  to  God.  He  knew  the  longing  of  man  for  deliverance 
from  misery,  and  the  struggle  in  the  human  heart  between  good  and  evil,  but 
he  was  destitute  not  only  of  Bible,  but  even  of  Confucian  light,  though  his 
defects  could  not  destroy  the  witness  of  conscience  to  the  distinctions  of  eter- 
nal and  immutable  morality.^ 

1  Assembly  garden.  ^  Cloisters.  ^  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  37. 


RELIGIOUS    DEI.IEFS.  2'JV 

Hence,  among  his  reasons  for  abstinence  from  animal  food,  we  find  no' 
''Tlius  saith  the  Lord,"  but  (i)  the  danger  of  eating  a  relation,  who,  througln 
the  changes  of  the  metempsychosis,  may  exist  in  the  form  of  the  animal  eaten  :; 
(2)  the  unclean  smell  and  taste;  (3)  the  fear  caused  by  the  smell  among  vari- 
ous animals  ;  and  (4)  it  interferes  with  the  success  of  charms  and  magical 
devices.^  Compare  with  this  the  Bible  reason  for  the  prohibition  of  murder. 
Genesis  ix:6,  "For  in  the  image  of  God  made  he  man." 

In  its  idea  of  duty  Buddhism  leaves  out  the  idea  of  obligation  to  God,  and 
dwells  only  on  the  duty  of  lessening  human  misery  and  increasing  human  hap- 
piness. So  we  find  ^  that  if  a  woman  lacking  beauty  and  health  prays  to  a 
certain  Bodhisattwa'^  she  will,  for  a  million  of  kalpas,  have  a  pretty  face,  and 
they  M'ho  perform  music  before  the  same  deity,  shall  be  shielded  by  thousands 
of  spirits  from  all  unpleasant  sounds.  As  one  reads  such  things,  he  is  tempted 
to  ask  whether  Buddhism  is  creeping  stealthily  into  the  Christian  church? 

Dr.  Edkins  gives  details  of  his  literary  productions,  which  cannot  be  here 
reproduced.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  one  of  the  heavenly  paradises  and 
taught  Devas,  P'usas,  Buddhas,  and  Bodhisattwas.  All  were  counted  subordi- 
nate to  Buddha,  the  self-elevated  sage,  and  subject  to  his  commands,  ruling  the 
world  according  to  his  law. 

The  "  central  Shastra  "  sets  out  with  the  attempt  to  prove  that  creation  was 
not  the  act  of  the  great  "  self-existent  God,"*  nor  of  the  god  Vishnu  ;  nor  did 
concourse,  or  commixture,  or  time,  or  the  nature  of  things,  or  change,  or  neces- 
sity, or  minute  atoms,  cause  the  creation  of  the  universe.  In  the  Buddhist  view 
these  deities  are  also  subject  to  death,  and  men  by  certain  specified  virtuous 
acts  may  be  born  hereafter  to  become  their  successors.^ 

One  of  the  writings  of  Shakyamuni  is  called  the  Prajna  Paramita."  There 
are  six  Paramitas,  and  one  of  them  contains  six  hundred  chapters  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  volumes  —  eighty  times  the  size  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  entire  series  of  Buddhist  books  in  A.  D.  141  o,  reached  to  six  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  seventy-one  kiuen,  or  sections.  Three  fourths  of  it  is  trans- 
lated into  Chinese  from  the  Sanskrit,  and  though  much  abbreviated  and  con- 
densed in  the  translation,  is  seven  hundred  times  the  size  of  the  Chinese  New 
Testament. 

Buddha  made  much  of  reciting  these  voluminous  works.  He  directed  the 
king  of  Shravasti,  in  order  to  avert  national  calamity,  to  have  a  hundred  priests 
recite  the  Prajna  Paramita  twice  in  one  day  ;  that  on  journeys  it  should  be  car- 
ried a  hundred  paces  in  advance  of  royalty,  on  a  table  adorned  with  gold,  silver 
and  jewels,  and  that  at  home  it  should  be  kept  on  a  lofty  throne,  and  honored 
daily  with  reverential  worship.''  It  is  not  every  author  that  secures  such  honor 
for  his  writings,  though  it  would  be  very  strange  if  the  spirit  that  narrates 
such  incredible  stories  as  Buddha's  visits  to  heaven,  and  the  instruction  he 
gave  to  the  gods,  as  veritable  facts,  does  not  diminish  the  measure  of  rever- 
ence he  demanded  for  his  writings.  Wonderful  stories  are  told  of  the  rulers 
of  India  leaving  their  thrones  to  their  brothers,  on  hearing  them,  and  adopt- 
ing the  monastic  habit. 

'^  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  20^.  ^Do.,  p.  195.  ^  An  inferior  deity.  *  Ishwara  Deva. 

*  Chinese  Buadhism,  p.  219.  ^The  utmost  of  wisdom  made  known.  '  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  41. 


272  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

At  seventy-one  years  of  age  Buddha  gave  instruction  in  his  esoteric  doc- 
trine, which  is  for  the  Boddhisattwas  and  more  advanced  pupils.  It  is  an  inner 
meaning  added  to  the  exoteric  form. 

Early  Buddhism  favored  no  castes ;  all  were  equal  in  the  eyes  of  Buddha, 
and  this  made  it  very  popular. 

He  also  denied  that  one  intelligent,  personal  God  created  and  governs  all 
things  ;  but  held  that  innumerable  causes,  constituting  a  moral  fate,  are  con- 
stantly working  out  retributive  effects  by  their  inherent  energy. 

Toward  the  close  of  his  life  Buddha  dwelt  much  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Nirvana.  The  king  of  Kaushambi  made  an  image  of  Buddha,  five  feet  high, 
in  sandal  wood,  covered  with  gold ;  and  King  Prasenajit  made  another  of 
'purple  gold.  These  images  radiated  light,  while  the  sky  rained  flowers,  and 
Buddha  said  to  them  :  "  After  my  entrance  into  the  state  of  extinction  and  sal- 
vation, I  give  my  disciples  into  your  charge."  His  aunt  could  not  bear  to 
have  him  leave  her,  and  with  her  five  hundred  women,  came  and  worshiped 
him ;  then  returned  and  did  marvelous  things,  such  as  walking  on  the  water, 
or  in  the  air,  sitting  or  lying  on  vacancy,  fire  and  water  issuing  from  their 
sides  and  mouths,  and  then  together  they  entered  the  Nirvana.  Seventy 
thousand  Lohans^  also  entered  the  same  state.  Buddhism  seems  never  at  a 
loss  for  numbers,  however  large. 

On  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  second  month,  Buddha  was  in  the  city  of 
Kushinagara,  in  a  spot  between  two  sala  trees. ^  A  loud  voice  proclaimed  : 
"To-day  the  world's  honored  one  will  enter  the  Nirvana;  whoever  has  a  doubt, 
let  him  now  come  for  its  solution."  The  great  Bodhisattwas,  the  various  kings 
of  the  Jambhudvipa  continent,  the  kings  of  the  Devas,  the  kings  of  the  rivers 
and  mountains,  of  the  birds  and  beasts,  and  his  personal  disciples,  all  came 
with  their  olTerings,  but  he  firmly  and  silently  declined  them.  They  then  be- 
sought him  to  discourse  on  the  cessation  of  permanence,  on  misery,  on  empti- 
ness, and  on  the  negation  of  self.  So  he  instructed  them  in  the  four  antitheses, 
viz.,  the  permanence  which  is  not  permanent,  the  joy  that  involves  sorrow,  the 
I  that  is  not  I,  and  the  purity  that  contains  impurity.  They  besought  him  to 
remain,  but  he  referred  them  to  his  writings,  which  would  be  the  same  as  his 
personal  presence. 

The  king  of  Magadha  had  killed  his  father,  and  therefore  suffered  from  a 
painful  ulcer ;  and  when  he  lamented  that  Buddha  was  going  where  he  could 
not  heal  him,  Shakyamuni  radiated  pure  and  cool  light  as  far  as  the  king,  and 
healed  him.  He,  with  his  queen  and  five  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  sub- 
jects, then  came  to  the  city  to  see  the  sage,  and  were  taught,  and  his  guilt  was 
thus  much  lightened.  We  pass  over  other  things  which  are  mere  repetitions. 
Ananda  asked  him  :  "  Who  shall  be  our  teacher?  "  He  replied,  "The  Shipara 
system  of  discipline."  "  Where  shall  we  live  ?  "  Answer  :  "  In  the  four  places 
of  meditation,  (i)  Meditation  on  the  body.  The  body  and  the  moral  nature 
are  identical  in  vacancy.     (2)  Meditation  on  receptiveness.     Reception  is  not 

1  Chinese  form  of  Arhan.    . 

^Tlie  Sala  tree  is  regarded  in  China  as  having  been  the  liorse  chestnut  (^^^fa/«j).— Letter  of  Dr.  S.  Wells 
Williams. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  273 

inside,  nor  is  it  outside,  nor  is  it  in  the  middle.  (3)  Meditation  on  tlie  heart. 
It  is  only  a  name.  The  name  differs  from  the  nature.  (4)  Meditation  on  the 
law  (Dharma).  The  good  Dharma  cannot  be  attained,  nor  can  the  evil  Dhar- 
ma  be  attained.^ 

Brahma  not  appearing  in  the  assembly,  the  angry  multitude  sent  for  him, 
but  his  city  was  found  extremely  filthy,  and  the  messenger  died.  Buddha 
created  a  diamond  king  by  his  magical  power,  who  went,  and,  pointing  to  the 
filth,  transformed  it  into  good  soil ;  he  then  pointed  at  Brahma,  and  by  the 
use  of  a  little  of  his  strength  made  him  come  to  Buddha. 

Buddha  then  proceeded  with  his  instructions,  referring  them  to  the  book  of 
discipline  called  Pratimoksha  Sutra,  which  details  the  duties  of  priests;  and,  re- 
clining on  his  right  side,  with  his  head  to  the  north,  his  feet  to  the  south,  his  face 
to  the  west,  and  his  back  to  the  east,  at  midnight,  without  a  sound,  he  entered 
the  Paranirvana.  He  lay  between  four  pairs  of  sala  trees.  Two  pairs  lying 
east  and  west  became  one  tree,  as  also  the  two  pairs  lying  north  and  south, 
and  in  their  grief  changed  to  a  stork-like  whiteness.  When  he  was  placed  in  a 
gold  cofifin,  it  was  found  that  it  could  not  be  moved,  but  Buddha  himself  lifted 
it  to  the  height  of  the  sala  trees,  and  the  coffin  moved  of  itself  in  and  out  of 
the  gates,  going  the  round  of  the  city  seven  times,  and  slowly  proceeded  to  the 
place  of  cremation.  After  all  was  consumed,  his  mother  came  down  from 
heaven,  and  the  coffin  opened  of  itself.  The  honored  one  rose  up,  joined  his 
hands,  and  said,  "You  have  condescended  to  come  down  here  from  your  abode 
far  away  ;  "  and  to  another,  "  For  an  example  to  the  unfilial  of  other  ages  have 
I  risen  from  my  coffin  to  address  my  mother."'  Kashiapa  was  instructing  five 
hundred  disciples  at  a  distant  mountain,  when  an  earthquake  told  him  his 
master  had  gone,  and  at  once  he  came  with  his  disciples  to  the  coffin.  Buddha 
pitied  him,  and  again  the  coffin  opened  of  itself,  and  revealed  the  golden  and 
purple  body  of  Buddha,  strong  and  beautiful.  These  stories  are  repeated  just 
as  they  are  given,  that  the  intelligent  reader  may  compare  them  with  the  gen- 
uine miracles  of  Holy  Scripture. 

Seven  days  after  the  cremation,  Indra  Shakra  opened  the  coffin  and  took 
out  a  tooth  of  Buddha.  A  Raksha  also  took  out  two  teeth.  The  citizens  filled 
eight  golden  pots  with  relics.^  On  another  page,''  we  learn  that  one  tooth  in  a 
temple  in  China  is  "two  inches  and  a  half  thick,  and  ten  by  thirteen  in  width 
(and  depth  .?)."  When  his  father  welcomed  him  home,  he  is  described  as 
"  sixteen  feet  in  height,"  and  his  color  a  brilliant  golden.* 

Chinese  tradition  says  Buddha  was  born  in  a  palace,  with  a  halo  of  glory 
round  his  head.  One  of  the  first  things  he  did  was  to  walk  seventeen  steps 
toward  the  four  cardinal  points,  declaring  aloud,  "  In  heaven  and  earth  is  none 
greater  than  I,"^  The  accounts  of  his  marvelous  strength  and  endowments  are 
ludicrously  incredible.  The  accompanying  engraving  gives  a  good  idea  of  the 
exaggerated  way  in  which  his  worshipers  love  to  represent  Buddha.  This 
image  is  of  bronze,  fifty  feet  high.  The  reader  can  judge  of  its  size  by  com- 
paring it  with  the   men   in   front.     This  image  is  at  Kamakura,  near  Yedo,  in 

'^Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  54.  -Do.,  p.  5S.  ^Do. ,  p.  250.  ^Do.,  p.  32. 

•'■  Nevius'  China  atid  the  Chinese,  p.  85. 


274  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Japan.     There  is  a  door  behind,  by  which  one  may  pass  inside.     In   1871,  an 
American  sat  on  one  of  the  thumbs  and  sang  the  doxology.' 

Dr.  Edkins  gives  the  following  specimens  of  Buddhist  teaching.  Kuma- 
rada,  the  nineteenth  patriarch,  says  :  "  Activity  comes  from  doubt,  doubt  from 
knowledge,  knowledge  from  a  lack  of  perceptive  power,  and  this  last  from  a 
morbid  mind.  Let  your  mind  be  pure  and  at  rest,  and  without  life  or  death, 
victory  or  defeat,  action  or  retribution,  and  you  have  reached  the  eminence  of 
the  Buddhas  of  the  past.  All  vice  and  virtue,  action  and  inaction,  are  a  dream 
and  a  delusion."  ^     Kumarada  died  A.  D.  23. 

Haklena,  the  twenty-third  patriarch,  to  the  question :  "  How  to  attain  to 
the  true  knowledge  of  things  ? "  replied,  "  Do  nothing.  If  you  do  anything 
there  is  no  merit  in  it.      By  doing  nothing  you  follow  the  system  of  Buddha."  ^ 

The  reader  will  not  be  surprised  to  knov/  that  a  reformed  Buddhist  sect 
appeared  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  called  Wu  Wei  Kiau.*  It 
is  described  by  Dr.  Edkins,  pp.  371-379.  The  following  story  is  one  of  their 
traditions.  The  patriarch  Haklena  was  told  by  Manura  that  five  hundred  of 
his  disciples,  who  sought  to  delude  him  into  showing  them  favor,  had  once 
been  born  as  storks;  and  when  he  intimated  a  wish  to  get  rid  of  them,  they 
were  induced  to  fiee  away  with  loud  cries  by  the  utterance  of  these  words: 
"The  mind  follows  the  ten  thousand  forms  in  their  revolutions.  At  the  turning 
points  of  revolution  there  really  must  be  darkness.  By  following  the  stream,  • 
and  recognizing  the  true  nature,  you  attain  a  position  where  there  is  no  joy  or 
sorrow."^ 

A  little  work  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  called  Twan-tsi-sinyau,  says  :  "  To  be- 
come Buddha  the  mind  needs  only  to  be  freed  from  its  affections ;  not  to  love 
nor  hate  ;  covet,  rejoice  nor  fear;  to  do,  or  aim  at  doing,  what  is  virtuous  or 
vicious,  is  to  leave  the  heart  and  go  out  into  the  tangible  world.  It  is  to  become 
entangled  in  the  metempsychosis  in  the  one  case,  and  much  trouble  and  vexa- 
tion in  the  other.  The  right  method  is  in  the  mind  ;  it  is  the  mind  itself. 
The  fountain  of  knowledge  is  the  pure  self-enlightening  mind.  This  is  the 
method  taught  by  all  the  Buddhas.  Let  the  mind  do  nothing,  observe  nothing, 
aim  at  nothing,  hold  fast  to  nothing  —  that  is  Buddha.  Then  there  will  be  no 
difference  between  living  in  the  world  and  entering  the  Nirvana.  Then  human 
nature,  the  mind,  Buddha,  and  the  doctrine  he  taught,  all  become  identical.® 

It  is  no  wonder  that  one  of  their  schools  —  the  Lin-tsi,  its  founder  died 
A.  D.  868  —  teaches  the  following  enigmas:  "Is  it  to  search  in  the  grass 
where  there  is  the  shadow  of  the  stick,  that  you  have  already  come  here  ?  " 
And,  "To  kill  a  man,  to  strike  with  the  sword  a  dividing  blow,  and  the  body 
should  not  enter  the  water."  Such  sentences  certainly  discourage  the  exercise 
of  thought,  and  favor  a  hopeless,  intellectual  apathy. 

The  proton  pseudos  of  Buddhism  is  its  denial  of  God.  Not  that  it  denies 
the  existence  of  gods,  but  it  denies  Godhead,  leaving  the  name  without  the 
reality  it  represents.  The  Sanskrit  name  for- God  is  Di\^,  or  Deva,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Greek  Theos,  and  Latin  Deus,  but  Buddhism  teaches  that  these  are 
mortal,  and  limited  in  power,  so  that  men  can  rise  to  their  level,  or,  as  in  the 

^ Missio7tary  Herald,  iSjq,  p.  77.      ^  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  82.      'Do.,  p.  S4.       'The  Do  Nothing  Sect. 
^Chinese  Bnddhism,  p.  S4.  ^'  Do.,  p.  163. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  275 

case  of  Buddha,  have  them  sit  at  his  feet  to  learn  what  he  alone  can  teach 
them.  Southey  followed  out  Buddhistic  ideas  when,  in  his  curse  of  Kehama, 
"  he  made  him,  though  a  man,  a  terror  to  the  kings  of  the  Devas." ' 

And  here  we  need  not  go  beyond  the  sparkling  pages  of  Mr.  Edwin  Arnold, 
who,  in  introducing  Buddha  to  an  English  audience,  adorned  with  all  the 
charms  of  poetry,  cannot  be  supposed  to  introduce  anything  into  the  beautiful 
picture  that  would  needlessly  prejudice  his  hero.     He  says : 

"Nay;  it  may  be  some  of  the  gods  are  good, 
And  evil  some,  but  all  in  action  weak. 
Both  pitiful  and  pitiless,  and  both  — 
As  men  are  —  bound  upon  this  wheel  of  change, 
Knowing  the  former  and  the  after  lives." 

That  is,  subject  to  metempsychosis,  or  transmigration,  as  well  as  men.  His 
Buddhist  goes  on  : 

"  For  so  our  Scriptures  truly  seem  to  teach. 
That  —  once,  and  wheresoe'er,  and  whence  begun  — 
Life  runs  its  rounds  of  living,  climbing  up 
From  mote,  and  gnat,  and  worm,  reptile,  and  fish. 
Bird,  and  shagged  beast,  man,  demon,  deva,  God, 
To  clod  and  mote  again."  ^ 

Note  the  teaching :  God  climbs  from  mote,  and  worm,  and  reptile  under  the 
pressure  of  inevitable  causes,^  up  to  his  high  position  and  back  to  clod  and 
mote  again.  The  same  substance  now  a  clod  may,  after  countless  ages,  or 
kalpas,  become  a  god,  and  then,  after  a  like  lapse  of  duration,  become  a  clod 
again. 

How  different  from  "  the  Father  of  lights  with  whom  is  no  variableness,  or 
shadow  of  turning."  James  i:  17.  To  whom  the  pious  heart  adoring  saith, 
"  Thou  Lord  in  the  beginning  hast  laid  the  foundation  of  the  earth,  and  the 
heavens  are  the  work  of  thy  hands.  They  shall  perish,  but  thou  remainest, 
and  they  all  shall  wax  old  as  doth  a  garment,  and  as  a  vesture  shalt  thou  fold 
them  up,  and  they  shall  be  changed ;  but  thou  art  the  same,  and  thy  years  shall 
not  fail."  Psalms  011:25-27.  Hebrews  i :  10-12.  And  again:  "From  ever- 
lasting (eternity)  to  everlasting  (eternity)  thou  art  God."     Psalms  xc  :  2, 

It  may  be  replied  that,  in  another  place,  the  poem  says  : 

"  Only  great  Brahm  endures.     The  gods  but  live."  4 

True,  it  is  in  the  poem,  but  it  is  there  as  an  expression  of  a  Brahmin  faith, 
which  Buddha  denies,  and  the  sacred  books  of  Buddhism  say :  "A  wise  man 
can  never  be  born  in  the  abode  of  Brahma,  because  that  god,  in  his  ignorance 
of  causes,^  asserts  that  he  can  create  heaven,  earth,  and  all  things.  No  wise 
man  would  live  in  the  heaven  of  one  so  arrogant."®  So  boldly  does  Buddhism 
deny  the  Creator.  Is  it  strange  that,  having  thus  dethroned  God,  the  wretched 
Buddhist  suffers  the  righteous  penalty  of  such  atheism  in  his  dreary,  desolate 

'^  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  iqy.  -  Light  of  Asia,  t^.  <)(>.        ^  Karma.        *  Light  of  Asia, -p.  ii<). 

^'  i.  t  ,  the  Buddhist  causes,  which  »hat  system  puts  in  the  place  of  a  living,  personal  God. 

"Edkins,  p.  224. 


276  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

hope  only  of  annihilation  ?  In  Christian  lands,  some  in  their  pity  for  the 
lost,  try  to  think  that,  instead  of  suffering  forever,  they  will  cease  to  exist,  but 
Buddhism,  having  denied  the  living  God,  leaves  for  Buddha  himself  no  better 
portion  than  a  dreary  hope  of  eternal  unconsciousness.  Most  righteous  Nem- 
esis !  —  that  those  who  cry  "  no  God  "  must  also  cry  "'no  heaven." 

The  most  influemial  leader  of  the  Chinese  Buddhists  was  Matsu.  He  said 
to  his  disciples  :  "You  all  believe  that  the  mind  itself  is  Buddha."  .  .  .  "The 
true  method  is  to  have  no  method.  Out  of  the  mind  is  no  Buddha.  Out  of 
Buddha  there  is  no  mind.  Virtue  is  not  to  be  sought,  nor  vice  to  be  shunned. 
Nothing  should  be  regarded  as  pure  or  pelluted."  To  the  question.  How  to 
attain  excellence  in  religion  ?  he  answered  :  "  Religion  does  not  consist  in  the 
use  of  means.  To  use  means  is  fatal  to  attainment."  And  again,  on  the  sub- 
ject of  advance  in  religion,  he  says  :  "  Human  nature  suffices  for  its  own  wants. 
All  that  is  needed  is  to  avoid  both  vice  and  virtue ;  he  that  can  do  this  is  a 
religious  man."' 

A  great  change  has  taken  place  in  Buddhism.  Instead  of  the  early  promi- 
nence of  BuddhT,  is  now  that  of  Kwan-yin  ;  and  in  place  of  the  much  coveted 
Nirvana,  the  western  paradise  is  now  held  up  as  the  goal  of  desire.  In  its 
early  days,  retribution  and  the  future  life  were  prominent ;  now  this  last  has 
gone  into  the  background,  and  Buddhist  monks  are  lazy,  immoral,  and  profit- 
less members  of  society. 

Yet  Buddhism  has  in  some  things  prepared  the  way  for  Christianity,  and 
furnishes  2, point  tP appuiiox  religious  appeals.  Dr.  Edkins  has  an  interesting 
chapter  on  this  subject.^' 

In  an  imaginary  dialogue,  written  in  the  History  of  the  Sung  Dynasty,  con- 
cerning the  merits  of  Buddhism  and  Confucianism,  the  Buddhist  says  :  "Con- 
fucius refers  only  to  one  life,  and  does  not  allude  to  the  unending  results  of  a 
future  state.  His  good  man  only  benefits  his  posterity,  and  vice  only  entails 
present  suffering.  But  the  doctrine  of  Shakya  has  illimitable  aims.  Heaven 
and  earth  do  not  circumscribe  its  knowledge.  Having,  as  its  own  idea,  mercy 
seeking  to  save,  the  renovation  of  all  the  living  does  not  satisfy  it.  It  speaks 
of  hell,  and  men  fear  to  sin  ;  of  heaven,  and  they  desire  its  bliss." 

The  Confucianist  replies  :  "  To  be  virtuous  from  a  desire  of  heaven,  is  below 
doing  right  for  its  own  sake.  To  keep  under  the  body  from  the  fear  of  hell,  is 
not  so  good  as  to  do  so  from  a  sense  of  duty.  Worship  offered  to  secure  par- 
don, does  not  spring  from  piety.  A  gift  made  to  secure  a  hundred-fold 
recompense,  is  not  sincere.  To  praise  the  bliss  of  Nirvana,  promotes  sloth. 
By  your  system  distant  good  is  looked  for,  while  present  animal  desire  is  un- 
checked. Though  you  say  Boddhisattwas  are  freed  from  such  desires,  yet  all 
men  have  them  without  exception,"  —  and  so  the  debate  goes  on.'' 

The  geography  of  Buddhism  deserves  mention  in  a  volume  devoted  to  mis- 
sionary science.  Buddha's  world  has  the  Sumeru  mountain  for  its  center, 
separated  by  a  wide  sea  from  eight  other  mountains,  which  again  are  separated 
by  another  wide  sea  from  a  great  circular  iron  mountain.     A  thousand  of  these 

>  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  130.  ■  Do.,  Chapter  XXII.  pp   353-370. 

2  Do.,  pp.  96-97.     See  also  a  curious  paper  on  the  same  subject,  Chinese  Repository,  1S33,  pp.  265-270. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  277 

circular  ranges  make  a  small  world,  and  three  thousand  of  them  a  large  world. 
Within  each  iron  enclosure  are  four  continents,  with  a  sun  and  moon.  In 
Jambhudvipa,  the  southernmost  continent  in  our  world,  is  India.  Mt.  Sumeru, 
to  the  north  of  it,  is  one  million  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand^  miles  high, 
and  of  like  depth  under  the  surface  of  the  sea;  the  highest  of  the  Himalayas 
is  five  and  a  half  miles  high.  It  is  composed  of  gold  on  the  east  side,  silver  on 
the  west,  lapis  lazuli  on  the  north,  and  crystal  on  the  south.  South  of  Jambhud- 
vipa it  is  three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty-three  yojanas 
to  the  iron  enclosure.  A  great  yojana'-  is  sixteen  miles,  and  a  small  one  eight 
miles,  making  the  width  of  the  Southern  Ocean  either  two  million  eight  hundred 
and  eighty-live  thousand  three  hundred  and  four,  or  five  million  seven  hundred 
and  seventy  thousand  six  hundred  and  eight  miles.  This  iron  wall  is  three 
hundred  and  twelve  yojanas  in  height  above  the  sea,  and  the  same  depth  below 
its  surface.  Its  circumference  three  million  six  hundred  and  ten  thousand 
three  hundred  and  fifty  yojanas.  Each  iron-bound  world  has  a  Sumeru  moun- 
tain in  the  center.  Over  the  world  are  thirty-two  celestial  regions  :  four  called 
paradises,  ten  of  them  called  worlds  of  desire,  and  eighteen  called  heavens  of 
form,  because  free  from  the  passions  that  exist  in  the  others,  and  these  eigh- 
teen are  divided  into  four  stages  of  contemplation.  Three  of  these  heavens 
are  in  the  first  stage,  and  a  like  number  in  the  second  and  third  stages,  and 
nine  in  the  fourth.  In  the  highest  of  all,  called  Akanita,  is  the  Maha  Ishwara.'' 
The  four  highest  derive  their  names  from  the  ideas  of  vacancy,  knowledge, 
want  of  properties,  and  negation  of  thought.'' 

Some  of  the  Buddhist  hells  are  under  the  region  inhabited  by  man.  One  is 
one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  miles  below  it,  and  the  hell  of  unintermitted 
torment  is  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  miles  below,  or  twice  the  depth 
of  the  other.'^ 

As  to  Buddhist  measures  of  time,  a  kalpa  is  the  period  consumed  in  a 
change  of  the  universe.  These  are  large  or  small.  In  the  small  kalpa,  the  age 
of  man  dwindles  from  an  immeasurable  length  to  ten  years,  and  increases  again 
to  eighty  thousand  years.  Eighty  of  these  make  a  large  kalpa.  In  twenty  of 
them  the  world  is  made.  Twenty  more  it  remains  the  same.  In  twenty  more 
it  is  destroyed,  and  then  vacancy  remains  for  twenty  more.  We  live  in  the 
second  of  these  twenties,  and  eleven  small  kalpas  must  pass  before  destruction 
begins.® 

Buddhism  is  emphatically  the  religion  of  China.  The  emperor  Ming  ti, 
either  prompted  by  a  dream  which  he  had  in  A.  D.  6i,  or  by  the  words  of  Con- 
fucius, already  mentioned,  or,  as  now  seems  more  likely,  by  his  own  desire  to 
learn  more  of  Buddhism,  sent  to  the  west  for  religious  teachers.  His  mes- 
sengers returned  with  this  new  religion  A.  D.  GjJ 

1  Dr.  D.  O.  Allen  {India,  p.  20),  says  that  Mount  Sumeru  is  six  hundred  thousand  miles  high,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  thousand  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  making  a  difference  of  one  million  five  hundred  and 
twelve  thousand  miles,  but  in  such  numbers  a  variation  of  even  that  amount  makes  very  little  difference.  Around 
its  base  are  said  to  be  trees  S,Soo  miles  high,  bearing  fririt  as  large  as  an  elephant. 

2  Of  these  two  yojanas,  one  equals  four  goshalas,  and  the  other  eight,  and  a  goshala  is  the  distance  that  the 
bellowing  of  a  bull  can  be  heard.     Edkins,  note,  p.  223. 

^The  great  self-existent  one.  *  Edkins,  pp.  223-224.  ''  Do.,  p.  225. 

'Do.,  pp.  221-222.  'Do.,  p.  87. 


278  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Besides  faith  in  Buddha,  Chinese  Buddhists  hold  to  inferior  gods,  called 
P'usa,  who  have  not  yet  become  perfect  in  knowledge  ;  and,  as  they  are  nearer 
mankind,  and  so  capable  of  greater  sympathy  with  our  race,  they  are  more 
worshiped.  There  is  a  Northern  Buddhism,  whose  sacred  writings  are  in 
Sanskrit,  and  a  Southern,  with  its  holy  books  in  the  more  recent  Pali.  In 
Thibet  and  Mongolia,  the  system  is  political  as  well  as  religious,  and  has  for  its 
head  the  Grand  Lama,  the  reputed  incarnation  of  Buddha,  whose  spirit  at  death 
is  supposed  to  pass  into  the  infant  whom  he  selects  for  his  successor.  In  China 
and  Japan,  though  the  system  is  not  without  a  hierarchy,  it  has  no  political 
power.' 

Buddhists  believe  in  a  benevolent  God,  associated  with  inferior  ones,  who 
seek  to  save  men  from  evil,  in  the  transmigration  of  souls  and  the  efficacy  of 
good  works.  Their  rites  consist  of  prayers,  works  of  merit,  and  religious 
austerities  to  make  provision  for  the  wants  of  a  future  life.'^  Their  temples  are 
numerous,  costly,  and  imposing,  built  in  high  places,  in  seclusion  among  the 
hills.  They  consist  of  several  separate  buildings,  minutely  described  by  Mr. 
Doolittle,  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese,^  and  by  Mr.  Nevius.*  In  front  of  the  three 
large  images  of  Fuh  is  generally  an  image  of  Kwan  shi  yin  P'usa,  a  virgin 
worshiped  as  the  "  Conferrer  of  sons,"  and  generally  represented  like  the 
Papal  Mar}',^  with  a  child  in  her  arms. 

Kwan  shi  yin,  or  Kwan  yin,  was  introduced  into  Indian  Buddhism  not  long 
before  the  Christian  era.  In  China  he  was  worshiped  probably  in  the  Han 
dynasty.  A  modern  change  has  taken  place  in  his  image,  Down  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twelfth  century  he  was  represented  as  a  man,  but  in  later  times  as 
a  woman.  The  popular  taste  favors  a  goddess  rather  than  a  god.  Hence  the 
appellation.  Goddess  of  Mercy.  This  indicates  that  the  Buddhist  mind  in 
China  assigns  feminine  attributes  to  mercy. 

Salvation  by  teaching  is  a  characteristic  conception  of  Chinese  Buddhism. 
It  applies  to  all  those  fancied  personages  called  Fuh  and  P'usa.  The  mission 
of  Kwan  yin  for  the  salvation  of  men,  is  symbolized  by  her  thirty-two  metamor- 
phoses for  that  end.  Among  these  are  the  eighty-four  thousand  arms  and 
hands  with  which  she  guides  them.  She  teaches  the  non-existence  of  matter, 
and  the  infinite  knowledge  and  mercy  of  Buddha.  All  evil  is  summed  up  in 
ignorance.  To  know  the  emptiness  of  existing  things  is  to  be  saved,  and  so 
she  seeks  to  save.^ 

There  are  also  in  some  of  the  temples,  several  rooms  representing  the  tor- 
ments of  hell,  answering  to  Papal  pictures  of  purgatory.''  The  idols  are  sup- 
plied with  artificial  entrails^  through  a  hole  in  the  back,  if  of  clay  or  wood;  but 
in  the  bottom,  of  those  made  from  metal.  Unlike  the  Pantheon  of  India,  there 
is  nothing  indecent  or  calculated  to  inflame  base  passions  in  Chinese  idols,  but 
rather  fitted  to  inspire  reverence  and  awe.®      Some  temples  have  five  hundred 

'^Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  258-259.  -Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  251. 

3  Vol.  I,  pp.  239-242.  *  pp.  86-96.  B  Doolittle,  Vol.  I,  p.  261. 

^Chinese  Buddhism,  pp.  382-3S3,  and  see-  pp.  241,  245,  250;  and  Dr.  Williams'  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  255-257. 

'Doolittle,  Vol.  II,  p.  100;  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  p.  257. 

'Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  276;  Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  251.  ^Middle  Kingdom.,  Vol.  II,  p.  131. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS. 


279 


priests,  and  in  their  picturesque  mountain  locations  are  the  favorite  watering- 
places  of  wealthy  families  in  the  summer.  Buddhist  priests  generally  become 
such  early  in  life,  because  of  orphanage  or  poverty,  or  on  account  of  troubles 
that  come  later  in  life,  or  even  through  crime,  as  the  disguise  of  a  priest  facili- 
tates impunity  from  punishment.  They  take  vows  of  celibacy,  live  on  vege- 
tables, and  wear  nothing  made  of  wool  or  skins  of  animals.  They  shave  the 
head,  and  wear  a  priestly  robe.  Their  income  is  from  the  lands  of  the  temples, 
free-will  offerings,  and  money  paid  for  services  at  funerals,  and  begging.     They 


,r-:. 


W^^^^iS^^ 


A    BUDDHIST    HEK.MIT. 


burn  candles,  use  incense,  and  prostrate  themselves  before  their  idols.  Some 
priests  live  as  hermits,  and  others  are  walled  up  in  rooms  for  years,  only  a 
small  aperture  being  left  open  for  the  admission  of  food.  This  is  sometimes 
done  for  hire,  rich  men  paying  a  certain  price  for  the  supposed  merit  of  the  act, 
but  sometimes  it  is  for  life.'     Occasionally  the  hermit  lives  in  a  cave  or  cell  in 

1  Williams'  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  p.  250,  also  273  ;  Doolittle's  Social  Life  0/  the  Chinese,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
23S-246;  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I,  pp.  285-289.  On  Buddhist  idols  in  Siam,  see  Chinese  Repository,  1850,  pp. 
548-551- 


250  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

the  woods  or  among  the  mountains,  to  which  access  is  obtained  only  by  such 
methods  as  are  employed  in  the  engraving. 

The  worshipers  in  Buddhist  temples  are  chiefly  old  women,  who,  in  their 
bitter  experience  ^  here,  seek  to  become  men  in  the  future  state,  by  their  auster- 
ities. The  priests  appoint  certain  days  for^'  selling  tieh  ;  /.  c,  receipts  for 
money  payable  in  Hades.  They  tell  them  that,  when  they  die,  it  may  be  hun- 
dreds of  years  before  they  return  to  earth,  and,  meanwhile,  they  are  on  expense 
there,  as  here,  and  money  will  fee  the  judges,  so  that  their  cases  will  come  up 
sooner  and  be  treated  with  more  favor.  So  these  drafts  are  bought,  sealed  with 
the  temple  seal,  the  words  Na-mo  0-me-to  Fuh,"*  repeated  over  them  some 
thousands  of  times,  and  they  are  laid  away  to  be  burned  at  their  funeral,  and 
so  transferred  with  them  to  another  world.  As  only  one  tieh  can  be  bought  on 
one  day,  the  women  eagerly  purchase  them,  and  spend  their  time  at  the  temple 
in  gossip,  and  in  repeating  over  and  over  "  Namo  Ometo  Fuh."  They  have 
rosaries  to  aid  them  in  keeping  count  of  the  repetitions.''  They  also  seek  ad- 
vantage in  the  future  world  by  worshiping  certain  books;  /.  e.,  prostrating 
themselves  before  each  character  in  the  volume,  just  as  they  do  before  the 
idols,  so  getting  over  about  a  page  a  day,  and  their  horoscope  decides  how 
often  they  must  go  over  the  book  in  this  way  to  have  all  their  debts  remitted 
in  the  life  to  come.  These  things,  however,  like  the  immuring  in  the  cell,  may 
be  done  by  proxy,  and  the  credit  inure  to  the  one  who  pays  for  the  perform- 
ance.'' Papists  recognizing  the  resemblance  of  Buddhism  in  many  things  to 
Romanism,^  have  charged  Satan  with  counterfeiting  the  true  religion ;  for  be- 
sides the  resemblances  already  mentioned,  Buddhists''  pray  in  an  unknown 
tongue^  to  saints  and  intercessors,  especially  to  the  Virgin  and  child."  They 
pray  for  the  dead.  They  have  monasteries  and  nunneries,  works  of  supereroga- 
tion, a  formal  daily  service  of  chants,  burning  of  candles  and  incense,  sprink- 
ling of  holy  water,  religious  fasts  and  feasts,  processions,  images  and  pictures, 
and  worship  relics  both  real  and  pretended.  The  Buddhist  nunneries  are  in 
deservedly  bad  repute  for  their  immoralities.  One  in  Fuhchau  was  summarily 
suppressed  by  the  civil  authority,  about  1835,  and  has  never  been  reopened,  at 
least  as  a  nunnery.'" 

We  cannot  find  a  more  appropriate  ending  to  these  remarks  on  Buddhism 
than  is  furnished  by  the  following  excellent  summing  up  of  the  case  by  Rev. 
E.  E.  Strong  in  the  Missionary  Herald,  for  1881,  pp.  7-9: 


A   LIGHT  THA  T  DOES  NOT  ILLUMINE. 

Since  the  publication  of  Mr.  Edwin  Arnold's  Lighf  of  Asia,  the  life  and 
teaching  of  Gautama  Buddha  have  been  quite  generally  discussed  in  our  lead- 
in"-  reviews.  The  coincidences  and  the  contrasts  between  the  history  and  the 
teachings  of  the  great  Buddhist  hero,  and  of  Jesus  Christ,  have  been  presented 

iNevius,  p.  103.  -Middle  Ki,igdovt,  Vol.  II,  pp.  253-263. 
3 Ometo  Fuh  is  Chinese  for  Amilablia,  or  Amida  Buddha. 

4Nevius,  pp.  106-109;  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  274-275-  ■•Nevius,  p.  mo. 

*Do     p   112  ;  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  11,  p.  257.  '  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  1 1,  p.  252. 

«The' Sanskrit.  "  Kwan  shi  yin. 

lODoolittle's  Social  Life  Among  the  Chinese,  Vol.  I,  p.  253;  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  255-257; 
Uevius'  China  and  the  Chinese,  p.  102. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  281 

very  fully.  That  some  of  these  coincidences  are  striking,  no  one  will  deny ; 
that  the  contrasts  are  as  striking  will  probably  be  denied  by  some,  but  certainly 
not  by  any  who  look  beneath  the  surface.  Gautama  was  of  a  gentle,  yet  in- 
tensely earnest  spirit,  and  seems  to  have  been  moved  with  compassion  for  the 
multitude  like  that  which  filled  our  Lord.  He  took  upon  himself  the  task  of  a 
reformer  in  the  midst  of  a  Brahmanism  which  was  cold  and  proud  and  cruel. 
We  would  not  question  his  benevolent  purpose.  But  his  particular  object,  and 
his  method  for  attaining  that  object  differ  from  those  of  Christ  as  night  differs 
from  day.  Gautama  was  oppressed  by  the  suffering  about  him  ;  Christ  was 
burdened  for  the  world's  sin.  To  the  Indian  prince  the  great  evil  was  pain ; 
to  Jesus  there  was  no  evil  to  be  compared  with  wickedness.  The  Buddhist 
would  make  men  happy  ;  our  Lord  would  first  make  them  holy.  And  as  to  the 
remedies  suggested,  the  contrast  is  still  more  striking.  Gautama  taught  that 
misery  is  inseparable  from  existence,  and  hence  the  only  way  to  avoid  pain  was 
to  escape  from  the  prison  of  endless  existences.  This  goal  of  unconsciousness, 
his  highest  good,  could  be  gained  not  by  help  from  without,  for  there  were  no 
gods  even  who  could  help,  but  by  one's  own  efforts.  He  who  would  attain 
Nirvana  must  abandon  all  affection,  check  all  desires,  and  by  meditation  seek 
to  lose  personal  consciousness.  But  Jesus  sought  to  quicken  and  not  to  be- 
numb the  affections;  he  would  inspire  every  faculty  to  a  more  intense  activity; 
he  proposes  to  deliver  his  followers  from  their  sin,  and  so  bring  them  into  con- 
scious and  blissful  fellowship  with  the  God  of  their  salvation.  Gautama  sets 
before  men  eternal  sleep,  but  Jesus  offers  them  eternal  life. 

But  it  is  in  view  of  the  lofty  character  of  Shakyamuni  and  of  the  general 
purport  of  his  doctrines,  that  Mr.  Arnold  has  termed  him  "The  Light  of  Asia." 
It  has  seemed  to  us  that  the  propriety  of  this  title  can  be  settled  in  a  better 
way  than  by  investigating  his  life  and  teachings.  Every  one  knows  that  it  is 
the  function  of  a  light  to  enlighten.  It  is  certainly  miscalled  if  it  cannot 
irradiate  some  definite  area.  Even  if  a  light  is  hid  under  a  bushel,  it  will  cer- 
tainly illumine  the  bushel.  But  the  Buddhism  of  Gautama  has  not  been  thus 
hidden.  For  twenty-five  hundred  years  it  has  had  its  opportunity  to  mold 
society  throughout  a  vast  area  in  the  Eastern  world.  It  has  been  received  in 
India,  Burmah,  Siam,  China,  and  Japan.  Mr.  Arnold  boasts  that  more  than  a 
third  of  mankind  owe  to  it  their  moral  and  religious  ideas,  and  that  countless 
millions  daily  repeat  the  formula,  "I  take  refuge  in  Buddha."  There  can, 
therefore,  be  no  plea  that  the  religion  of  Gautama  has  not  had  the  fullest 
opportunity  to  reveal  its  power,  and  it  is  fair  to  ask,  after  twenty-five  hundred 
years,  whether  that  religion  has  been  efficient  in  the  regeneration  of  individuals 
or  of  society. 

The  sufficient  answer  to  the  claim  that  Gautama  was  the  Light  of  Asia  is  — 
the  Asia  of  to-day.  This  has  been  the  field  of  his  conquests,  but  what  have 
they  secured  for  that  continent  ?  Hundreds  of  millions  worship  him,  but  is  it  a 
/igkt  in  which  they  are  walking?  We  need  make  no  wholesale  accusations 
against  society  in  those  nations,  as  though  all  wickedness  prevailed  there  while 
all  was  light  about  us.  We  recognize  fully  the  many  good  qualities  found  in 
the  Hindoo,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Japanese.     We  have  no  doubt  that  the  in- 


202  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

coming  of  Buddhism  did  much  to  ameliorate  the  harshness  of  Brahmanism, 
though  it  is  more  of  a  question  whether  it  improved  upon  the  Confucianism  of 
China.  But  after  admitting  all  that  can  reasonably  be  claimed  as  to  the  good 
qualities  of  these  Asiatic  races,  every  man  who  has  seen  the  light  of  the  West- 
ern world  knows  that  those  races,  as  races,  are  walking  in  moral  and  spiritual, 
as  well  as  intellectual,  darkness.  Individuals  may  be  lifted  much  above  their 
surroundings,  but  the  common  people  are  sunken  in  what  we  can  only  call 
degradation.  There  can  be  no  dispute  about  this.  The  laudations  sometimes 
paid  to  the  virtues  of  Orientals  are  only  fair  as  answers  to  the  wholesale  depre- 
ciation in  which  a  few  indulge  unwisely.  Every  man  knows  that  the  West  is 
not  looking  to  the  East  for  light,  but  that  the  East,  as  it  catches  some  gleams 
from  afar,  is  slowly  awaking  to  the  consciousness  that  she  is  sitting  in  dark- 
ness, and,  therefore,  sends  eagerly  to  Christendom  for  instruction.  Look  at 
the  people  over  whom  Buddhism  has  had  sway.  Are  they  walking  in  the  light, 
or  are  they  giving  light  ?  Though  Buddhism  was  driven  from  India,  yet  Mr. 
Arnold's  claim  is  probably  true  that  '■  the  most  characteristic  habits  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Hindoos  are  clearly  due  to  the  benign  influence  of  Buddha's  pre- 
cepts." I^ut  how  far  can  they  be  called  benign  when  India  is  left  where  she  is 
to-day,  weak,  emasculated,  ignorant;  her  people  the  victims  of  superstitions, 
her  religion  little  more  than  mendicancy,  her  two  hundred  and  forty  millions  of 
inhabitants  so  inefficient  and  incapable  that  they  are  subject  to  a  nation  of 
thirty-three  millions,  of  an  alien  civilization,  and  living  many  thousand  miles 
away.  Look  at  Burmah,  where  the  fullest  fruits  of  Buddhism  may  be  seen. 
The  recent  stories  of  atrocities  in  that  land,  due  not  less  to  the  degradation  of 
the  people  than  to  the  corruptions  of  the  court,  show  that  darkness  reigns 
there.  In  China,  while  Buddhism  counts  its  millions  of  adherents,  their  religion 
is  of  so  little  account  to  them  that  they  will  at  any  time  worship  at  either  a 
Confucian  or  Taoist  shrine.  It  has  no  other  effect  upon  their  lives  than  to 
make  them  more  indolent.  In  Japan  the  reformed  Buddhism  is  not  that  of 
Gautama  at  all,  but,  in  all  essential  doctrines,  the  very  opposite.  Indeed,  all 
the  so-called  reformations  of  Buddhism,  of  which  its  best  followers  have  felt 
the  need,  have  been  reformations  not  backwards  towards  the  teachings  of 
Gautama,  but  away  from  them.  Yet  neither  the  old  nor  the  reformed  Buddhism 
has  lifted  the  Japanese  out  of  their  darkness. 

The  truth  is  that  Buddhism  offers  to  man  no  power  to  attain  the  virtues  it 
depicts.  Human  nature  needs  not  merely  to  be  taught  concerning  the  way  of 
righteousness,  but  to  be  helped  along  that  way.  Gautama  revealed  no  such 
helps,  neither  from  God  nor  man.  He  took  away  all  spring  from  life,  he 
sought  to  stifle  every  emotion,  to  crush  every  affection.  He  called  men  not  to 
the  active  exercise  of  their  powers,  but  to  drowsy  meditation.  He  left  no  place 
fgr  woman  in  his  system ;  it  was  only  for  men.  He  sought,  by  ignoring  the 
gods,  to  stifle  the  instinct  for  worship  ;  an  endeavor  so  contrary  to  human  im- 
pulses that  his  followers  began  to  worship  him.  And  now  they  worship  his 
teeth,  and  hair,  and  images.  When  one  looks  at  the  condition  of  society,  and 
especially  of  women,  throughout  the  Buddhist  world,  and  considers  the  super- 
stitions and  ignorance  of  the  mass  of  Gautama's  followers,  it  seems   like   a 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  283 

sarcasm  to  call  him  "The  Light  of  Asia."  So  ignorant  are  they  of  their  own 
sacred  books,  that  they  are  coming  to  the  Christian  scholars  of  Europe  to 
teach  them  to  read  what  their  own  saints  and  heroes  have  written. 

Gautama  was  a  gentle  and  pure  spirit,  melancholic  but  benevolent,  wise  in 
many  ways,  but  not  wise  above  mortals.  Better  than  most  of  his  race,  he  is 
justly  conspicuous.  He  was  a  star  in  the  night,  bright,  because  of  the  gloom  in 
which  he  appeared,  but  he  was  not  the  sun  to  drive  that  night  away.  If  he 
were  the  light  of  Asia  such  thick  darkness  could  not  remain  there.  Asia  still 
waits  for  the  Light  that  enlighteneth  the  world.  When  her  millions  receive 
Him  they  will  no  longer  walk  in  darkness. 

The  Tau  sect,  called  Rationalists,  and  also  Mystics,  sprang  from  Laots,  a 
philosopher  born  B.  C.  604.  His  work,  Tau  Teh  King,^  is  noted  in  Chinese 
literature.  Tauism  takes  its  name  from  Tau,-  the  first  character  in  the  title  of 
that  book.^  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Confucius,  who  visited  him,  but  did  not 
comprehend  him.  His  followers  despised  the  simple,  practical  doctrines  of 
Confucius.  Tauism,  however,  has  passed  from  philosophy  to  superstition,  and 
has  busied  itself  in  seeking  the  elixir  of  life  and  the  philosopher's  stone.  Its 
characteristic  is  materialism  ;  matter,  according  to  it,  is  eternal.  The  grosser 
part  tends  downward,  and  constitutes  the  earth  and  human  bodies  ;  the  more 
refined  essences  tend  upward  and  assume  the  form  of  stars,  and  human  souls. 
The  five  elements  are  metal,  wood,  water,  fire,  and  earth,  and  their  sublimated 
essences  form  five  stars,  called  by  their  names,  and  exercising  a  mysterious  in- 
fluence on  human  destiny.  They  come  down  to  earth  and  enter  into  relations 
with  men.     In  connection  with  this  system,  alchemy  and  astrologv  flourish.* 

The  popular  belief  is  that  Laots  existed  as  a  living  principle  before  creation. 
After  the  transformations  of  thousands  of  years  he  was  personified  as  "  Holy 
Ruler  of  Wonderful  Nonentity;"^  again,  after  countless  ages,  as  "  Holy  Ruler 
of  Wonderful  Entity ; "  and  next  as  "  Holy  Ruler  of  Chaotic  Confusion." 
After  the  creation  of  man,  he  appeared  repeatedly  as  king,  and  as  teacher.  As 
the  philosopher  Laots,  he  came  down  from  heaven  in  the  form  of  a  sunbeam, 
shaped  like  a  particolored  ball,  and  fell  into  the  mouth  of  a  sleeping  virgin, 
who  bore  him  after  a  gestation  of  eighty-one  years,  his  hair  already  white,  and 
his  name  meaning  "  the  old  boy,"  He  is  not  a  favorite  object  of  worship,  in- 
ferior deities  being  favorites,  as  more  likely  to  be  interested  in  men  —  showing 
equally  with  Buddhism  how  humanity  craves  the  God-man,  Immanuel,  God 
with  us. 

Lu  tsu,  the  god  of  medicine,  is  a  great  favorite,  because  he  is  supposed 
to  pity  men  in  sickness,  and  comes  from  heaven  for  their  relief.  He  lived 
about  one  thousand  years  ago,  and  on  his  way  to  attend  a  literary  exami- 
nation was  put  to  sleep  at  an  inn,  by  one  of  the  genii,  and  dreamed  that  he 
rose  to  become  prime  minister.      When  he  woke,  the  jin  told  him  his  dream, 

'  Car.on  of  Reason  and  Virtue.  2  Reason. 

•'John  Chalmers,  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  in  Canton,  has  translated  the  work. 
^Dooiiulc,  Vol.  I,  pp,  246-250;  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  242-249;  Nevius,  pp.  114-116. 

.    ^  Nevius,  pp.  116-117. 


284  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

and  when  recognized  as  one  of  the  genii,  added,  "When  the  reality  is  all  over, 
what  is  it  but  a  dream  ? "  The  young  scholar  determined  to  renounce  the 
world,  and  his  unearthly  visitor  offered  to  aid  him  in  getting  the  thousand  de- 
grees of  merit  needed  to  become  one  of  the  genii,  by  enabling  him  to  turn 
everything  he  touched  into  gold,  so  that  he  could  relieve  much  want,  and 
acquire  merit  speeciily.  "  But,"  asked  the  youth,  "  will  the  gold  ever  revert  to  its 
original  state?"  "Yes,  after  many  years."  "Then,"  said  Lu  tsu,  "1  decline 
the  offer,  for  I  would  not  confer  a  transient  good  to  be  followed  by  disappoint- 
ment." The  reply  was  :  "  This  magnanimity  makes  up  the  requisite  amount  of 
merit.     You  may  be  one  of  us  now."  ^ 

Lue  kung  and  Lue  po,  the  thunder  god  and  his  wife,  are  also  idols  of  Tau- 
ism.  He  has  a  beak,  wings,  and  claws,  and  holds  in  his  hands  a  hammer  and 
drum,  with  which  he  makes  the  thunder.  His  wife  has  mirrors  on  her  hands 
and  feet,  whose  reflections,  when  moved,  produce  the  lightning.^ 

The  "  Three  Pure  Ones,"  who  teach  men,  are  supposed  to  be  one  form  of 
Laots.  The  "Three  Rulers,"  /.  e.,  of  heaven,  earth,  and  sea,  are  indispensable 
gods  of  Tauism.     They  are  described  as  a  "trinity  in  unity." ^ 

The  dragon,  also,  a  prominent  object  of  worship  in  China,  is  another  god  of 
the  Tauists.*  His  domain  includes  every  watery  surface  of  sea  or  pond,  and 
every  living  thing  in  the  waters ;  also  the  rain.^  The  throne  of  China  is  the 
dragon  throne.  A  dragon  is  the  royal  coat  of  arms,  and  is  counted  a  real  ex- 
istence ;  and  under  him  are  inferior  dragons,  as  subordinates  under  an  emperor, 
the  dragons  even  supposed  to  have  literary  examinations,  like  Chinese  literati. 

The  Tuti  P'usah,^  the  lowest  of  the  gods,  is,  for  that  reason,  the  most  pop- 
ular among  the  masses.  Every  neighborhood,  hill,  and  bridge  has  one  of  its 
own.'' 

The  Tauist  priests  are  comparatively  few,  and  while  the  Buddhists  seek 
after  Nirvana,  these  seek  to  become  a  sien  jin,  or  one  of  the  genii.  Even  ani- 
mals are  supposed  to  have  power  to  attain  the  same  condition.  The  Tauists 
have  ceremonies  both  for  warding  off  evil  and  recovering  from  sickness,  and 
also  for  inflicting  evil  on  men  through  the  genii.^  Their  temples  are  compara- 
tively few,  because  they  do  not  offer  a  deliverance  from  evil.'" 

Dr.  Edkins  devotes  a  very  interesting  chapter"  to  Buddhism  and  Tauism  in 
their  popular  aspects,  showing  how  the  latter,  with  its  magical  superstitions, 
promotes  popular  delusions  —  though  the  massacre  at  Tientsin  grew  out  of 
hatred  of  the  French,  the  delusion  about  their  getting  children's  eyes  for  medi- 
cine, and  official  playing  on  popular  ignorance. 

He  also  has  a  very  full  and  philosophical  account  of  the  geomancy  of  China, 
or  their  wind  and  water  superstition,  called  Feng  Shui,  which  richly  repays 
perusal.'^ 

These  three  religions  are  not  professed  by  different  and  opposing  sects,  but 

1  Nevius,  p.  118.  -Do.,  p.  119;  Doolittle,  Vol.  II,  p.  301.  ^  Nevius,  p.  120. 

*Do.,  pp.  120-123;  Middle  fCingdojn,  Vol.  I,  p.  267,309;  Doolittle,  Vol.  I,  p.  292,  Vol.  II,  pp.  118,  119, 
264-267.  "  Missionary  Herald,  1876,  p.  376. 

"  Earth  god.  "Nevius,  p.  123;  Doolittle,  Vol.  II,  pp.  .(i;5-.i56.  sjjevius,  p.  125. 

°  Do.,  p.  126.  '"Do.,  p.  129.  "  Chinese  Btcddhism,  pp.  380-397. 

^2 Do.,  pp.  327-352.     See  also  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  p.  264. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  285; 

each  person  forms  an  eclectic  religion  of  his  own,  partaking  more  of  this,  or 
that,  according  to  his  individual  preference;  and  this  course  is  favored  by  the 
fact  that  they  are  supplementary  to  each  other.  Confucianism  has  to  do  witln 
morals  in  this  life;  God  and  our  relations  to  him,  a  future  existence,  and  our 
own  destiny  there  hardly  entering  into  its  sphere  of  thought.  Buddhism,  on 
the  contrary,  has  much  to  do  with  the  idea  of  God  and  a  future  state.  Yet,  as 
it  favors  seclusion  from  society,  Tauism  comes  in  to  supplement  this  deficiency, 
by  its  filling  earth,  and  sea,  and  sky,  with  gods  who  care  for  the  wants  of  this 
present  life.  In  their  fundamental  characteristics,  Confucianism  is  moraI„ 
Buddhism  metaphysical,  tending  to  fanaticism,  and  Tauism  materialistic,  tend- 
ing to  superstition.^ 

The  only  forms  of  worship  which  are  universally  adopted,  are  ancestral 
worship,  the  worship  of  the  kitchen  god,  and  the  worship  of  heaven  and  earth 
on  New  Year's  day.     Let  us  look  a  moment  at  each  of  these. 

Ancestral  worship  was  practiced  long  before  Confucius,  and  sanctioned  by 
him.  It  is  the  oldest  and  most  deeply  rooted  forrri  of  idolatry  in  China.  It  is 
deemed  essential  to  filial  piety,  and  children  engage  in  it.  hoping  thus  to  win 
the  favor  of  deceased  parents  and  enjoy  their  protection.  The  objects  wor- 
shiped are  wooden  ancestral  tablets,  about  a  foot  in  height,  recording  the  names 
and  the  hour  of  the  birth  and  death  of  their  progenitors,  with  the  names  of 
their  sons.  It  is  supposed  that  each  man  has  three  spirits  ;'  one  of  which  dwells 
in  this  tablet,  another  in  the  tomb,  and  the  third  in  Hades.  They  also  worship 
the  portraits  of  deceased  parents,  taken  after  death.  The  worship  consists  of 
prostrations,  offerings  of  cooked  food,  the  burning  of  candles,  incense,  and 
paper  money  ;  also  theatrical  plays.  Family  temples  are  like  other  temples, 
onl}',  instead  of  idols,  are  these  tablets  ranged  on  shelves  across  the  building, 
and  from  the  floor  upward.  These  tablets  sometimes  date  back  a  thousand 
years.  The  openly  immoral  are  neither  allowed  to  worship  or  be  worshiped  after 
death.  These  temples,  if  we  include  single  rooms  in  the  dwelling-house  set 
apart  for  this  purpose,  are  very  numerous  in  China,  and  constitute  it  the  most 
sacred  spot  of  earth  to  a  Chinaman.  Here  rest  the  spirits  of  his  ancestors, 
and  here  he  expects  his  own  spirit  to  find  rest,  and  share  in  the  homage  of  his 
posterity.^ 

The  worship  of  the  kitchen  god  is  equally  ancient  and  universal.  He  has 
no  temple,  or  image,  but  his  picture  is  the  household  deity  of  China,  who  notes 
all  that  transpires  in  the  family  during  the  year,  and  near  its  close  reports  it  to 
the  chief  of  the  gods.  On  that  night,  five  days  before  New  Year,  they  make 
him  a  feast,  so  that  his  report  may  be  as  favorable  as  possible,  and  at  the  close 
his  picture  is  burned,  and  so  dismissed  to  the  gods,  and  a  new  one  installed 
for  the  coming  year.* 

The  state  worship  is  that  prescribed  by  the  book  of  rites,  for  all  rulers  from 
the  emperor  down.     The  people  have  no  part  in  it,  and  it  is  the  most  formal 

iNevius,  149-152  ;  Doolitde,  Vol.  1,236-253.  -  Compare  the  similar  belief  of  the  Dakotas,  p.  260. 

3  Nevius,  p.  132  ;  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  259,  268-270;  Dnolittle,  Vol.  I,  pp.  86,  96,  222,  229,  Vol.  II, 
PP-  45.  372,  388,  424. 

^Nevius,  p.  134;  Missionary  Herald,  1875,  pp.  241-242;  Doolittle,  Vol.  II,  pp.  81-85,  185,  186, 


286  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

of  all  Chinese  worship.  It  is  offered  to  three  classes  of  objects:  First,  to 
heaven,  earth,  spirits  of  deceased  emperors,  and  gods  of  the  land  and  grain. 
Second,  to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  deceased  spirits  of  former  dynasties,  Con- 
fucius, patrons  of  agriculture  and  silk  culture,  gods  of  heaven  and  earth,  and 
of  the  year.  Third,  to  the  spirits  of  deceased  physicians,  philanthropists, 
statesmen,  and  martyrs  to  virtue ;  also  to  clouds,  rain,  wind,  thunder,  moun- 
tains, and  rivers.^ 

The  whole  number  of  temples  in  China  may  be  estimated  at  one  million, 
costing  from  $500  to  $100,000  each.  Of  these,  more  than  one  third  are  for 
ancestral  worship,  about  one  third  for  the  state  worship,  and  the  remaining 
third  for  Buddhist  and  Tauist  deities.^  Dr.  Williams  "'  speaks  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred and  sixty  temples  of  Confucius,  where  sixty-two  thousand  six  hundred  and 
SIX  pigs,  rabbits,  sheep,  and  deer  are  annually  offered  on  the  altars  and  eaten 
by  the  worshipers. 

To  these  accounts  of  Chinese  religious  belief  the  writer  adds  the  following 
very  remarkable  prayer,  offered  by  the  emperor,  Taou  Kwang,  July  25,  1832, 
copied  from  the  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I,  p.  236  :  * 

Kneeling,  a  memorial  is  hereby  presented  to  cause  affairs  to  be  heard. 

Oh,  alas  !  Imperial  Heaven,  were  not  the  world  afflicted  by  extraordinary 
changes,  I  would  not  dare  to  present  extraordinary  services.  But  this  year  the 
drought  is  most  unusual.  Summer  is  past,  and  no  rain  has  fallen.  Not  only 
do  agriculture  and  human  beings  feel  the  dire  calamity,  but  also  beasts  and  in- 
sects, herbs  .and  trees  almost  cease  to  live. 

I,  the  minister  of  heaven,  am  placed  over  mankind,  and  am  responsible  for 
keeping  the  world  in  order,  and  tranquillizing  the  people.  Although  I  cannot 
now  eat  or  sleep  with  composure  ;  though  I  am  scorched  with  grief  and  tremble 
with  anxiety,  still  no  genial  showers  have  been  obtained. 

Some  days  ago  I  fasted,  and  offered  rich  sacrifices  on  the  altars  of  the  gods 
of  the  land  and  of  the  grain,  and  had  to  be  thankful  for  slight  showers  ;  but  not 
enough  to  cause  gladness. 

Looking  up,  I  consider  that  the  heart  of  heaven  is  benevolence  and  love. 
The  sole  cause  is  the  daily  deeper  atrocity  of  my  sins,  but  little  sincerity,  and 
little  devotion.  Hence  my  inability  to  move  the  heart  of  heaven,  and  bring 
down  abundant  blessings. 

Having  respectfully  searched  the  records,  I  find  that  in  the  twenty-fourth 
year  of  Keenlung,  my  imperial  grandfather,  the  high,  honorable  and  pure  em- 
peror, reverently  performed  "  a  great  snow  service."  I  feel  impelled  by  ten 
thousand  considerations,  to  look  up  and  imitate  the  usage,  and  with  trembling 
anxiet}%  rashly  assail  heaven,  examine  myself,  and  consider  my  errors;  looking 
up,  and  hoping  that  I  may  obtain  pardon. 

I  ask  myself  whether  in  sacrificial  services  I  have  been  disrespectful  ? 
Whether  pride  and  prodigality  have  had  place  in  my  heart,  springing  up  there 

1  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  pp.  233-240;   Nevius,  p.  135 ;  Doolittle,  Vol.  I,  pp.  353-375. 
-  Nevius,  p.  153.  '•'■Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  II,  p.  239. 

■•Do.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  369-371. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  287 

unobserved?  Whether,  through  the  lapse  of  time,  I  have  grown  remiss  in  at- 
tending to  the  affairs  of  government,  and  have  been  unable  to  attend  to  them 
with  that  serious  diligence  and  strenuous  effort  which  I  ought  ?  Whether  I 
have  uttered  irreverent  words  and  deserved  blame  ?  Whether  perfect  equity 
has  been  observed  in  meting  out  rewards  and  punishments  ?  Whether  in  rais- 
ing tombs,  and  laying  out  gardens,  I  have  distressed  the  i^eople  and  wasted 
property  ?  Whether  in  appointing  officers  I  have  failed  to  select  fit  persons, 
and  thereby  government  has  become  vexatious  to  the  people  ?  Whether  the 
oppressed  have  found  no  means  of  appeal  ?  Whether  in  persecuting  heretical 
sects,  the  innocent  have  not  suffered  ?  Whether  the  magistrates  have  refused 
to  listen  to  the  affairs  of  the  people  ?  Whether  in  the  wars  on  the  western 
borders  there  have  been  the  horrors  of  human  slaughter  for  the  sake  of  imper- 
ial rewards  ?  Whether  the  largesses  bestowed  on  the  afflicted  southern 
provinces  were  properly  applied,  or  the  people  left  to  die  ?  Whether  the  efforts 
to  exterminate  or  pacify  the  rebels  of  Hunan  and  Kwangtung  were  properly 
conducted,  or  whether  the  people  were  trampled  down  as  mire  ?  To  all  these 
topics  I  ought  to  lay  the  plumb  line,  and  strenuously  seek  to  correct  what  is 
wrong,  still  recollecting  that  there  may  be  more  faults  than  have  occurred  to 
my  thoughts. 

Prostrate,  I  beg  imperial  heaven,  Hwang  Tien,  to  pardon  my  ignorance 
and  stupidity,  and  to  grant  me  self-renovation,  for  myriads  of  innocent  ones  are 
involved  by  me,  a  single  man.  My  sins  are  so  numerous  it  is  hard  to  escape 
from  them.  Summer  is  past,  and  autumn  come  ;  to  wait  longer  is  impossible. 
Knocking  head,^  I  pray  imperial  heaven  to  hasten  and  confer  gracious  deliver- 
ance, a  speedy  and  divinely  beneficial  rain  ;  to  save  the  lives  of  the  people,  and 
in  some  degree  redeem  my  iniquities.  Oh,  alas !  Imperial  heavens,  observe 
these  things  !  Oh,  alas  !  be  gracious  to  them  !  I  am  inexpressibly  grieved  and 
alarmed.     Reverently  this  memorial  is  presented. 

Dr.  Bridgman,  who  translates  this,  adds  :  "  It  is  very  remarkable  that  none 
of  the  priests  of  Taou,  or  Buddha,  were  ordered  to  pray,  as  has  been  usual  on 
similar  occasions  —  showing  in  how  low  estimation  they  are  held  by  the  em- 
peror." Dr.  Williams  adds  that  heavy  showers  followed  the  imperial  supplica- 
tion the  same  evening,  and  appropriate  thanksgivings  w-ere  ordered,  and  sac- 
rifices presented  before  the  six  altars  of  heaven,  earth,  land,  and  grain,  and 
the  gods  of  heaven,  earth,  and  the  revolving  year.^  Does  not  this  prayer  of  a 
Chinese  emperor  illustrate  the  apostolic  teaching,  that  the  heathen,  having  not 
the  law,  are  a  law  unto  themselves,  who  show  the  work  of  the  law  written  on 
their  hearts  ;  their  conscience  also  bearing  them  witness,  and  their  thoughts  the 
meanwhile  accusing  or  else  excusing  one  another?     Romans  ii :  14-15. 

Does  it  not  also  show  how  the  invisible  things  of  God,  from  the  creation  of 
the  world,  are  clearly  seen  ;  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made, 
even  his  eternal  power  and  Godhead  ;  so  that  they  are  without  excuse  ?  Ro- 
mans i :  20. 

'  i.  c,  on  the  ground.  -  Middle  Kingdom,  Vol.  I,  p.  371. 


THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


DRUSES. 

After  recounting:  the  information  missionaries  bring  to  us  of  the  inhabitants 
of  large  empires,  where  other  churches,  and  even  different  nations  labor  side 
by  side,  it  would  seem  inconsistent  in  a  volume  devoted  to  the  work  of  the 
American  Board,  to  pass  by  the  Druses  of  Mt.  Lebanon,  where,  for  so  many 
years,  that  society  was  sole  occupant  of  the  field. 

Their  Territory.  The  Druses  occupy  Mt.  Lebanon  from  its  southern  ex- 
tremity, opposite  Sidon,  as  far  north  as  the  latitude  of  Beirut  —  or,  from  Jezzin 
to  the  Metn  ;  yet  they  are  not  the  exclusive  occupants  of  that  section.  Maron- 
ites  and  Greeks  share  it  with  them.  They  have  one  hundred  and  twent}' 
villages  of  their  own,  and  share  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  with  these  Chris- 
tian sects.  They  also  extend  from  the  southern  part  of  this  district  across  the 
Litany  into  Wady  et  Teim,  on  the  southwest  of  Jebel  esh  Sheikh.  Besides 
this,  they  are  found  in  El  Bellan,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  same  mountain, 
and  in  the  Hauran,  in  smaller  numbers ;  also  in  Jebel  el  Aala,  towards  Aleppo, 
and  in  the  mountains  of  Safet.      A  few  also  live  in  Ras  Beirut. 

Population.  Volney  estimated  them  at  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  ; 
but  this  estimate  was  too  large.  Rev.  Mr.  Connor  made  their  number  seventy 
thousand,^  and  so  did  Dr.  Anderson;-  also  Mr.  Bird.^  Others  have  put  them 
at  one  hundred  thousand.  Col.  Churchill  says  sixty  thousand,*  and  Rev.  J. 
Wortabet,  the  son  of  one  of  our  church  members  at  Beirut,  a  graduate  of  our 
schools,  and  for  a  time  the  pastor  of  the  church  at  Hasbeiya,  but  now  a  profes- 
sor in  the  Syrian  college,  makes  them  only  fifty  thousand.  The  writings  of 
such  an  one  may  surely  be  counted  among  the  contributions  of  the  American 
Board  to  literature."  He  divides  the  Druse  population  as  follows  :  Mt.  Leba- 
non, twenty-seven  thousand  ;  Wady  et  Teim,  seven  thousand  ;  El  Bellan,  Damas- 
cus, etc.,  four  thousand  ;  El  Hauran,  eight  thousand ;  mountains  of  Safet  and 
Acre,  fifteen  hundred ;  Jebel  el  Aala,  two  thousand ;  and  Ras  Beirut  five 
hundred. 

Race.  The  Druses  are  Arabs,  descended  from  the  Beni  Hummiar,  who  emi- 
grated from  Arabia  to  Irak  Ajemi  two  hundred  years  before  Mohammed.  In 
his  day  they  occupied  Jebel  el  Aala,  near  Aleppo,  and  in  the  year  821  A.  D., 
under  the  emir  Fowaris  Tnooh,  emigrated  to  southern  Lebanon,  then  compara- 
tively waste.  Abeih  became  the  center  of  the  Beni  Tnooh.  The  Beni  Raslan 
settled  round  Shweifat,  and  the  Beni  Shweizan  in  the  vicinity  of  Deir  el  Kamr. 
The  Beni  Rabeea  followed,  under  the  emir  Maan,  in  1145,  and  settled  in  Bak- 
leen,  in  a  district  called  the  Shoof,  or  "  Lookout,"  because  it  was  a  post  of  obser- 

1  Missionary  Herald,  1S21,  p.  31.  '- Oriefiial  Churches,  Vol.  I.  p.  236. 

^Missionary  Herald,  1S32,  p.  325.  *  Mt.  Lebanon,  Vol.  I,  p.  104. 

cTo  his  Researches  into  the  Religions  0/ Syria,  a  volume  which  furnishes  much  of  the  material  for  this  notice 
of  the  Druses,  and  his  works  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  may  be  added  among  the  same  contributions  of  the 
Board,  the  works  written  by  Naseef  el  Yazijy,  Michael  Meshaka,  Butrus  el  Bistany,  and  others.  See  Appendix  II, 
under  the  issues  of  the  press  at  Beirut. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  289 

vation  against  the  Franks,  who  passed  along  the  coast  to  and  from  the  Holy 
Land. 

Religion.  To  understand  this  we  must  go  back  to  previous  religions ;  for 
outre  as  the  tenets  of  the  Druses  are,  there  is  hardly  one  that  has  not  been 
adopted  from  some  previous  Oriental  belief,  with  more  or  less  of  modification, 
and  it  is  hard  to  say  which  is  the  more  extravagant — the  creed  of  the  Druses, 
which  seems  to  have  concentered  in  itself  the  extravagances  of  many  previous 
ones,  or  some  of  its  predecessors,  which  were  made  up  of  nothing  else. 

The  primary  principle  of  the  ancient  Persians  was  the  Zerwane  Akerene,  or 
endless  time.  Everything  except  this  was  made.  Time  was  the  creator,  itself 
infinite,  absolute,  eternal.  And  the  Druses  believe  in  a  God  without  attributes  ; 
for  his  attributes  are,  according  to  them,  other  personalities  who  emanated 
from  him — as  the  Universal  Intelligence,  the  Universal  Soul,  the  Will,  the 
Word,  Justice,  and  the  like.  They  hold  that  he  can  neither  be  comprehended 
nor  described. 

Col,  Churchill  says  :  ^  "  None  can  define  his  essence.  Imagination  cannot 
grasp  him.  The  eyes  even  of  those  who  look  on  him  cannot  comprise  him. 
The  most  profound  reflection  cannot  comprehend  him.  Human  reason  cannot 
attain  to  a  knowledge  of  his  works,  and  confesses  its  utter  inability  to  under- 
stand even  that  which  it  knows  of  him  —  his  incarnation."  Hamze  addresses 
him  as  "  indefinable  in  thy  essence,  whom  no  description  can  reach,  and  to 
whom  no  quality  is  applicable."  In  another  place,  "who  art  exempt  from  all 
qualities,"  ^  which  is  a  very  different  thing  from  a  God  whose  ways  are  past 
searching  out.  Compare  with  it  the  Gnostic  idea  of  God  as  "  the  unfathomable 
abyss,"  locked  up  within  himself,  unnamable,  incomprehensible,  to  whom  Basi- 
lides  would  not  even  ascribe  existence.^ 

With  them,  every  other  attribute  seems  to  be  lost  in  his  unity.  Worship, 
according  to  them,  consists  in  a  thorough  apprehension  of  this  one  idea,  and 
perfection  is  a  mystical  absorption  of  thought  and  feeling  in  this  unity.  Hence 
they  call  their  religion  Unitarianism,  and  themselves  Unitarians.  The  ancient 
Persians  also  believed  in  a  good  god,  Auramazda,  and  in  a  god  of  evil,  Ahri- 
man,  and  the  Druses  believe  in  ministers  —  for  so  they  style  the  personified 
divine  attributes  —  that  are  good,  and  others  that  are  evil.  The  Intelligence 
created  from  the  essential  light  of  God  is  good.  He  is  also  called  "  The  Cause 
of  Causes,"  but  he  sinned  in  looking  on  the  glorious  light  of  which  he  was 
formed,  with  complacency,  and  therefore  God  created  another  minister  out  of 
him,  called  "The  Antagonist,"*  pure  darkness  out  of  pure  light,  who,  when  re- 
quired to  obey  the  Universal  Mind,  refused,  and  so  became  a  rebel.  The  Mind 
seeing  the  evil  he  had  done,  repented,  was  forgiven,  and  God  gave  him  for 
associate  the  Universal  Soul,  created  partly  from  the  light  of  the  Mind,  and 
partly  from  the  darkness  of  the  Antagonist.  The  Antagonist  then  felt  the 
need  of  a  companion,  and  God  created  the  Foundation,  or  Companion,  out  of 
the  Mind,  the  Antagonist,  and  the  Soul,  who  refused  to  obey  the  Mind  and 

^Mi.  Lebanon,  Vol.  II,  p.  5.  =Do.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  6  and  58. 

^  Schaff's  Hiiiory  0/  Christ ian  Church,  Vol.  I,  pp.  227  and  237.  *  Compare  Satan  =  Adversary. 

^9 


290  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Soul,  and  took  the  part  of  the  Antagonist.  Compare  with  all  this  the  Gnostic 
idea  of  God  sending  forth  the  ^ons  from  his  bosom  ;  that  is,  the  attributes  and 
unfolded  powers  of  his  nature ;  the  ideas  of  the  eternal  spirit  world,  such  as 
mind,  reason,  wisdom,  power,  truth,  and  life  —  who,  according  to  Valentine, 
emanated  in  pairs,  with  sexual  polarity.^  It  is  curious  that  the  Druses  hold  to 
the  same  idea,  even  to  maintaining  that  the  same  person  is  male  in  relation  to 
one,  and  female  in  relation  to  another.  Thus  the  Soul  is  female  in  relation  to 
the  Universal  Mind,  but  male  in  respect  to  the  ministers  that  were  created  after- 
wards ;  such  as  the  Word,  the  Preceder,  and  Succeeder.-  So  in  matter  heat 
and  cold  stand  in  this  sexual  relation  to  each  other.^ 

The  souls  of  men,  they  hold,  were  created  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Word,  the  Preceder,  and  Succeeder ;  and  as  the  Universal  Soul  was 
derived  both  from  light  and  darkness,  so  are  the  souls  of  men.  They  also  hold 
that  the  number  of  souls  in  existence  has  never  varied  from  the  first  moment 
of  creation  until  now,  nor  will  there  be  either  increase  or  decrease  in  the  future. 
As  they  think  the  soul  incapable  of  knowing  without  a  corporeal  form,  bodies 
were  also  created  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  number,  so  that  at  once  the 
world  was  peopled  with  infants,  adults,  and  old  men  and  women,  just  as  it  is  to- 
day. Of  course,  with  them,  our  race  is  not  descended  from  one  Father.*  And 
this  carries  with  it  the  doctrine  of  Metempsychosis,  or  the  reappearance  of 
the  same  soul  in  different  bodies,  which  is  the  only  tenet  of  the  Druses  that 
they  openly  acknowledge.  They  compare  it  to  a  change  of  garments,  or  pour- 
ing water  from  one  vessel  into  another,  and  advance  in  proof  of  it,  the  manifest 
inequality  of  human  conditions  in  this  life,  to  be  explained,  they  say,  only  by 
the  conduct  of  the  same  soul  in  a  preceding  body.  So  they  say  Christ  affirmed 
John  the  Baptist  to  be  a  reappearance  of  the  soul  of  Elijah,  and  they  ask  how 
could  the  blind  man  have  sinned,  so  as  to  be  born  blind,  if  he  had  not  sinned 
in  a  preexistent  state ;  thus  antedating  some  American  opinions.  They  tell  a 
thoroughly  Arab  story  of  a  child  five  years  of  age,  going  from  Jebel  el  Aala  to 
Damascus,  and  recognizing  his  surroundings  in  a  previous  life  as  a  rich  man  in 
that  city,  even  to  pointing  out  a  debtor  who  had  not  acknowledged  his  debt, 
and  unearthing  a  sum  of  money  he  had  hidden  in  the  floor  of  a  cellar.^  While 
the  Ansaireeans  believe  that  the  souls  of  the  wicked  go  into  the  bodies  of 
brutes,  the  Druses  hold  that  they  can  go  only  into  human  bodies.  "For,"  says 
Hamze,  "  it  is  contrary  to  divine  justice  that  a  man,  endowed  with  reason,  should 
be  punished  as  a  dog  or  pig,  which  has  no  conscience,  and  could  have  no  idea 
of  its  fault."*' 

The  Doketae  denied  the  true  incarnation  of  the  Redeemer,  and  maintained 
that  his  body  was  not  real,  but  only  an  appearance ;  and  so  the  Druses,  while 
they  teach  that  God  has  appeared  in  human  form,  affirm  that  it  was  only  as  a 
phantom,  having  neither  flesh  nor  blood,  nor  any  property  of  matter,  except  the 
outward  form.     They  compare  it  to  the  reflection  of  a  human  body  in  a  mirror, 

'  Schaff' s  History  0/ the  Christian  Church,  Vol.  I,  pp.  228  and  2.to. 

-Cliurchill's  Mt.  Lebation,  Vol.  H,  p.  71.  2  J.  Wortabet's  Religions  of  Syria,  p.  305. 

*  Churchill's  Mt.  Lebanon,  Vol.  II,  pp.  171-173  ;  J.  Wortabet's  Religions  0/ Syria,  pp.  304-30A. 

"J.  V^ovlahcX's  Religio7is  0/  Syria,  pp.  307-309.  "Churchill's  71//.  Lebajion,  Vol.  II,  p.  177. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS. 


291 


and  affirm  that  it  was  only  intended  to  convey  to  men  the  idea  of  God,  since 
otherwise  they  could  not  have  known  him.  Instead  of  saying,  "  He  became 
flesh,"  they  use  the  expression,  "  He  veiled  himself,"  or,  took  for  a  veil  the 
noblest  of  his  creatures,  and  maintain  that  he  has  existed  from  eternity  in  a 
human  form.'  They  say  that  this  veil  has  been  assumed  ten  times  :  in  El  'Alee, 
El  Bar,  Abu  Zakarieh,  'Ali,  El  Mu'il,  El  Ka'im,  El  Mansur,  El  Mu'iz,  El  Aziz, 
and  El  Hakem  bi  amr  Allah.^  They  speak  of  sixty-nine  appearances  between 
El  'Alee  and  El  Bar,  but  these  were  probably  of  the  ministers  and  not  of  the  deity. 
They  say  that  after  each  appearance  were  seven  religions,  and  after  each  religion 
seven  ministers,  each  one  of  whom  continued  one  hundred  thousand  years  :  af- 
ter the  second  appearance,  Enoch,  whose  wife  was  Seth,  and  after  him  other 
ministers  taught  the  unity  of  God.  Then  there  appeared  seven  teachers  :  Noah, 
Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  Mohammed  the  son  of  Ismail,  and  Saeed. 
These  were  all  appearances  of  the  Antagonist,  i.  e.,  of  Satan,  and  founded 
seven  religions,  which  literally  understood  were  false,  but  allegorically  inter- 
preted, in  accordance  with  the  Druse  ideas,  were  true.  No  wonder  the  Druses 
hide  their  opinions  from  the  Moslems  when  they  teach  that  Mohammed  and 
Jesus  Christ  were  both  incarnations  of  the  devil.  It  will  be  noticed  that  while 
there  were  only  two  appearances  of  God  from  the  creation  down  to  the  time  of 
Mohammed,  son  of  Ismail,  about  150  A.  H.,  or,  762  A.  D.,  there  were  no  less 
than  eight  between  him  and  El  Hakem,  who  was  born  A.  H.  375  =  A.  D.  987. 

In  speaking  of  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  and  Jesus,  Hanize  says:  "Tliese 
may  be  counted  among  those  who  possessed  temporal  learning  and  knowledge, 
such  as  medicine,  philosophy,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  rhetoric ;  but  they 
taught  men  a  vain  and  empty  worship.  They  knew  not  the  Lord,  whose  name 
he  glorified.  They  only  knew  the  Preceding;^  that  was  the  height  of  their 
attainment.  It  was  he  and  'the  Following'^  at  the  same  period,  who  furnished 
them  with  instruction.  And  though  the  Universal  Intelligence  and  the  Soul 
were  present  among  them,  they  knew  them  not." 

Then,  as  if  this  was  not  blasphemy  enough,  in  their  catechism  they  go  be- 
yond those  Gnostics,  who  taught  that  the  redeeming  JEor\,  called  Jesus,  united 
himself  with  Jesus  Christ  at  the  baptism  and  forsook  him  at  the  passion  ;^  for 
that  says  :  *'  The  Gospel  is  true,  for  it  contains  the  word  of  the  True  Messiah, 
who,  in  the  time  of  Mohammed,  bore  the  name  of  Salman  Faresi,  and  who  is 
Hamzd,  son  of  Ali.  The  false  Messiah  is  he  who  was  born  of  Mary,  for  he  is 
the  son  of  Joseph.  The  true  Messiah  was  one  of  his  disciples ;  he  dictated  the 
words  of  the  Gospel,  and  instructed  the  son  of  Joseph,  prescribing  to  him  the 
rules  of  the  Christian  religion,  who  at  first  received  his  instructions  with  docility, 
but  afterwards  disregarding  them,  the  teacher  induced  the  Jews  to  crucify  his 
disobedient  pupil.  Then  the  true  Messiah  stole  him  from  the  grave  and  hid 
him  in  the  garden,  spreading  abroad  the  report  that  he  had  risen  from  the 
dead.  It  was  Hamzd,  also  the  slave  of  our  Lord  Hakem,  who  entered  the 
place  where  the  disciples  were  assembled,  the  doors  being  closed  for  fear  of 
the  Jews." 

1  Churchill's  Mt.  Lebanon.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  63,  66.  -  Wortabet,  p.  317;  Churchill,  Vol.  II,  p.  44. 

3  Who  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  era  of  the  Hegira  was  Selama,  son  of  Abdelwahab. 

*  Moktana  Bohaeddin.  6  Schaff's  History  of  Christian  Church,  Vol.  I,  p.  230. 


292  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

It  is  well  known  that  ancient  kings  were  so  often  assigned  a  place  among 
the  gods  that  the  word  Apotheosis  was  coined  to  express  the  idea.  And  some 
of  the  Roman  emperors  arrogated  to  themselves  this  honor  while  yet  in  the 
flesh.  Simon  Magus  also  gave  himself  out  for  a  sort  of  emanation  of  deity. 
"He  is  said  to  have  declared  himself  an  incarnation  of  the  creative  world 
spirit,"^  but  it  was  reserved  for  the  Druses  to  exalt  an  insane  tyrant  to  the 
throne  from  which  they  sought  to  cast  down  the  Son  of  God.  It  is  instructive 
to  see  how  God  can  punish  such  audacity  by  simply  leaving  its  perpetrators 
to  themselves.     Let  us  look  at  the  god  of  these  Druses. 

Abu  Ali  el  Hakem  bi  Amr-illah  was  born  A.  D.  987,  and  ascended  the 
throne  of  the  Fatimite  Caliphs  when  only  eleven  years  old.  His  reign  of 
twenty-five  years  was  distinguished  for  its  madness  and  cruelty.  The  first  five 
years  were  noted  for  the  capricious  change  of  his  public  officers.  In  the  year 
A.  D.  997  Ibn  Ammur  was  dismissed  from  the  office  of  Waseet,^  and  afterwards 
put  to  death.  Bardjewan,  the  tutor  of  the  young  king,  who  procured  his  dis- 
missal, and  succeeded  to  his  office,  was  himself  assassinated  in  Hakem's  pres- 
ence and  by  his  consent,  because  he  would  not  allow  him  to  take  rides  for 
pleasure.  In  the  year  A.  D.  looi  he  persecuted  the  Sunnees  and  the  Chris- 
tians. One  of  these  last  was  Abu  el  Naja,  a  courtier,  who,  because  he  would 
not  turn  Moslem,  was  sentenced  to  receive  one  thousand  lashes.  When 
eight  hundred  had  been  inflicted,  he  asked  for  a  drink  of  water.  It  was 
offered  on  condition  of  his  becoming  a  Moslem.  He  refused,  saying,  "  Christ 
has  given  me  water  to  drink,"  and  expired  ;  but  El  Hakem  ordered  the  rest  of 
the  lashes  to  be  laid  on  the  dead  body ;  and  this  was  not  the  only  instance  of 
the  kind.^  Col.  Churchill  tells  of  the  patriarch  Isa,  who  was  tortured  to  death. 
He  now  stuck  up  on  the  walls  of  the  mosques,  large  inscriptions  in  golden 
letters,  anathematizing  Ayescha,  the  wife  of  Mohammed,  Abu  Beer,  Omar  and 
Othman.*  One  day  his  horse  took  fright  at  a  dog,  and  forthwith  every  dog 
in  Cairo  was  killed.^ 

He  filled  a  large  magazine  with  reeds,  rushes,  and  acacia  wood,  and  his  pub- 
lic officers,  fearing  they  were  to  be  burnt  alive,  implored  his  mercy.  Colleges 
were  established,  and  libraries,  at  great  cost,  opened  free  to  the  public,  and 
then  destroyed.  Professors  were  invited  to  teach  in  them,  and  then  cruelly 
butchered."  Five  hundred  churches  and  convents  were  destroyed.^  Women 
were  not  allowed  to  appear  outside  their  houses,  or  even  to  look  out  at  the 
windows,  and  shoemakers  were  forbidden  to  make  them  shoes.  One  day, 
hearing  a  noise  in  a  bath,  as  he  passed,  he  found  it  was  occupied  by  women, 
and  on  the  spot  he  had  the  doors  and  windows  walled  up,  and  those  inside  left 
to  perish  of  starvation.^  Old  women  were  employed  to  report  who  was  absent 
from  the  harems.  The  absentees  were  immediately  escorted  to  the  palace  by 
soldiers,  and  when  enough  were  got  together,  the  whole  of  them  were  sown  up 
in  bags  and  thrown  into  the  Nile.  At  one  time  the  gates  of  the  city  were 
ordered  to  be  open  all  night  and  closed  all  day.     At  another,  the  doors  of 

■  Schaff's  History  of  Christian  Church,  Vol.  I,  p.  235.  =  Mediator. 

sWortabet,  p.  292.  ••Churchill,  Vol.  I,  p.  360.  SDo.,p.  362.     Wortabet,  p.  293. 

"  Wortabet,  p.  293.  '  Churchill,  Vol.  I,  p.  3«i.  *  Do.,  Vol.  I,  p.  36S. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  293 

shops  and  houses  were  to  be  left  open  at  night,  with  a  promise  of  indemnity  in 
case  of  loss.  In  one  night  four  hundred  articles  of  value  disappeared,  and  the 
men  whom  he  had  sent  to  steal  them  were  hung  for  the  theft,  on  the  accusa- 
tion of  a  statue,  within  which  he  had  concealed  a  man  to  give  the  proper 
answers  to  inquiries  about  the  losses.^  One  day  he  dismounted  in  front  of  the 
mosque,  knocked  down  an  attendant,  and  ripped  him  open  with  his  own  hand ; 
and  it  was  his  custom  when  he  put  any  one  to  death  to  make  the  family  spend 
the  night  with  the  dead  body.^  Irritated  by  a  practical  joke  of  the  women, 
Nero-like,^  he  ordered  his  soldiers  to  sack  the  city,  massacre  the  citizens,  and 
burn  their  houses  ;  and  one  third  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes,  and  half  of 
it  plundered,  while  multitudes  were  slaughtered,  and  their  wives  and  daughters 
given  up  to  the  soldiers.*  He  employed  old  women  to  go  round  and  gather  up 
family  secrets,  and  then  sought  to  establish  a  reputation  for  omniscience  by 
retailing  them  to  those  concerned.  And  this  is  the  man  whom  the  Druses  wor- 
ship as  the  latest  manifestation  of  God !  A  madman,  who  so  wore  out  the 
patience  of  his  suffering  people  that  he  was  assassinated  during  a  morning  ride, 
in  the  year  1021  A.  D. 

If  any  ask  how  it  is  possible  for  men  to  be  so  given  over  to  believe  a  lie, 
the  answer  is  :  that  previous  to  his  day,  Moslem  sects  had  sprung  up,  who 
discarded  the  literal  meaning  of  the  Koran,  and  insisted  on  interpreting 
it  allegorically.  In  other  words,  under  that  pretext,  they  put  their  own 
meaning  on  its  phrases,  and  this  mode  of  exposition  having  been  established, 
Hamze,  who  belonged  to  one  of  these  sects,  and  is  the  real  founder  of  the 
Druse  religion,  explained  all  the  insane  freaks  of  El  Hakem  in  the  same  way. 
The  most  atrocious  madness  was  only  an  allegory,  intended  to  convey  a  recon- 
dite truth. 

It  speaks  well  for  the  Egyptians  that,  when  Mohammed  ibn  Ismail  EI 
Dorazy  undertook  to  read  his  book  in  the  mosque  at  Cairo,  affirming  that  El 
Hakem  was  a  manifestation  of  God,  the  indignant  people  rose  and  slew  many 
of  his  followers,  though  he  himself,  protected  by  his  patron,  fled  to  the  Wady 
et  Teim,  and  there,  partly  by  the  free  use  of  money  from  Egpyt,  and  partly  by 
the  license  he  gave  to  lust,  succeeded  in  securing  adherents  among  a  people^ 
already  trained  to  believe  in  this  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  Koran. 

The  Batenites,*^  literally  the  Esoterics,  taught  that  there  were  five  ministers 
on  earth  :  The  Natek,^  Asas,^  Iman,^  Hodja,^"  and  Dai;"  and  in  many  other  of 
their  teachings  there  was  a  close  resemblance  to,  or  even  identity  with,  those  of 
the  Druses.  The  Druses  have  seven  commandments,  designed  to  supplant  the 
seven  requirements  of  Mohammed :  (i.)  Veracity.  This  takes  the  place  of 
prayer,  but  it  is  required  only  towards  those  of  their  own  religion.  To  all  oth- 
ers they  are  at  liberty  to  lie  without  stint,  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  this 
practice  has  made  them  perfect.      No  confidence  can  be  put  in  the  word  of  a 

1  Churchill,  Vol.  I,  p.  382.  2  Dq.,  Vol.  I,  p.  385. 

^Do.,  Vol.  I,  p.  374.  *Do.,  p.  376. 

''The  Katebites  allowed  wine  and  fornication,  or  anything  else  forbidden  by  the  law,  and  denied  the  need  of 
prayer.     Churchill,  Vol.  I,  p.  309. 

'"'  Arabic,  Batenieen.  '  Prophet.  •  Foundation.  '  Leader. 

10  Teacher.  "  Caller. 


294  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

Druse  when  it  is  for  his  immediate  interest  to  tell  a  lie.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
there  is  another  people  on  earth  accustomed  like  them  to  conform  to  the  pre- 
vailing religion ;  not  through  compulsion,  but  from  policy  ;  go  through  with  its 
observances  of  worship,  repeat  its  creed  and  its  prayers,  while  at  heart  they 
hate  and  renounce  them  all,  and  do  so  openly  as  soon  as  it  is  for  their  interest 
to  pretend  to  accept  a  different  one.  It  is  the  inevitable  consequence  of  this 
utter  duplicity  that  Druses  are  very  rarely  converted.  Again  and  again  have 
they  made  a  great  show  of  interest  in  the  truth,  begged  for  schools,  and  ap- 
peared to  hunger  for  the  bread  of  life ;  but  the  simulated  zeal  passed  away 
with  the  political  occasion  that  called  it  forth.  The  writer  cannot  speak  for 
the  present  state  of  things  in  Syria,  but  long  after  he  retired  from  the  field,  one 
family  and  one  young  woman  were  the  only  fruits  of  extensive  and  protracted 
missionary  labors  among  the  Druses  of  Lebanon.  (2.)  Love  to  their  co-relig- 
ionists. This  takes  the  place  of  alms-giving.  (3.)  Renouncing  the  worship  of 
idols.  This  takes  the  place  of  fasting.  (4.)  Repudiation  of  devils  and  delusions. 
This  means  other  religions,  such  as  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity,  and  it 
is  instead  of  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  (5.)  Profession  of  the  unity  of  God  in  the 
Druse  sense.  (6.)  Secresy  in  religion,  including  every  method  in  which  it  is 
possible  to  conceal  their  true  belief.  Jesuits  might  go  to  school  to  them  in  this 
department.    And  (7.),  resignation  to  the  will  of  God.^ 

The  Druses  believe  in  what  they  call  a  resurrection  ;  not  a  raising  up  of  the 
dead,  but  a  period  of  judgment,  ushered  in  by  war  between  the  Moslems  and 
the  Christians ;  and  while  their  armies  are  preparing  for  a  great  battle  near 
Mecca,  an  army  of  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  Unitarians  ^  from  China, 
under  the  command  of  "  the  Universal  Mind,"  and  the  five  ministers  will  ap- 
proach, to  which  both  the  Moslem  and  Christian  army  will  surrender.  Then  El 
Hakem  will  reappear,  and,  at  his  command,  thunders  will  raze  the  very  founda- 
tions of  the  Kaaba.  The  five  ministers,  on  thrones  of  gold,  will  then  judge  the 
world.  The  sins  of  Druses  will  be  forgiven,  costly  gifts  of  clothing,  weapons, 
and  horses  will  be  bestowed  on  them,  and  they  will  traverse  the  earth,  every- 
where killing  the  infidels  and  plundering  their  treasures.  Thenceforward  they 
will  be  supreme,  and  all  others  will  be  in  poverty  and  servitude,  each  wearing  a 
badge  of  subjection.^ 

In  such  teachings  we  find  an  explanation  of  the  atrocities  of  i860  in  Leb- 
anon and  vicinity.  The  story  is  too  horrible  for  recital.  Let  one  act  in  the 
bloody  drama  suffice.  Osman  Bey,  the  Turkish  governor  of  Hasbeya,  at  the 
instigation  of  Sitt  Naaify,  sister  of  Saeed  Bey  Jumblatt,  demanded  the  arms  of 
the  Christians,  then  refugees  in  the  castle  of  the  town,  and  they  were  given  up 
on  the  faith  of  a  written  guarantee  pledging  their  personal  safety.  Then  they 
endured  the  double  misery  of  imprisonment  and  starvation;  their  ordinary  food 
was  bran,  dried  beans,  and  vine  leaves.  The  women  tore  off  their  ornaments 
and  gave  them  to  the  soldiers  to  move  their  pity.  They  pleaded  in  vain  to  Sitt 
Naaify.  No  tears  or  entreaties  touched  her  heart.  Ali  Hamadi,  a  Druse  chief, 
interceded  for  them.  "  No,"  said  she,  "  my  brother's  orders  are  that  not  a 
Christian  is  to  be  left  alive  from  the  age  of  seven  to  seventy."     The  castle  was 

^Wortabet,  p.  319-322.  2  Druses.  s  Wortabet,  pp.  322-326. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  295 

three  stories  high,  with  chambers  and  corridors  round  a  central  court.  The 
Christians,  under  the  promise  of  a  safe  conduct  to  Damascus,  were  scattered 
through  the  corridors,  gathering  together  the  remnants  of  their  property  in 
order  to  commence  the  journey.  They  were  all  ordered  into  the  great  central 
court,  the  Turks  prodding  them  with  their  bayonets  as,  weak'  and  faint,  they 
reeled  along.  As  soon  as  the  soldiers  left  the  helpless  crowd,  the  butchery 
began.  The  Druses  first  fired  a  volley  into  the  mass,  and  then  sprang  on  their 
victims  with  axes  and  yataghans.  The  first  victim  was  Yoosuf  Reis.  He 
clung  to  Osman  Be}',  to  whom  he  had  paid  two  hundred  pounds  for  protection. 
The  ruffian  kicked  him  on  the  mouth,  and  he  was  cut  up  piecemeal,  beginning 
with  the  extremities.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Emir  Saad  ed  Deen,  who  was 
next  beheaded ;  and  so  the  mass  was  hewn  into  from  the  front.  Many  had 
lips  and  ears  cut  off  before  the  final  blow.  Mothers  vainly  sought  to  hide  their 
sons,  and,  failing  in  that,  clasped  them  in  their  arms,  only  to  have  the  yataghans 
strike  through  them  both.  And  so  the  work  went  on.  A  prominent  member 
of  the  Protestant  church  was  butchered  while  on  his  knees  in  prayer;  oth- 
ers of  that  church,  while  exhorting  their  fellow-sufferers  to  trust  in  Christ, 
though  the  name  only  called  forth  the  taunt:  "What  can  he  do  for  you  now? 
Don't  you  know  God  is  a  Druse  ? "  Truth,  however,  requires  the  statement 
that  the  massacre  was  free  from  the  atrocious  vileness  toward  the  women  that 
marked  similar  scenes  that  year,  when  the  Turks  were  the  principal  actors ; 
for  the  Druses,  as  a  race,  are  opposed  to  immorality .■• 

The  Druse  era  is  408  A.  H.  =  1020  A.  D.,  the  first  year  of  the  appearance 
of  Hamze.  Their  sacred  books  are  contained  in  six  volumes,  containing  one 
hundred  and  eleven  treatises,  written  by  Hamze  and  the  other  four  ministers, 
in  imitation  of  the  style  of  the  Koran ;  but  only  an  imitation.^  In  later  times 
their  learned  men  have  written  other  books.  They  were  kept  secret  till  tlie 
wars  of  1837-1842,  when  some  of  them  were  plundered,  and  translated  in 
France,  by  M.  Sylvestre  de  Sacy. 

The  Druses  are  divided  into  the  Juhhal,^  forming  the  mass  of  the  community, 
and  the  Ukkal,^  who  alone  are  initiated  into  the  knowledge  of  their  creed. 
The  form  of  initiation,  which  is  always  dated  —  month  and  —  year  of  the  ser- 
vant of  our  Lord,  whose  name  be  glorified,  Hamze,  son  of  Ali,  son  of  Ahmed, 
reads  as  follows  : 

"I  ,  son  of  ,  in  sound  reason,  and  with  full  preference,  do 

now  loose  myself  from  all  religions  which  contradict  that  of  our  Lord  El 
Hakem  of  infinite  power,  and  confess  that  there  is  no  God  in  heaven,  or  Lord 
on  earth,  save  our  Lord  El. Hakem  (may  his  name  be  exalted  ! ).  I  give  myself, 
soul  and  body,  to  him,  and  engage  to  submit  to  all  his  orders,  and  know  noth- 
ing but  the  obedience  of  our  Lord,  who  appeared  in  Egypt  in  human  form.  I 
shall  render  the  homage  due  to  him  to  none  else  —  past,  present,  or  to  come. 
I  submit  absolutely  to  his  decrees.  I  shall  keep  the  secrets  of  my  religion,  and 
speak  of  them  to  none  but  Unitarians.      If  I  ever  forsake  the  religion  of  our 

^  Churchill,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  16S-173  ;  Missionary  Herald,  1S60,  p.  250.  ■  Wortabet,  p.  298. 

sjcrnorant.  *Wise. 


296  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Lord,  or  disobey  one  of  his  commands,  may  I  be  separated  from  the  adored 
Creator,  and  from  the  privileges  of  the  ministers ;  and  I  shall  justly  deserve  im- 
mediate pmiishment." ' 

There  is  a  higher  class  of  Ukkal,  called  Iwa}dd.-  All  the  Ukkal  dress 
simply,^  and  abstain  from  profanity,  obscenity,  intoxicating  drinks,  and  tobacco ; 
and  they  may  not  eat  in  the  house  of  a  ruler,  or  partake  of  anything  obtained  by 
extortion ;  but  the  Ivvayid  dress  still  more  plainly.  Their  turban  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  white  cloth  wound  round  a  red  cap  in  a  spherical  form,  and  their  coat 
is  of  home-spun  wool,  striped  black  and  white.  Their  manner  and  style  of 
speaking  is  very  sanctimonious.  They  never  engage  in  trade,  but  cultivate  the 
soil.  They  are  kind  and  hospitable,  and  resigned  in  sickness  and  afifliction, 
yet  their  creed  recognizes  no  act  of  mercy  or  deed  of  kindness  as  acceptable  to 
God,  only  as  it  wins  esteem  for  themselves  and  their  religion.  An  Akil  was 
once  imprisoned  in  the  liouse  of  the  governor,  for  murder,  and  while  there  sent 
to  another  house  for  water  to  drink,  because  he  would  not  drink  from  a  vessel 
■which  was  the  wages  of  unrighteousness.  The  worst  thing  about  the  murder, 
in  the  Druse  mind,  was  the  scandal  it  occasioned  to  their  religion. 

The  Druses  hold  their  meetings  in  khalwehs,*  /.  e.,  places  for  secret  meet- 
ings—  rude  stone  structures,  containing  a  few  mats,  and  sometimes  accommoda- 
tions for  strangers  who  are  Druses.  They  meet  on  Thursday  evening,  which 
with  them  belongs  to  Friday,  when  they  read,  or  rather  chant,  their  sacred 
books,  and  sing  h3rmns  expressive  chiefly  of  joy  in  the  prospect  of  the  resurrec- 
tion already  described.  They  have  simple  refreshments,  and  in  the  klialweh  at 
Neeha  a  lamp  is  kept  burning  night  and  day.  Prayer  they  do  not  offer,  except 
rarely  in  private ;  and  after  the  chanting  and  singing  is  finished,  politics,  and 
Druse  national  interests  form  the  subject  of  discussion.  Here  all  plans  of 
policy  in  peace,  and  campaigns  in  war,  are  discussed  and  settled,  so  that, 
though  few,  they  maintain  a  unity  in  action,  which  more  than  makes  up  for  the 
lack  of  numbers,  and  secures  to  them  the  control  of  southern  Lebanon.  They 
have  secret  signs  and  passwords.  One  is  the  question  :  "Where  do  farmers  in 
your  country  sow  the  seeds  of  the  mysobalanus  ?  "  and  the  answer  is :  "  In 
the  hearts  of  believers,"  ^ 

Polygamy  or  concubinage  is  not  allowed  among  them,  nor  can  a  wife  once 
divorced  return  to  her  husband.®  The  wife  is  held  to  be  in  all  respects  on  an 
equality  with  the  husband.  If  the  divorced  wife  is  to  blame  for  the  separation, 
the  husband  retains  half  of  her  property ;  if  otherwise,  she  takes  the  whole  of 
what  she  possesses  in  her  own  right. 

A  woman  may  become  an  Akileh,  but  she  must  not  be  exposed  to  view  in 
:the  khalweh.  (For  their  strict  ideas  of  propriety  see  Churchill,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
a 68,  237-242,  262.)  The  Druses  are  very  proud,  and  among  themselves  quar- 
jels  relating  to  matters  of  etiquette  are  frequent.  An  Akil  nev-er  begs,  and  a 
poor  Druse  would  rather  put  himself  in  the  wrong  than  have  it  supposed  that  a 
Christian  dared  to  initiate  a  quarrel  with  him  without  first  having  been  insulted.'' 

'  Wortabet,  p.  329.  *The  engaged.  »  Wortabet,  p.  330.  *  Do.,  p.  335- 

ODo.,  p.  338.  0 Churchill,  Vol.  11,294.  "  Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  324. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  297 

Churchill  speaks  of  the  hautetir  z.w6.  self-sufficiency  expressed  in  their  demeanor.^ 
The  self-conceit  of  Hamzd  may  be  seen  in  his  statements  :  "I  am  the  root  of 
the  creatures  of  God,  distinguished  by  the  gift  of  his  wisdom.  I  am  the  way 
and  the  truth.  I  am  he  who  knows  his  will  —  I  am  the  master  of  the  last 
trumpet.  It  is  through  me  that  men  become  acceptable  before  God,  and  enjoy 
his  presence.  I  am  he  who  abrogates  all  preceding  laws.  Through  me  all 
grace  flows,  and  vengeance  will  fall  on  the  polytheists.  I  am  the  chief  of  the 
age."-^ 

According  to  their  writers,  the  door  was  closed  twenty-six  years  after  the 
beginning  of  their  era^  against  all  accessions  to  their  number  from  with- 
out, so  that  since  1056  A.D.  no  one  not  then  a  Druse  has  become  one.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  Druses  worship  a  calf,  because  the  image  of  that 
animal  has  been  found  in  their  khalwehs;  but  it  is  a  symbol  of  the  Antagonist; 
or,  as  we  would  say,  Satan,  and  also  of  his  emissaries. 


THE  PAPAL  SECTS  IN  SVJ?/A.* 

The  Maronites.  These  are  found  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Syria,  a  few  in 
Egypt,  and  some  even  in  Constantinople.  As  peasants  they  are  found  from 
Tripoli  as  far  south  as  Safed,  but  the  main  body  of  them  are  in  the  districts  of 
Besherry,  Jibeil,  and  Kesrawan.  There  are  also  a  few  in  the  north  of  Cyprus, 
but  of  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  souls  in  all,  one  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand  are  in  Mt.  Lebanon.  Their  nobility  is  of  two  grades  :  (i)  E7nirs,  of 
the  family  of  Shehab  in  the  Druse  part  of  Lebanon,  and  of  the  family  of  Abi  el 
Lema  in  the  Metn  ;  and  (2)  Sheikhs,  of  the  families  of  Khazin  Habeish  and 
Dehdah,  in  the  Kesrawan  and  Futuh. 

They  are  of  Syrian  origin,  and  their  liturgy  is  still  in  Syriac,  though  as  they 
speak  Arabic,  their  Scripture  lessons  are  translated  into  that  language,  but 
written  in  the  Syriac  character  called  Syro- Arabic,  or  Karshuny.  Other  pecul- 
iarities point  them  out  as  the  relic  of  a  distinct  nation. 

Their  head  is  a  patriarch  styled  "  Patriarch  of  Antioch  and  all  the  East," 
chosen  from  among  the  bishops,  by  themselves  assembled  for  that  purpose,  and 
confirmed  by  the  Pope.  If  no  one  has  a  majority  of  votes,  then  the  Pope 
chooses  one  for  them.  He  has  no  firman,  and  no  agent  at  the  Porte,  and 
governs  according  to  the  canons  of  the  Maronite  council,  called  the  council  of 
Lebanon.  He  resides  in  summer  at  the  convent  of  Kannobin,  in  Besherry, 
and  in  winter  at  that  of  Bkerky,  in  Kesrawan,  both  of  which  belong  to  him  ex 
officio,  with  another  called  Diman.  Their  income  amounts  to  one  hundred 
thousand  piasters  per  annum.  He  is  also  entitled  to  a  direct  tax  of  two  pias- 
ters from  every  adult  Maronite ;  but,  as  it  is  farmed  out  to  the  bishops,  he  re- 
ceives only  a  part  of  it.  Every  priest  pays  him  annually  five  piasters ;  also  six 
piasters  for  every  mass  he  performs.     From  all  sources  his  income  may  amount 

lUo.,  Vol.  II,  p.  251.  2 Do.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  120,  122.  340SA.  H. 

^This  is  the  substance  of  a  communication  that  appeared  in  the  Missionary  Herald,  for  1843  (pp.  314-319  and 
354-357)'  Some  of  its  statements  are  now,  no  doubt,  obsolete;  but  it  shows  how  carefully  our  missionaries 
note  the  facts  that  compose  the  warp  and  woof  of  history,  and  how  accurately  they  can  state  them,  going  into 
minutiae  that  would  not  be  thought  of  by  many,  but  are  of  inestimable  value  to  the  historian. 


298  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

to  two  hundred  thousand  piasters,  or  about  $8,000.  In  1S45  the  patriarch  was 
Yusuf  Butrus  Habeish,  being  a  sheikh  of  that  family. 

The  bishops  are  thirteen,  of  whom  nine  are  diocesan.  The  diocese  of 
Sidon  extends  from  Akka  to  the  Damur,  and  east  to  Anti  Lebanon.  Its  in- 
come is  twelve  thousand  piasters.  The  bishop^  resides  at  the  college  of  Mish- 
musheh,  in  Jezzin. 

The  diocese  of  Beirdt  extends  from  the  Damur  to  Antelias.  The  Episcopal 
residence  is  in  Beirut.  Income,  twent}^  thousand  piasters.  The  bishop  in 
1845  was  Tobia  (Tobias)  Abu  Aun. 

That  of  Cyprus  extends  from  Antelias  to  Nahr  el  Kelb,^  and  includes  the 
Maronites  of  Cyprus.  The  bishop,  Yusuf  Jaja  in  1845,  resided  at  the  col- 
lege of  Kurnet  Shehwan,  in  the  Katia,  on  an  income  of  twelve  thousand 
piasters. 

That  of  Damascus  reaches  from  Dog  river  to  the  middle  of  Kesrawan, 
including  the  Maronites  of  Damascus.  Yusuf  (Joseph)  El  Khazin,  bishop  in 
1845,  resided  at  Zuk  Mikail,  on  an  income  of  ten  thousand  piasters. 

The  diocese  of  Baalbek  extends  from  the  middle  of  Kesrawan  to  Jibeil. 
The  bishop,  Anton  (Anthony)  El  Khazin  in  1845,  resided  in  the  nunnery  of 
Buklush,  on  an  income  of  twenty-four  thousand  piasters. 

The  diocese  of  Jibeil  extends  from  Futuh  to  near  Tripoli.  Its  income  is 
fifteen  thousand  piasters.  The  patriarch  is  ex  officio  bishop,  and  governs 
through  a  vicar.  Sim'an  (Simon)  Zuwein  was  vicar  in  1S45,  ^^'^'^  resided  at 
the  college  of  Mar  Yohanna  Maron. 

The  diocese  of  Tripoli  extends  north  to  Akkar.  Bulus  (Paul)  el  Akury  was 
incumbent  in  1845. 

The  village  of  Ehden  alone  constitutes  a  diocese,  of  which  Estefan  ed 
Duweihy  was  bishop  in  1845.  In  the  same  year  Bulus  (Paul)  Arutun  was 
bishop  of  Aleppo,  resident  in  that  city. 

These  diocesans  are  chosen  by  the  people,  and  the  patriarch  must  approve 
them,  unless  canonically  disqualified.  If  the  diocese  fails  to  elect,  the  patriarch 
may  select  one  of  the  candidates  voted  for ;  or,  in  case  of  delay  to  elect,  he 
may  fix  a  time  beyond  which,  if  no  one  is  elected,  he  will  appoint  one.  The 
incomes  of  these  dioceses  are  from  glebes  ;  masses,  at  the  rate  of  four  piasters 
each ;  tithes ;  and  presents  at  baptisms,  funerals,  weddings,  etc.,  and  are,  of 
course,  somewhat  uncertain  as  to  amount. 

In  1845  t^^^  bishops  without  dioceses  were  :  Yusuf  (Joseph)  Rizk,  vicar  of 
the  patriarch  over  the  college  of  Ain  Warkah  ;  income  from  the  college.  Filli- 
bus  (Philip)  Ilabeish,  superior  of  the  convent  of  Mar  Jirjis  'Alma ;  income 
from  the  convent.  Bulus  (Paul)  Mas'ad,  vicar  and  privy  counsellor  of  the 
patriarch  ;  income  from  the  Patriarchal  See  ;  and  Nikola  (Nicholas)  Murad, 
agent  of  the  patriarch  at  Rome.  The  consecration  of  bishops  belongs  to  the 
patriarch,  assisted,  however,  by  other  bishops  in  the  imposition  of  hands. 
They  receive  circular  orders  from  him  every  year. 

The  priests  ?.re  from  seven  hundred  to  one  thousand.  Of  these,  also,  only 
some  Iiave  parishes.    Parish  priests  are  allowed  to  many,  but  only  before  ordi- 

^  Then  Abdailah  Bistany.  -  Dog  river. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  299 

nation,  and  if  the  wife  dies  no  other  can  be  taken.  The  priests  are  distin- 
guished by  their  dress.  Each  parish  elects  its  own  priest,  generally  from  among 
themselves.  The  bishop  may  compel  an  election,  but  cannot  control  the  choice; 
he  must  ordain  the  one  elected  if  there  be  no  canonical  objection.  If  the  vote 
is  inconclusive  he  can  select  one  of  the  candidates,  though  the  matter  may  be 
carried  up  to  the  patriarch.  If  a  parish  becomes  dissatisfied  with  its  priest,  it 
may  procure  his  dismission  by  the  bishop,  if  the  objections  are  valid ;  and  the 
bishop  also  has  power  to  suspend  him  for  crime.  Every  candidate  for  the 
priesthood  must  know  Arabic  and'  Syriac,  so  far  as  to  read  it ;  also  casuistry ; 
and  must  be  examined  in  these,  and  as  to  his  moral  character,  by  a  person 
appointed  by  the  patriarch.  Ordination  is  either  by  the  patriarch  or  bishop  of 
the  diocese. 

The  parish  priest  baptizes,  ratifies  espousals,  marries,  visits  the  sick,  admin- 
isters extreme  unction,  says  mass  daily  for  the  people,  reads  prayers  in  the 
church  at  least  on  Saturday  and  Sunday  afternoons,  hears  confessions,  gives 
the  communion,  watches  over  the  flock,  and  once  a  week  reads  over  by  himself 
the  book  of  offices.  They  also  collect  the  tithes  for  the  bishop,  settle  quarrels 
and  entertain  strangers.  Their  income  is  from  an  amount  of  produce  agreed  on 
with  the  people,  and  received  at  the  harvest  season ;  two  piasters  for  each  mass, 
baptism,  espousal,  marriage,  or  burial,  and  varies  from  two  thousand  to  nine 
thousand  piasters.  A  committee  of  the  parish  take  care  of  the  glebes,  and  use 
the  income  for  repairs  of  the  church,  and  for  schools.  No  priest  may  engage 
in  any  trade,  handicraft,  or  other  profession.  They  only  take  care  of  theii 
own  land,  and  are  usually  poor. 

The  priests  without  parishes  are  usually  unmarried.  Some  are  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  higher  clergy;  some  are  judges,  and  others  superiors  of  convents. 
Their  income  is  about  the  same  as  the  parish  priests,  and  is  derived  from  their 
offices,  masses,  burials,  and  the  like,  for  which  they  are  paid  the  same  prices  as 
the  others.  These  also  are  forbidden  all  secular  employments.  In  case  of 
sickness  all  priests  fall  back  on  the  sect  for  a  support,  and  all  are  exempt  from 
the  "kharaj,"  or  poll  tax. 

Co7ivents  and  JVunneries.  Maronite  convents  are  regular  or  irregular.  The 
regular  belong  to  the  Country,  Lebanon  or  Aleppine  orders.  The  first  of  these 
is  most  numerous  ;  the  last  least  so.  Each  order  has  its  own  organization  and 
superior  general,  independent  of  the  others.  Each  convent  has  its  own  su- 
perior. The  superior  general  is  assisted  by  four  managers.  Under  their 
inspection  only  has  he  the  control  of  the  pecuniary  affairs  of  the  convents. 
His  authority  is  independent  of  the  patriarch,  except  by  appeal.  The  income 
of  the  superior  general  of  the  Country  order  is  eight  hundred  piasters  weekly 
for  masses,  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  piasters  annually  from  glebes,  and 
half  of  the  gifts  to  the  convent  of  Kuzheiya ;  and  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
Patriarchal  See.  Each  superior  general  carries  the  staff,^  wears  the  miter, 
and  holds  the  cross  at  high  masses,  but  cannot  ordain  priests.  This  is  done 
by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  who  has   also  some  rights  over  the  convents, 

1  Crosier. 


300  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

though  they  are  so  absolutely  under  their  superior  generals  that  these  last  have 
prisons  of  their  own.  The  superior  general,  his  managers,  and  the  superiors 
of  convents,  together  with  those  who  have  held  any  of  these  offices,  constitute 
a  convocation  which  meets  once  in  three  years  to  choose  a  new  superior  gen- 
eral, who  may  be  reelected  at  pleasure.  The  same  convocation  elects,  also, 
the  managers  and  the  superiors  of  convents.  Each  superior  governs  his  con- 
vent according  to  the  rules  of  the  order,  and  looks  after  its  property. 

The  monks  take  the  vow  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  after  a  trial  of 
one  year  in  the  Lebanon  order,  and  of  two  years  in  the  others.  Till  then,  they 
can  go  back  and  marry,  but  not  after  they  put  on  the  cowl.  No  entrance  fee  is 
required.  Poverty  or  indolence  prompts  the  step.  Their  dress  is  a  black,  coarse 
serge  gown,  with  cowl  and  leathern  girdle.  Silk  they  may  not  wear,  nor  carry 
more  than  ten  piasters  in  their  purse.  If  more  is  found  on  their  dead  bodies, 
they  are  denied  Christian  burial.  Meat  they  never  taste,  nor  do  they  smoke; 
but  they  eat  fish  and  take  snuff.  Some  plough  and  reap,  others  weave,  or 
make  shoes,  and  they  are  kept  hard  at  work.  They  are  generally  ignorant,  and 
very  stupid.  Hardly  one  in  seven  can  read.  The  benefit  of  the  convents  to 
the  people  is  extremely  small ;  all  together  do  not  maintain  more  than  a  dozen 
very  common  schools.  They  are  generally  the  source  of  ignorance,  supersti- 
tion, and  intrigue.  They  are  shameless  beggars.  Every  year  they  swarm  forth 
on  that  en-and,  and  rarely  leave  a  house  without  something,  though  generally 
better  off  than  their  benefactors.  The  return  made  is  a  mass  on  Saturday  for 
the  souls  of  all  who  help  them. 

In  1844  all  the  monks  north  of  the  river  Ibrahim  rebelled  against  their  su- 
perior general.  They  drove  away  all  the  superiors,  armed  themselves,  and 
took  possession  of  their  convents.  The  patriarch  interfered,  but  they  only 
turned  against  him.  The  emir  repeatedly  sent  soldiers  against  them,  but 
accomplished  nothing.  Even  the  mandates  of  the  Pope  fell  powerless.  They 
were  supported  by  the  communities  round  about  them. 

The  irregular  convents  are  independent  of  these  orders  and  of  each  other. 
They  are  founded  by  families,  and  one  condition  is,  that  the  superior  shall 
belong  to  the  family  of  the  founder.  Their  superiors  retain  office  during  life, 
and  they  are  all  under  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  who  inspects  their  accounts. 

Nunneries  are  also  regular  and  irregular.  The  former  belong  to  the  same 
three  orders,  and  must  be  forty  cubits  distant  from  a  convent.  The  entrance 
fee  varies  from  five  hundred  to  ten  thousand  piasters.  Nuns  take  the  same  vow 
of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  They  learn  to  read  Syriac ;  at  least,  so  as 
to  assist  in  worship,  in  which  they  take  a  part,  especially  in  chanting.  Schools 
for  children  they  have  none.  Their  work  is  with  the  needle,  chiefly  embroider- 
ing what  are  called  "  garments  of  the  virgin,"  a  species  of  charm  which  they 
make  for  sale.     They  dress  in  black  cotton  cloth. 

The  irregular,  or  devotee,  nunneries  differ  from  the  convents  for  males  only 
in  frequently  changing  their  superiors.  The  nunnery  at  Aintura  is  subject  to 
European  rules  and  is  supported  from  abroad. 

The  income  of  all  the  conventual  establishments  is  estimated  at  six  or  seven 
millions  of  piasters  :  about  one  million  from  masses,  gifts,  and  vows,  the  rest 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  30!. 

from  real  estate.  The  old  Emir  Beshir  Shehab  is  said  to  have  given  six  hun- 
dred thousand  piasters  annually,  for  masses  to  be  said  for  the  Shehab  family.. 
The  landed  property  of  the  convents  is  immense,  and,  till  the  civil  war  in  1845,, 
was  rapidly  increasing.  Formerly  it  was  not  taxed,  but  now  shares  the  burdens 
of  other  real  estate. 

Then  follows  a  list  of  these  establishments,  with  an  estimate  of  the  number 
of  their  inmates  in  1845,  giving  three  convents  to  the  diocese  of  Sidon,  with 
one  hundred  and  forty-five  inmates,  and  one  nunnery  with  fifteen  ;  ten  con- 
vents to  that  of  Beirut,  with  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  inmates  ;  eight  to 
that  of  Cyprus,  with  two  hundred  and  fifty-nine  inmates.  Damascus  follows, 
with  four  convents,  and  fifty-one  monks,  and  eight  nunneries,  with  two  hundred 
and  eighty-one  nuns.  Baalbek  has  seven  nunneries,  with  one  hundred  and 
seventy-one  nuns,  and  five  convents,  with  sixty-two  monks.  Jibeil  counts  nine 
convents,  with  three  hundred  and  fifty-three,  monks,  and  one  nunnery,  with 
forty  nuns.  In  the  entire  list  are  three  convents,  with  one  hundred  and  twenty 
inmates  each.  The  largest  nunnery  contains  eighty,  and  the  next  in  size  sixty. 
Besides  the  above  are  many  coenobia,  or  houses  of  entertainment  for  monks 
on  a  journey,  fourteen  of  which  are  mentioned  in  such  places  as  Damascus, 
Beirut,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Akka,  Deir  el  Kamr,  etc.  The  total  number  of  monks  is 
eleven  hundred  and  two,  and  of  nuns  five  hundred  and  seven.  Among  the 
nuns  are  no  deaconesses. 

Preachers.  The  priests  generally  are  unable  to  compose  a  sermon ;  nor  do 
they  regard  preaching  as  a  part  of  their  duty,  beyond  a  mere  exhortation ;  but 
eight  men  in  1845  were  authorized  to  go  about  as  preachers.  None  others 
were  allowed  to  preach  without  a  written  authorization.  Generally  these 
preachers  are  ordained,  but  not  always.  The  patriarch,  when  he  reclaimed 
the  college  of  Mar  Yusuf  Aintura  from  the  Lazarists,  increased  its  income  to 
thirty  thousand  piasters  per  annum,  and  set  it  apart  for  the  residence  and  sup- 
port of  preachers,  who  were  to  go  forth  teaching  priests  and  people,  and 
preaching  and  hearing  confessions  in  the  churches,  always  returning  to  the  col- 
lege from  every  circuit ;  but  the  plan,  in  1845,  was  not  fully  carried  out,  and 
was  even  in  danger  of  coming  to  nothing.  Latin  monks  sometimes  preached, 
but,  owing  to  their  imperfect  Arabic,  were  neither  understood  nor  respected. 

Education.  They  have  common  schools  in  cities,  towns,  and  large  villages. 
The  teachers  are  appointed  by  the  leading  men,  the  bishop,  or  the  priests,  ac- 
cording to  their  zeal  in  the  matter.  But  the  bishop  must  see  that  they  exist. 
Some  places  have  school  funds ;  if  not,  the  parents  pay  so  much  for  each  book 
the  child  learns  to  read.  The  bishop  sometimes  pays  for  the  poor,  and  some- 
times the  teacher  instructs  them  gratis.  A  teacher's  income  is  ordinarily  from 
six  hundred  to  one  thousand  piasters  per  annum.  Sometimes  it  is  five  thou- 
sand piasters.  Arithmetic,  grammar,  and  geography  are  not  taught ;  ^  and  the 
school  is  carried  on  Arab  fashion,  with  much  noise  and  confusion.  As  a  result, 
one  fourth  to  one  third  of  the  adult  males  can  read  in  the  Kesrawan ;  but  the 

1 1845. 


302 


THE   ELY   VOLUME. 


education  of  girls  is  neglected.  Hardly  any  except  the  daughters  of  the  no- 
bility can  read. 

Of  colleges  there  are  eight :  three  general,  i.  e.,  they  receive  pupils  from  all 
quarters,  three  diocesan,  and  two  conventual.  The  general  colleges  are :  (i) 
Ain  Warkah,  east  of  Ghusta,  in  the  Kesrawan,  originally  a  nunnery,  founded  by 
the  family  of  Stefon.  Sixty  years  ago  Bishop  Yusuf  Stefon  (Joseph  Stephen) 
made  it  a  college,  under  the  patriarch,  reserving  to  his  family  two  free  scholar- 
ships and  the  presidency.  This  last  right  the  patriarch  has  now  set  aside,  hav- 
ing made  Bishop  Yusuf  (Joseph)  Rizk  president.  The  number  of  scholars 
varies  from  twenty  to  forty.  Its  income  is  from  one  hundred  thousand  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  piasters ;  (2)  Rumieh,  in  upper  Kesrawan,  origi- 
nally a  nunnery  founded  by  the  family  of  Sufelr.  It  became  a  college  about 
1830 ;  has  from  ten  to  fifteen  students,  and  an  income  of  thirty  thousand  to 
forty  thousand  piasters ;  (3)  Mar  Abda  Her-her-eiya,  in  the  Futuh,  near  Kesra- 
wan, commenced  about  1833.  It  was  also  a  nunnery,  founded  by  the  house  of 
'Asaf ;  has  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  scholars,  and  an  income  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  to  two  hundred  thousand  piasters.  The  funds  of  these  col- 
leo-es  are  invested  largely  in  real  estate.  Each  diocese  sends  two  free  scholars, 
nominated  by  the  bishop ;  others,  also,  are  beneficiaries ;  but  these,  when  six- 
teen years  of  age,  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  patriarch,  and  remain  sub- 
ject to  him  for  life.  Hence  his  power  to  persecute  Asaad  el  Shidiak,  who  was 
one  of  them.  They  are  clothed  and  fed,  as  well  as  taught,  gratuitously.  Their 
food  is  served  in  European  style,  and  each  has  his  own  room.  During  their 
entire  residence,  they  are  never  allowed  to  leave  the  premises,  nor  to  converse 
with  any  from  outside,  nor  even  with  each  other,  except  during  recreation. 
The  families  of  the  founders  may  also  send  two  free  scholars.  The  number  of 
paying  scholars  is  not  limited.  These,  if  Maronites,  pay  one  thousand  to 
twelve  hundred  piasters  per  annum,  and  furnish  their  own  clothing  and  beds ; 
if  from  another  Papal  sect  they  pay  two  thousand  to  twenty-four  hundred 
piasters.  Infidels  and  heretics  are  never  admitted.  The  pupils  have  a  pro- 
fessor and  tutors,  a  confessor,  a  superintendent  of  deportment,  and  inspector 
of  food.  To  be  admitted,  one  must  be  able  to  read  Arabic  and  Syriac ;  be  over 
twelve  years  of  age,  and  have  a  recommendation  from  his  bishop.  He  is  first 
received  on  trial,  and  if  found  unpromising  is  sent  away.  The  time  spent  in 
the  school  is  from  five  to  eight  years. 

The  studies  are  Syriac,  Arabic  grammar,  logic,  moral  theology,  and  preach- 
ing; and  in  Ain  Warkah,  Latin,  Italian,  rhetoric,  physics,  and  philosophy. 
Doctrinal  theology  was  once  taught;  but  as  it  led  to  discussion  tending  to 
Protestantism,  it  was  given  up.  There  are  only  two  classes,  and  each  has  but 
one  study  at  a  time.  The  patriarch  examines  each  school  every  year;  he  re- 
wards each  pupil  according  to  his  conduct  and  progress,  to  the  amount  of 
fifteen  piasters  or  less,  and  the  name  of  each,  with  his  standing,  is  written 
down,  attested  by  the  seal  of  the  patriarch,  and  affixed  to  the  door  of  the  col- 
lege. The  graduates,  up  to  1845,  were  one  hundred  and  five,  most  of  whom 
became  celiba-te  priests.  They  are  teachers,  judges,  superiors  of  convents,  or 
agents  of  the  higher  clergy.  A  few  remain  laymen.  There  are  some  among 
them  of  enlightened  and  liberal  minds. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  303 

The  diocesan  colleges  receive  students  only  from  their  own  diocese,  and 
are  subject  to  the  bishops.  They  are  :  Mar  Yohanna  (St.  John)  Maron,  in  Je- 
beil,  founded  in  1832,  with  an  income  of  thirteen  thousand  piasters,  and  twelve 
to  eighteen  scholars  ;  Mismusheh,  near  Jezzin,  founded  in  1833,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Emir  Beshir,  with  an  income  of  twenty  thousand  piasters,  and 
the  same  number  of  students  ;  and  Kurnet  Shehwan,  in  the  Katia,  founded  in 
1844,  with  an  income  of  twenty-five  thousand  piasters,  and  a  like  number  of 
students.  The  rules  and  studies  are  the  same  as  in  the  general  colleges.  The 
schools  for  monks  are  at  the  convents  of  Bir  Sumeih  and  Kefan,  both  together 
having  sixty  pupils,  who  are  taught  reading  and  writing  in  Syriac  and  Arabic, 
with  casuistry ;  nothing  more,  not  even  arithmetic.  The  Maronites  have  the 
right  to  send  six  free  pupils  to  the  College  of  the  Propaganda,  at  Rome. 

They  have  one  printing  press  at  Kuzheiya.  The  monks  do  the  work,  and 
the  profit  goes  to  the  convent.  They  print  mostly  in  Syriac  or  Karshuny,  and 
their  issues  are  mainly  prayer-books  and  others  used  in  the  churches ;  but  their 
price  puts  them  out  of  the  reach  of  all  except  the  rich,  or  churches  and  con- 
vents.    Many  books  are  also  printed  at  Rome  for  the  Maronites. 

The  Greek  Catholics  are  converts  from  the  Greek  Church,  and  in  1S45  num- 
bered between  thirty  thousand  and  forty  thousand.  They  retain  the  Oriental 
calendar,  the  communion  in  both  kinds,  leavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist,  and 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy.  In  intelligence  and  enterprise  they  take  the  lead 
of  other  sects.  Their  patriarch  is  styled  "  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Jerusalem  and 
Alexandria."  He  has  no  firman,  and  his  income  may  amount  to  thirty  thou- 
sand piasters.  Maximus  Mazlum  filled  the  ofiface  in  1845.  They  had  then  nine 
bishops;  one  the  vicar  of  the  patriarch,  the  rest  diocesans  of  Akka,  Tyre, 
Sidon,  Beirut,  Zahleh,  Baalbek,  Aleppo,  and  Diarbekir.  Their  income  is  from 
masses  and  other  rites.  The  sect  had  only  at  that  time  fifty-five  priests,  mostly 
unmarried.  In  cities  the  monks  discharged  the  duties  of  priests,  which  ac- 
counts for  their  small  number. 

Their  fourteen  convents  and  three  nunneries  were  of  two  orders  :  Mukhal- 
lisiyeh  and  Shuweiriyeh.  Their  rules  resemble  those  of  the  Maronites.  Their 
income  may  amount  in  all  to  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  piasters.  Be- 
sides these  were  ten  Coenobia.  The  number  of  monks  was  two  hundred  and 
fifty,  and  of  nuns  ninety. 

They  had  one  press  at  the  convent  of  Schweir,  but  small  and  nearly  worn 
out.  It  printed  only  ecclesiastical  books.  Though  they  have  few  schools  they 
are  generally  able  to  read,  their  children  attending  the  schools  of  other  sects. 
Their  patriarch  tried  to  found  a  college  at  Ainteraz,  in  the  Jurd,  but  the  build- 
ing was  burnt  by  the  Druses  in  the  war.  The  convent  of  Mukhallis  having  a 
library,  receives  scholars  and  promotes  education ;  more  before  the  Druse  war, 
however,  than  after. 

The  At-nienian  Catholics  are  very  few.  They  are  converts  from  the  Arme- 
nian church.  Their  patriarch  resides  at  Bzummar,  in  the  Kesrawan.  They 
have  two  more  convents  in  the  same  district ;  Beit  Khashboh  and  El  Kureim. 
They  have  three  bishops  and  fifty  monks. 


304  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

The  Syrian  Catholics  differ  but  little  from  the  Maronites.  In  Lebanon  they 
have  two  convents ;  one  at  Er  Rughm,  in  the  Metn,  and  the  other  at  Sherfeh, 
in  the  Kesrawan,  These  people  are  found  in  Damascus,  and  north  as  far  as 
Aleppo,  but  are  very  few. 

The  Latins  are  found  chiefly  in  Jerusalem,  Ramleh,  Yaffa,  and  Nazareth, 
and  number  only  a  few  hundreds,  ministered  to  by  the  monks  of  the  Latin  con- 
vents in  those  places. 

There  are  five  European  monastic  orders  in  Syria :  Capuchins,  Carmelites, 
Lazarists,  Franciscans,  and  Jesuits. 

The  Capuchins  have  four  convents  :  one  at  Beirut,  with  seven  or  eight 
monks  ;  one  at  Solima,  with  two  or  three  ;  one  at  Ghuzir,  now  empty,  and  one  at 
Abeih,  with  a  single  inmate.  (One  of  the  vivid  recollections  of  the  East,  that 
remains  with  the  writer,  is  that  of  going  up  to  Abeih  on  the  day  of  the  battle. 
May  9,  1845,  alone  with  the  cawass  of  the  American  Consul ;  passing  through  a 
part  of  the  Druse  army,  and  reaching  the  village  just  in  time  to  see  Dr.  Thom- 
son carry  his  flag  of  truce  to  the  beleaguered  Maronites  in  the  castle  of  the 
Emir  Asaad.  As  soon  as  they  were  safe  out  of  the  place,  under  the  care  of 
the  British  Consul  General,  I  found  the  partially  burned  body  of  a  monk  lying 
in  the  open  street,  and  with  great  difificulty  induced  some  of  his  own  people  to 
help  me  carry  it  to  the  convent  and  bury  it  under  the  earthen  floor  of  the 
chapel.)  They  do  not  know  the  Arabic,  and  so  do  not  preach ;  nor  have  any 
schools,  except  one  at  Abeih,  with  twenty  children.  They  are  proverbial  for 
their  hermit-like  life,  though  they  confess  such  as  come  to  them. 

The  Carmelites  have  one  convent  on  Mt.  Carmel,  well  known  to  travelers 
as  the  most  commodious  hotel  in  Syria,  and  a  most  substantial  structure.  Its 
few  inmates  do  little  outside  the  convent. 

The  Lazarists  have  one  convent  at  Aintura.  Its  three  or  four  monks  have 
a  good  boarding  school,  in  which  are  usually  thirty  or  forty  scholars.  The 
Shehab  and  Khazin  families  have  the  right  to  send  two  free  scholars.  Others 
pay  from  twelve  hundred  to  twenty-four  hundred  piasters  per  annum  for  board 
and  tuition.  The  studies  are  Italian,  French,  Turkish,  Arabic  grammar,  and  a 
little  astronomy  and  mathematics.  The  inmates  must  attend  worship  with  the 
monks,  and  receive  religious  instruction.  They  have  two  months'  vacation  in 
summer,  and  remain  in  the  school  as  long  as  they  please.  The  convent  re- 
ceives its  support  from  France.     Its  inmates  do  nothing  outside  their  school. 

The  Franciscans  are  the  monks  of  the  Terra  Santa.  They  have  two  con- 
vents at  Jerusalem,  with  sixty  monks ;  one  each  at  Bethlehem,  Ain  Kerim, 
Ramleh,  Yaffa,  Nazareth,  Akka,  Damascus,  and  Harisa  in  Lebanon,  with  near 
one  hundred  monks  in  all ;  in  each,  one  acts  as  priest  of  a  native  congregation. 
The  rest  of  the  monks  do  not  learn  Arabic.  Near  Harisa  they  try  to  preach  in 
the  native  churches,  as  missionaries  of  the  Pope.  In  Palestine  most  of  the 
convents  have  common  schools  connected  with  them.     In  Jerusalem  they  have 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  305 

also  a  girls'  school.     The  income  of  those  who  do  not  speak  Arabic  is  from 
abroad. 

The  Jesuits  had  once  convents  at  Solima,  Bukfeiya,  Aintura,  and  Zgharta, 
which  passed  into  other  hands  till  the  order  returned  in  1836.  Their  number^ 
is  not  over  eight  or  nine ;  but  they  have  abundant  means,  and  large  plans.  At 
Beirut  they  expended  one  hundred  thousand  piasters,  till  the  government  or- 
dered them  to  stop ;  and  as  they  had  no  European  protection  they  had  to  obey, 
though  they  retained  their  property,  and  kept  on  with  their  school,  which  has 
one  hundred  pupils,  some  of  them  Druses  and  Moslems.  It  is  only  a  common 
day  school,  with  some  classes  in  Arabic  grammar,  Italian  and  French.  They 
have  three  native  teachers,  and  tuition  is  free.  The  Jesuits  personally  are  the 
teachers  of  religion  and  morals.  They  themselves  study  Arabic.  They  have 
also  bought  a  palace  at  Ghuzir,  for  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand 
piasters,  which  they  are  fitting  up  for  a  boarding-school.  Meantime,  they  have 
a  common  school  with  thirty  scholars.  In  the  Capuchin  convent  at  Solima, 
they  have  another  school  of  the  same  size  ;  and  a  smaller  one  at  Bukfeiya.  At 
Zahleh  they  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  erect  a  building.  Out  of  Beirut  and 
Lebanon  they  have  no  foothold,  and  were  it  not  for  their  helping  him  against 
the  Protestants,  the  Maronite  patriarch  would  not  tolerate  them.  They  are 
looked  on  as  learned,  prudent,  self-denying,  and  suave  ;  also  as  meddlers  in 
politics  as  well  as  religion  ;  but  even  Papists  complain  that  their  scholars  do 
not  learn  much.  They  seem  to  have  all  the  funds  they  want  from  the  French 
Propagation  Society  at  Lyons,  France. 

The  Pope  has  always  a  legate  in  Syria,  residing  in  his  own  convent  at  Ain- 
tura, who  makes  annual  circuits  among  all  the  Papists,  reporting  to  his  supe- 
rior whatever  needs  attention.  He  is  expected  to  burn  heretical  books,  and 
judge  certain  cases  brought  before  him  ;  but  he  has  no  claim  on  Syria  for 
income,  though  he  receives  presents  from  the  clergy  of  all  ranks,  and  the  lead- 
ing men  of  the  laity.  The  Pope  allows  him,  beside,  sixty  thousand  piasters. 
Any  bishop  may  address  the  Pope,  either  directly  or  through  his  patriarch  ;  but 
they  may  not  visit  Rome  in  person  without  first  obtaining  permission. 

The  reader  will  have  noticed  that  in  this  account  of  Papal  sects  in  Syria,        , 
nothing  has  been  said  of  the  Greek  Church  there.     Instead  of  statistics  of  its 
clergy  and  convents,  which  may  vary  every  year,  the  following  account  of  a  so-      ^ 
called  religious  ceremony,  now  happily  confined  to  that  church,  is  presented ; 
for  the  character  of  a  church  may  be  learned  from  the  spirit  and  style  of  such 
religious  ceremonies  as  are  peculiar  to  itself. 

Judged  by  this  standard,  the  spirituality  of  the  Greek  Church  cannot  be 
rated  very  high  ;  for,  after  other  churches  in  the  East  have  renounced  the  impo- 
sition of  the  holy  fire,  as  too  glaring  to  be  endured,  that  church  still  retains  it 
as  the  chief  attraction  of  holy  week  at  Jerusalem.  It  takes  place  on  the  Satur- 
day preceding  Easter,  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.     In  that  immense 

I184S. 
20 


3o6  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

Structure,  the  Greek  Church  is  the  most  spacious  and  splendid  of  the  many 
churches  gathered  within  its  walls ;  and  when  illuminated  with  its  hundreds  of 
gold  and  silver  lamps,  the  light  reflected  from  the  gilded  surfaces  on  all  sides, 
makes  an  impression  of  surpassing  splendor.  The  main  scene  of  this  perform- 
ance, however,  is  in  the  large  rotunda  west  of  that,  directly  under  the  principal 
dome.  Near  the  center  stands  the  sepulcher,  so-called,  like  a  small  chapel 
enclosed  by  the  spacious  edifice,  and  covered  by  its  lofty  roof.  Outwardly  it 
is  twenty-six  feet  by  eighteen,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  small  cupola,  though  the 
inner  apartment,  said  to  represent  the  sepulcher,  is  only  six  and  one-half  feet 
long  by  six  feet  wide ;  and  forty-three  lamps,  suspended  from  the  low  ceiling, 
lio-ht  up  its  beautiful  walls  of  verd-antique  marble.  From  the  outside  of  this 
to  the  circle  of  huge  square  pillars  that  support  the  dome,  the  marble  floor  is 
entirely  clear.  Galleries  extend  from  pillar  to  pillar,  tier  above  tier,  as  in  a 
theater,  for  the  accommodation  of  spectators  who  would  be  safe  from  the  perils 
of  the  crowd  below.  Early  in  the  day,  or  as  soon  as  the  doors  are  open,  a 
dense  mass  of  men,  women,  and  children  rush  in  and  fill  the  area.  As  the  day 
advances  they  overflow  into  the  adjoining  chapels,  and  every  available  niche 
and  corner,  gallery,  balcony,  and  possible  standing  place  is  filled.  It  is  to  be 
expected  that  such  a  crowd  will  not  be  silen.t ;  but  this  is  noisy  in  the  extreme. 
Outside  of  heathendom,  one  can  hardly  find  a  so-called  religious  observance  so 
noisv.  Turkish  soldiers  are  there  with  heavy  whips,  which  they  use  without 
mercv,  to  keep  open  a  narrow  lane  in  the  living  mass  round  the  sepulcher. 
Should  they  have  occasion  to  escort  any  one  through  the  crowd,  their  korbadjes^ 
fall  heavily  on  the  heads  of  those  in  front,  who  sink  down  at  once  to  allow 
them  to  pass  over  their  bodies,  and  rise  up  again  the  moment  they  have  passed. 
Meanwhile,  the  narrow  lane  is  filled  up  by  men  running  around  the  sepulcher, 
sometimes  singly,  sometimes  in  quaternions,  bearing  four  men  standing  on  their 
shoulders,  shouting,  yelling,  singing,  and  waving  handkerchiefs  and  head- 
dresses, in  a  frenzy  of  excitement.  The  women  all  this  while  keep  up  their 
shrill  zughareet,  or  zulagheet,  which  once  heard  can  never  be  forgotten,  though 
others  must  hear  it  to  know  the  piercing  noise  a  crowd  of  Oriental  women  can 
make  in  their  excitement.  This  grows  louder  when  the  runners  overturn  one 
of  those  animated  human  towers,  or  when  some  notable  victory  crowns  the 
fierce  quarreling  on  all  sides  ;  it  culminates  when,  after  some  hours,  the  arrival 
of  the  governor  announces  that  the  event  of  the  day  is  near.  The  Greek 
clergy  then  march  round  the  tomb,  holding  aloft  painted  banners,  swinging 
censers  of  burning  incense,  and  chanting  the  appointed  liturgy.  Their  loud 
voices,  however,  are  drowned  by  the  shouts  of  the  men,  the  screams  of  the 
women,  and  the  cries  and  blows  of  the  soldiers  who  clear  the  way.  When  the 
bishop  enters  the  sepulcher  alone,  the  scene  around  it  beggars  description. 
Men  cursing  and  swearing  fight  furiously  to  gain  the  place  nearest  the  opening 
■whence  the  fire  is  to  issue  ;  for  he  who  gets  it  soonest,  gets  the  greatest  blessing. 
Large  sums  are  sometimes  paid  for  the  first  privilege,  though  how  it  is  secured 
to  the  purchaser  is  hard  to  see.  The  soldiers  sometimes  have  to  separate  the 
combatants.     Now  comes  the  climax  of  the  frenzy.     The  moment  the  fire  ap- 

1  Like  our  rawliicles,  only  made  of  rhinoceros  skin. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  307 

pears  it  were  hard  to  tell  whether  each  struggled  hardest  to  secure  it  for  him- 
self or  to  hinder  the  success  of  his  neighbor.  They  seem  as  eager  to  put  out 
the  tapers  of  others  as  to  light  their  own ;  and  no  sooner  do  they  secure  the 
fire  than  they  pass  it  over  their  faces,  wash  their  hands  in  the  flames,  open 
their  dresses  and  thrust  the  burning  tapers  into  their  bosoms,  believing  that  it 
will  not  burn ;  and  if  beards  are  scorched,  flesh  is  burned,  or  some  feminine 
finery  vanishes  in  a  blaze,  this  is  charged  to  the  unbelief  of  the  sufferer,  while 
the  faith  of  the  mass  remains  unshaken.  Some  years  more  serious  results  fol- 
low the  fanatical  performance.  In  1834  Dr.  Thomson  saw  several  hundred 
pilgrims  crushed  to  death  in  their  frantic  efforts  to  escape  from  the  suffocating 
fumes  of  an  unusual  number  of  tapers.  Even  the  celebrated  Ibrahim  Pasha  of 
Egypt,  who  was  present,  was  with  difficulty  rescued  by  his  guard.  And  it  is  no 
unfrequent  occurrence  that  a  number  are  trampled  to  death  in  the  resistless 
surgings  of  an  excited  crowd  pent  up  in  so  confined  a  space.  Yet  the  Greek 
clergy  still  keep  up  the  imposition,  and  the  crowds  still  carry  their  burial  robes 
to  be  imbued  with  saving  virtue  by  contact  with  this  holy  fire,  and  carry  home 
the  extinguished  tapers  as  possessing  similar  power.  It  is  distressing  to  see 
such  scenes  enacted  in  the  place  where  some  would  have  us  believe  that  our 
Redeemer  arose  from  the  dead  ;  and  though  we  may  satisfy  ourselves  that  the 
real  scene  of  the  Resurrection  is  not  thus  desecrated,  that  does  not  diminish 
the  dishonor  done  to  Christ  in  the  presence  of  scoffing  Moslems,  who  are 
thus  taught  by  so-called  Christians  to  "blaspheme  that  worthy  name  by  the 
which  [they]  are  called." — James  ii :  7.  It  is  some  comfort,  however,  that  the 
increased  spread  of  the  light,  through  the  labors  of  missionaries,  is  compelling 
even  this  work  of  darkness  to  hide  itself  for  very  shame.  The  annual  crowd 
grows  smaller,  though  when  the  writer  saw  it,  twelve  years  after  Dr.  Thomson, 
the  crowd  was  not  diminished.  But  we  hope  that  at  no  distant  day  it  may  dis- 
appear from  among  the  Easter  observances  of  the  holy  city.^ 


YEZIDEES. 

]\Iuch  less  is  known  about  the  Yezidees  than  has  been  learned  about  the 
Druses.  Personal  investigation  has  not  been  so  thorough  or  so  long  continued ; 
and  the  fate  of  war  has  not  given  their  sacred  books  into  the  hands  of  scholars, 
as  it  did  those  of  their  Lebanon  contemporaries.  Though  they  are  an  illiterate 
people,  yet  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  possess  sacred  books ;  but  Mr.  Layard, 
much  as  he  had  done  for  them,  and  cordially  as  they  were  attached  to  him, 
never  could  succeed  in  getting  a  sight  of  them.^ 

Name.  There  have  been  various  opinions  about  the  origin  of  the  name 
Yezidee.  Moslems  trace  it  to  the  Ommiade  Caliph  Yezd,  the  persecutor  of 
Ali.  Some  would  derive  it  from  the  city  Yezd.  Cawal  Yusuf  told  Mr.  Layard 
that  their  ancient  name  for  God  was  Azed,  and  that  this  was  the  origin  of  their 
name.^  Those  living  in  Sheikhan  also  call  themselves  Daseni;  from  Dasen, 
the  ancient  name  of  that  district.* 

1  TJie  Land  and  the  Book  —  volume  on  Southern  Palestine  and  Jerusalem  —  pp.  47S-4S1. 

-  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  p.  92.  "  *  Do.,  p.  94.  *  Lost  Triies,  p.  47. 


3o8  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Territory.  They  occupy  various  regions  in  the  vicinity  of  Mosul.  Two 
large  villages,  Baasheka  and  Baazani,  lie  about  four  hours  distant  to  the  north- 
east, at  the  foot  of  Jebel  Maklub,  and  their  villages  extend  thence  along  the 
western  base  of  the  mountains,  almost  to  Jezirah,  This  region  is  called 
Sheikhan.  Their  religious  center  is  Sheikh  Adi,  a  valley  in  the  outlying  hills  to 
the  south  of  the  Gara  range.  Its  irregular  surface,  shaded  by  leafy  groves,  and 
irrigated  by  clear  streams  of  \vater,  forms  a  delightful  contrast  to  the  bare 
dreariness  of  the  plains  below,  and  is  just  such  a  place  as  the  denizens  of 
old  Nineveh,  as  well  as  the  citizens  of  Mosul,  its  modern  representative,  would 
choose  for  a  summer  retreat.  Their  political  center  is  Baadri,  a  village  about 
five  miles  north  of  Ain  Sifni,  and  to  the  south  of  the  hill  below  Sheikh  Adi. 
Besides  this  region,  they  also  occupy  Jebel  Sinjar,  a  mountain  range  fifty  miles 
long  by  eight  in  breadth,  that  rises  out  of  the  Mesopotamian  plain.  Its  eastern 
point  is  eighty-three  miles  west  of  Mosul,  and  its  western  seventy  miles  south 
of  Nisibin.  The  districts  of  Kherzan  and  Redwan,  occupying  the  angle  en- 
closed by  the  Tigris  and  the  Serf  rivers,  are  also  peopled  by  Yezidees.  Some 
of  them  are  found,  also,  in  the  pashalic  of  Aleppo,  in  northern  Armenia,  and  in 
Georgia.^ 

Population.  Concerning  this  there  is  no  definite  information.  Dr.  Grant 
said  we  must  reckon  them  by  tens  of  thousands,^  and  Dr.  Lobdell  m.akes  their 
number  a  hundred  thousand  ;^  but  we  must  wait  for  more  accurate  statistics. 
If  different  writers  make  different  estimates,  we  must  remember  that  in  the 
merciless  persecutions  of  the  past  they  were  subject  to  wholesale  massacre. 
In  1833  Kur  Bey  of  Ravan-dooz,  having  driven  the  population  of  Sheikhan  for 
refuge  to  Mosul,  the  poor  fugitives  found  the  river  Tigris  in  flood,  and  the 
bridge  of  boats  taken  away ;  so  they  fled  to  the  level  top  of  the  mound  of 
Koyunjik,  and  there  their  pursuers  finally  overtook  and  slaughtered  the  whole 
of  them  —  men,  women  and  children  —  in  plain  sight  of  the  citizens  of  Mosul, 
across  the  river.  Ten  thousand  are  said  to  have  perished  at  the  hands  of  the 
bloody  Bey  of  Ravan-dooz ;  and  after  this,  Mehemet  Reshid  Pasha  subdued 
Sinjar,  destroying  three  fourths  of  the  population,  and  Hafiz  Pasha,^  after  a 
second  slaughter,  carried  off  more  than  thirty  thousand  into  slavery,  till  even  as 
far  off  as  Samsoon,  on  the  Black  Sea,  Yezidee  girls  were  sold  for  thirty  pias- 
ters.^ Then  Mohammed  Pasha  robbed  them  by  his  merciless  exactions,  and 
killed  such  as  dared  to  murmur  or  expostulate.*' 

The  Yezidees  have  suffered  persecution  from  the  Moslems  for  centuries. 
The  harems  of  southern  Turkey  have  been  filled  with  them,  after  the  men,  and 
such  women  as  they  did  not  care  to  carry  away,  were  slaughtered.  An  annual 
Yezidee  hunt  was  one  of  the  sources  of  the  revenue  of  Badir  Khan  Bey,  and 
the  pashas  of  Mosul  and  Bagdad  hushed  the  clamors  of  their  spahis  for  arrears 
of  pay,  by  letting  them  loose  on  the  Yezidees. 

There  may  have  been  some  original  provocation  for  all  this,  but  however 

>  Dr.  Grant  andiJie  Mountain  Nestcrians,  p.  121 ;  Memoir  of  Dr.  Lobdill,  pp.  215-226  ;  Layaid's  BxbyloK 
and  Nineveh,  p.  47;  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  229,  230,  232:  Eraser's  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria, 
pp.  147,  148,  285-289. 

^Lost  Tribes,  p.  48.  ^Memoir,  p.  214.  *Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  229-230. 

"A  piaster  is  worth  four  cents.  "  Bibliothcca  Sacra,  1S48,  p.  165. 


RELIGIOUS    PELIEFS.  309 

that  may  be,  it  is  not  strange  that  such  treatment  roused  a  fierce  revenge,  which 
improved  every  opportunity  for  retaHation.  One  of  the  kotcheks  at  Sheikh 
Adi  gloated  over  the  memories  of  such  retaHations,  as  he  recounted  them  to  the 
writer  in  1844.-^  Since  the  terrible  inflictions  of  Mehemet  Reshid  and  Hafiz 
Pashas,  they  have  resigned  themselves  to  their  fate  with  a  passive  despair,  and 
yet  with  a  steadfast  devotion.  They  invariably  prefer  death  to  apostasy  from 
their  religion.  Even  children  brought  up  in  Turkish  harems,  secretly  adhere 
to  their  sect  and  their  cawals  (priests)." 

Origin,  Dr.  Grant  was  led  by  his  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Nestorians,  to 
claim  that  these  also  were  descended  from  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel ;  but  a  Scotch 
jury,  after  hearing  his  arguments,  would  bring  in  the  verdict  "  not  proven." 
Others  see  in  them  a  remnant  of  the  ancient  Chaldeans.  But  we  need  resort 
to  neither  of  these  theories.  Their  language,  Kermanj,  or  Kurdish,  would  in- 
dicate that  they  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  districts 
they  now  occupy.  Layard  tells  us "  that  they  have  a  tradition  that  they  came 
originally  from  Busrah  and  the  lower  Euphrates  ;  settled  first  in  Syria,  and 
afterwards  in  the  Sinjar  and  farther  east.  The  particular  race  represented  by 
them  cannot  be  certainly  known  till  their  dialect  of  the  Kurdish  has  been 
more  thoroughly  studied,  and  its  affinities  ascertained,  or  their  tribal  traditions 
more  accurately  understood.  Hussein  Bey  traces  his  ancestry  back  to  the 
Sassanian  dynasty.'* 

Personal  Appearance.  The  families  of  the  cawals  intermarry,  and  are  re- 
markable for  the  beauty  of  both  sexes.  Their  complexion  is  dark,  but  their 
features  regular.  Their  dress  is  as  tasteful  as  the  material  will  admit  of.  At 
their  feasts  the  women  weave  flowers  into  their  hair,  or  bind  a  wreath  of  myrtle 
round  their  black  turbans.  They  wear  amber,  coral,  agate,  or  glass  beads 
round  their  necks.  The  black  skull  caps  of  some  are  covered  with  imbricated 
strings  of  coins.  A  yellowish  check  plaid,  tied  over  one  shoulder  and  falling  in 
front  over  the  ziboon,^  is  a  peculiarity  of  their  costume.  The  sketch  given  on 
the  next  page,  the  same  as  in  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  JVestoria?is,  p.  120,  is 
from  a  sketch  by  Claudius  James  Rich.  The  married  cover  the  neck  with  a 
white  kerchief.  Others  leave  it  bare.  Bright  colors  are  worn  by  the  girls. 
Older  women  are  content  with  plain  white.''  The  more  wealthy  among  the 
men  wear  gay  jackets  and  turbans,  with  rich  arms  in  their  girdles. 

The  women  of  Sinjar  have  a  sallow  complexion  and  irregular  features. 
The  girls  wear  white  underclothing  and  colored  silk  ziboons,  open  in  front  and 
confined  at  the  waist  with  a  girdle  ornamented  with  pieces  of  silver.  The  men 
have  dark  complexions,  black,  piercing  eyes,  and  often  forbidding  features. 
They  are  short,  but  well  proportioned  ;  muscular,  and  capable  of  great  fatigue. 
Their  dress  consists  of  a  shirt,"  loose  trowsers,*  and  cloak  ^  —  all  white  —  with  a 
black  turban,  below  which  their  hair  falls  in  ringlets.     Their  long  rifles,  and 

'^  BibliotJieca  Sacra,  184S,  p.  164.  -  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  231. 
3  Do.,  Vol.  I,  p.  252  ;  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  p.  254. 

*  Life  0/ Lobdell,  p.  215.                                     ^press.  c  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  pp.  S7-88. 

"  Camees.                                                                    s  shalvvar.  "  Abba. 


3IO 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


swords,  the  pistols  in  their  girdles,  and  the  reed  cartouch  cases  on  their  breasts, 
make  them  look  as  ferocious  as  their  reputation.^ 

There  is  a  curious  discrepancy  in  the  accounts  of  the  dress  of  the  Yezidees, 
as  given  by  Mr.  Layard  and  our  missionaries.  He  says:^  "They  are  forbid- 
den to  wear  the  common  Eastern  shirt,  open  in  front,  and  theirs  is  always  closed 
tip  to  the  neckJ'  Dr.  Lobdell  speaks  of  the  peculiar  shape  of  their  garments  — 
all  crescent-shaped  at  the  neck;^  while  the  writer'*  says  :  "  Their  dress  resembles 


that  of  the  Kurds,  with  the  exception  that  while  the  garment  of  the  latter  is  fas- 
tened close  round  the  neck,  that  of  the  Yezidees  is  open  for  some  distance  down 
the  breast,  the  two  sides  not  meeting  till  they  overlap  near  the  girdle.  The 
popular  explanation  is  that  Satan  wears  an  iron  collar  with  a  projection  in 
front,  and  they  leave  that  space  open  in  his  honor."  This  agrees  with  Dr.  Lob- 
dell, but  not  with  Mr.  Layard ;   and  yet,  while  I  saw  them  only  occasionally 


^Babylon.  a7td Xinevek,  p.  254. 
'^Memoir,  p.  215. 


-Do.,  p.  254. 
*  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S4S,  p.  160. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  311 

during  a  short  time,  he  mingled  with  them  intimately  and  repeatedly  during  a 
number  of  years ;  so  that  his  testimony  ought  to  be  the  correct  one. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Yezidees,  unlike  most  in  the  East,  are  scrupulously 
clean  and  neat.^  Before  appearing  at  Sheikh  Adi  they  wash  their  persons  and 
clothes  in  the  streams;  and  Layard-  says  he  never  saw  such  assembled  cleanli- 
ness in  the  East.     Their  clothes,  mostly  white,  were  spotless. 

Their  year  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Christians.  They  have  no  real  Sabbath  ; 
but  the  women  do  not  wash  on  Wednesdays,®  though  other  work  goes  on. 
Some  always  fast  on  that  day.*  They  have  an  era  of  their  own,  of  which  the 
year  1550  corresponded  to  our  A.  D,  1846,  suggesting  some  connection  with 
Manes.^  Some  of  them  fast  three  days  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  but  they 
do  not  keep  Ramazan. 

There  are  no  religious  observances  connected  with  their  marriages,  nor  is 
the  number  of  wives  limited  ;  and  polygamy  is  common,  though  only  one  wife 
is  strictly  lawful.  The  couple  merely  appear  before  a  sheikh,  who  ratifies  their 
mutual  consent  to  the  union.  A  ring,  or  some  money,  is  then  given  to  the 
bride,  and  a  day  is  fixed  for  the  feast,  when  they  drink  and  dance.  Fathers  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  asking  large  sums  for  their  daughters;  but  in  1849  Mr. 
Layard,  with  Mr.  Rassam,  induced  them  to  diminish  their  demands.^  He 
describes  the  marriage  of  the  daughter  of  a  cawal  as  follows : '  On  the  first  day 
the  parties  entered  into  the  contract  before  witnesses.  On  the  second,  the  bride 
was  led  to  her  new  home,  with  music,  in  the  midst  of  a  festive  throng.  A  thick 
veil  covered  her  from  head  to  foot,  and  she  was  kept  behind  a  curtain  in  the 
corner  of  a  dark  room  for  three  days,  after  v/hich  the  bridegroom  was  allowed  to 
see  her.  All  day  long,  and  through  most  of  the  night,  the  tahlehl  of  the  women 
and  the  music  were  kept  up.  On  the  third  day  the  bridegroom  was  led  from 
house  to  house,  receiving  at  each  a  small  present.  Then  a  circle  of  dancers 
wet  small  coins  and  stuck  them  on  his  forehead  till  they  fell  off  into  a  kerchief 
held  before  him.  Some  of  the  richer  guests  were  also  carried  off  by  a  party 
of  young  men  and  locked  up  till  they  ransomed  themselves ;  and  amid  the 
feasting,  and  raki  drinking  that  followed,  Mr.  Layard  left  the  village. 

Concubines  are  not  forbidden.  In  case  of  adultery,  the  wife  may  be  di- 
vorced, and  the  husband  marry  again,  with  the  consent  of  the  sheikhs ;  but  the 
divorced  wife  cannot  marry  again.  Formerly,  the  wife  guilty  of  adultery  was 
put  to  death.^ 

At  their  funerals  the  body  is  washed  in  running  water,  and  buried  with  the 
face  toward  the  north.  If  a  cawal  is  not  present,  the  first  one  who  comes 
prays  over  the  grave.  The  widow  dresses  in  white,  and  throwing  dust  over  hei 
head,  accompanied  by  her  female  friends,  meets  the  mourning  procession, 
dancing,  and  holding  the  sword  or  shield  of  her  husband  in  one  hand,  with 
locks  cut  from  her  own  hair  in  the  other.^ 

They  have  not  a  good  reputation  in  the  matter  of  temperance  ;^''  but  they  will 

'  Memoir  of  Lobdell,  p.  215.  ''■Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  237. 

3  Lobdell,  p.  218.  *  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  249. 

''275  A.  D.  '^  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  y^.^i,.  ^  Do.,  p.  205,  206, 

"Do.,  p.  93.  "Do.,  p.  94.. 

^'> Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  161  ;  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I.  p.  249. 


312  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

not  eat  lettuce  or  okra  —  called  there  bamiyah  —  or  pork.  In  slaughtering  ani- 
mals for  food  they  observe  the  Mosaic  and  Moslem  rules,  respecting  the  blood. 
Blue  is  to  them  an  abomination,  as  it  was  to  the  Sabeans ;  making  the  conscrip- 
tion which  began  in  1847  ^^'^Y  offensive  to  them,  as  the  Turkish  uniform  is  of 
that  color.  Through  the  efforts  of  Sir  Stratford  Canning,  afterwards  Lord 
Redcliffe,  they  were  relieved  from  this;  and  Mr.  Layard  carried  the  welcome 
news  to  them,  along  with  one  of  their  cawals,  who  had  been  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople to  petition  for  its  abolition.  Their  keblah  is  the  north  star,  toward 
which  they  turn  the  faces  of  their  dead;^  though  the  east  is  called  this  by  Mr. 
Layard  in  his  former  work.^  There  was  a  like  uncertainty  about  that  of  the 
Sabeans  ;  some  making  it  the  east,  and  others  the  north  star. 

The  Yezidees  show  great  reverence  for  fire.  They  pass  their  hands  through 
a  flame,  rub  them  over  their  right  eyebrow,  or  even  the  whole  face,  and  then 
kiss  them.  They  also  kiss  the  object  which  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  first  in 
the  morning.^  One  of  the  sacred  buildings  at  Sheikh  Adi  is  dedicated  to  Sheikh 
Shems  (the  sun).  *  Mr.  Layard  saw  a  drove  of  white  oxen  driven  into  a  pen 
attached  to  this  building,  that  were  dedicated  to  the  sun,  and  never  slain  except 
at  feasts,  when  their  flesh  was  given  to  the  poor.  The  classical  scholar  will  rec- 
ognize in  this  a  resemblance  to  other  ancient  religious  systems.  Sheep  also  are 
offered  here,  and  likewise  at  other  noted  tombs,  the  flesh  being  cooked  and 
distributed  among  the  visitors,  or  given  to  the  poor.^ 

At  Sheikh  Adi  numerous  lamps  are  lighted  at  night.*^  A  kotchek  told  the 
writer  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  one  night,  and  the  same  number  of  differ- 
ent ones  the  next,  making  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  every  two  nights  ;  or,  one 
for  every  day  in  the  year;  each  in  honor  of  some  Yezidee  saint  —  some  of  them 
mere  oiled  wicks,  and  others  more  elaborate  arrangements.  They  are  lighted 
from  the  lamps  kept  burning  constantly  in  the  temple  of  Sheikh  Adi.  It  took 
nearly  an  hour  to  light  them  all,  scattered  as  they  were  up  and  down  the  valley; 
and  a  woman  on  some  nights  —  not  on  all  —  followed  the  lamplighter,  burning 
incense  before  each.  Every  morning  they  go  round  and  kiss  the  black,  greasy 
spots  left  on  the  stones.     They  also  kiss  the  sides  and  threshold  of  the  temple. 

This  temple  is  only  a  larger  and  better  specimen  of  the  houses  of  Sheikh 
Adi,  seen  in  every  Yezidee  village.  These  consist  of  cubical  structures  of 
stone,  surmounted  by  a  fluted  cone,  instead  of  a  dome.  The  whole  is  covered 
with  plaster,  and  appears  very  white  in  the  sunlight.  There  are  a  great  num- 
ber and  variety  of  buildings  at  Sheikh  Adi.  Besides  the  temples  are  houses 
for  the  entertainment  of  distinguished  guests,  such  as  Sheikh  Nasr  and  Hussein 
Bey;  and  inferior  ones  for  others.  Every  village  has  its  own,  occupied  by  its 
people  when  they  go  up  to  the  annual  feasts.  Then  there  are  arched  passages, 
like  the  monkish  cloisters,  built  over  every  path  that  leads  to  the  sacred  place; 
;and  ruder  shelters  scattered  throughout  the  valley.  The  principal  temple  is 
-divided  by  pillars  and  arches  into  three  apartments  or  aisles,  in  one  of  which  is 
the  large  reservoir  in  which  children  are  baptized  naked,  by  immersion,  and  for 

1  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  p.  ij4.  -  yinevch  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  248. 

^  Lost  Tribes,  p.  45.  ^  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  158. 

^  Lost  Tribes,  p.  363;  Life  0/ Lobdcll,  p.  22:  ;  Baby iott  and  Nineveh,  p.  255. 
^Bibliotheca  Sacra,  184S,  p.  165. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS.  313 

a  consideration  in  money,  though  adults  receive  the  same  ordinance  by  affu- 
sion ;  and  the  cawals  carry  with  them  a  bottle  of  the  sacred  water  from  Sheikh 
Adi,  wherewith  to  baptize  infants  too  distant  to  be  carried  there.  The  water  is 
very  clear,  and,  as  the  deposits  of  lime  in  various  places  show,  is  impregnated 
with  that  mineral.  On  the  north  side  of  this  is  a  mustubah,^  called  the  seat 
of  Sheikh  Adi.  In  another  apartment  is  his  tomb.  There  are  no  ornaments 
inside  the  temple,  and  only  a  few  symbols  rudely  carved  on  the  stones  of  the 
wall  outside  ;  such  as  birds,  serpents,  combs,  and  crosiers.  One  or  two  Arabic 
inscriptions  are  also  built  into  it.  These  premises  are  held  so  sacred  that  no 
one  is  allowed  to  enter  the  temple  court  without  taking  off  his  shoes. 

They  have  four  orders  of  priests  :  pirs,  sheikhs,  cawals,  and  fakirs.  The 
offices  are  hereditary,  and  descend  to  women  as  well  as  to  men.  Indeed, 
women  seem  to  be  much  respected  among  them.  Yet  Dr.  Lobdell  -  says  that 
their  ignorance  is  very  great.  One  of  his  female  patients  told  him  that  the 
women  never  pray ;  that  she  did  not  know  that  there  was  any  life  beyond  this ; 
nor  did  she  know  who  Christ  was,  or  what  he  proposed  to  do. 

A  pir,  or  saint,  is  reverenced  next  to  their  great  sheikh.  They  are  believed 
to  have  power  to  cure  disease  and  insanity.  A  sheikh  is  next  in  rank.  They 
have  charge  of  the  sacred  premises,  keep  up  the  holy  fire,  and  entertain  pil- 
grims. They  also  sell  the  little  balls  of  clay  made  from  the  dust  of  the  temple, 
which  are  believed  to  possess  great  healing  power.  They  are  not  sectarian  in 
this  superstition,  for  Hussein  Bey,  in  the  presence  of  Dr.  Lobdell,  begged  some 
of  the  sacred  dust  that  lay  thick  on  the  tombs  of  the  Chaldean  patriarchs,  in 
the  convent  of  Rabban  Hormuz,  for  the  same  purpose  of  healing.^ 

The  cawals,  who  are  preachers,  visit  their  different  communities,  like  Metho- 
dist circuit  riders.  They  are  skillful  performers  on  their  sacred  instruments  — 
the  flute  and  tambourine ;  and  wherever  they  go  they  collect  the  sacred  offerings 
for  Sheikh  Adi.  These  are  divided  into  two  equal  parts  ;  one  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  sanctuary,  and  the  other  is  given  —  half  to  Hussein  Bey,  and  half 
to  the  cawals.  While  the  dress  of  the  sheikhs  is  white  —  all  save  the  skull-cap 
inside  the  turban  —  these  wear  black  turbans  with  their  white  garments. 

The  fakirs,  called  also  rahban  (monks),*  are  the  lowest  order  of  the  priest- 
hood ;  do  all  the  drudgery  at  Sheikh  Adi,  and  wear  a  coarse  dark  dress,  with  a 
red  kerchief  tied  across  their  dark  turbans.'^  Those  among  these  four  orders 
devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sacred  buildings  at  Sheikh  Adi  are  called  kotcheks.*' 
Hussein  Bey  is  both  their  civil  and  religious  head;''  though  Mr,  Layard**  makes 
him  the  political,  and  Sheikh  Nasr  the  religious,  head  ;  and  so  does  Dr.  Lob- 
dell.^ But  as  in  1846  he  was  quite  young,  he  delegated  his  religious  duties  to 
Sheikh  Nasr,  chief  of  the  sheikhs  of  Sheikhan,  and  made  Sheikh  Jindi  the 
peesh  namaz,  or  leader,  in  the  performance  of  their  ritual.  Mr.  Layard  de- 
scribes Hussein  Bey  as  handsome  ;  his  features  regular,  his  eye  lustrous,  and 
the  long  curls  hanging  from  under  his  turban  of  the  deepest  black.  A  white 
cloak  of  fine  texture  covered  his  rich  dress. ^*^     The  Yezidees  pretend  that  it  is 

1  Raised  seat.  -Life  of  Lobdell^  p.  225.  ^V)o.,  p.  215. 

^  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  184S,  p.  160.  ^  Niueveh  and  its  Reinains,  Vol.  I,  p.  251. 

^ Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S48,  p.  160,  161  ;  Babylon  and  Nitieveh,  p.  85. 

'  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  p.  93.  *  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  227. 

^ Life,  p.  215  and  220.  '^^  Nineveh  and  its  Reinains,  Vol.  I,  p.  227 


314  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

unlawful  for  them  to  learn  to  read ;  but  as  they  are  not  noted  for  veracity,  this 
may  be  only  an  excuse  for  their  general  ignorance.  Mr.  Layard  says  there  are 
only  one  or  two  among  them  who  can  read  and  write  ;  and  even  Sheikh  Nasr 
does  not  know  the  alphabet.  He  took  an  Arabic  book  from  the  writer,  and 
contemplated  its  pages  very  solemnly  upside  down.^ 

In  some  things  they  resemble  the  Druses,  with  whom  they  claim  connection.'' 
Like  them  they  refuse  to  receive  others  into  their  sect ;  as  the  Druses  say,  "  the 
door  is  shut."  They  practice  circumcision  like  them,  and  yet  the  Yezidees  per- 
form it  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  Moslems,  and  in  a  different  style,  as 
Dr.  Grant  explained  one  day  to  the  writer.  They  also  conform  in  many  things 
to  the  Moslems,  whom,  like  the  Druses,  they  both  fear  and  hate.  They  are 
also  more  favorably  disposed  toward  Christians,  as  Dr.  Grant  learned  the  first 
time  he  went  among  them.''  They  do  not  pray,  even  to  Satan  ;*  and  Mr.  Layard 
says^  that,  as  far  as  he  could  learn,  they  neither  offered  direct  prayer  or  sacri- 
fice to  God.  Sheikh  Nasr  "  evaded  questions  on  this  subject,  and  shunned 
with  superstitious  awe  every  topic  connected  with  the  thought  of  God  ; "  and  we 
have  seen  how  the  Druses  put  veracity  in  place  of  prayer,  and  neither  pray  to 
God,  nor  speak  the  truth  to  men  not  Druses.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point 
out  the  similarity  of  the  two  sects  in  carefully  concealing  all  knowledge  of  their 
peculiar  tenets. 

Sheikh  Adi  himself  seems  to  correspond  very  much  with  the  Druse  Hamze, 
one  of  the  divine  manifestations,  which  they  call  the  five  ministers  of  God. 
One  of  these  is  called  "The  Preceder,"  and  Sheikh  Adi  says:  "I  am  the  rul- 
ing power  preceding  all  that  exists."  Both  Hamze  and  Sheikh  Adi  claim  to  be 
the  Creator.  The  latter  sa3^s  :  "  I  am  he  who  spread  over  the  heavens  their 
height;"  and  again:  "Everything  created  is  under  me;"  and  again:  "I 
create  and  make  rich  those  whom  I  will;"  and  yet  he  claims  to  exist  apart 
from  God,  saying :  "  I  am  he  to  whom  the  Lord  of  heaven  hath  said,  '  Thou  art 
the  just  judge,  and  the  ruler  of  the  earth  ; '  "  and  even  to  be  a  man,  saying  :  "  I 
am  Adi  of  Syria  (or  Damascus),  the  son  of  Moosafir."*^  And  we  know  that 
Hamzd  was  associated  with  the  caliph  El  Hakem,  and  claimed  to  have  been 
incarnate  repeatedly  before  that. 

The  religion  of  the  Yezidees  is  agreed  to  have  Sabeanism  or  Zoroastrian- 
ism  for  its  basis,^  Mr.  Layard  says  :^  "They  have  more  in  common  with  the 
Sabeans  than  with  any  other  sect."  And  again  :^  "There  is  in  them  a  strange 
mixture  of  Sabeanism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism,  with  a  tincture  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  Gnostics  and  Manicheans.  Sabeanism,  however,  seems  to 
be  the  prevailing  feature."  From  Christianity  they  appear  to  borrow  the  con- 
ception of  Sheikh  Adi  as  creator  of  all ;  and  yet  a  human  being,  one  to  whom 
God  speaks,  and  on  whom  he  confers  dignities.  So  from  Islam  they  learn  to 
speak  of  the  Mehdi,'"  and  other  things  peculiar  to  Mohammedanism.  They 
believe  that  Christ  will  come  to  govern  the  world,  and  after  him  Sheikh  Mehdi 

'  Niiieveh  andiLs  Remains,  p.  252 ;  Btbliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  pp.  i6i,  163,  170  ;  Life  0/ Lobdell,  p.  222. 
-  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  184S,  p.  169;  Life  0/ Lobdell,  p.  224.  '^  Lost  Tribes,  p.  44- 

^Li/e  0/ Lobdell,  p.  224.  ^Nineveh  and  ils  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  245. 

'^  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  pp.  90-91.  ''Life  0/ Lobdell,  p.  224  ;  Bibliotluca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  169. 

^Xinevch  audits  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  248.  »Do.,  p.  252.  '"Guide. 


RELIGIOUS    BELIEFS. 


315 


will  appear  and  have  special  charge  of  those  that  speak  Kurdish.  According 
to  them,  the  general  resurrection  will  take  place  in  the  vast  plain  of  Bozan, 
near  Baadri.^  Query :  Is  this  resurrection  like  that  of  the  Druses,  described 
on  page  294;  or,  like  that  spoken  of  in  the  Word  of  God .-'  They  profess  to 
hold  intercourse  with  the  spirits  of  another  world,  like  our  Spiritualists.^  They 
believe  that  all  must  pass  through  an  expiatory  hell  into  heaven,  but  that  none 
will  suffer  eternally.^  Hence  their  care  to  avoid  giving  offence  to  Satan,  who, 
they  believe,  will  be  restored  to  favor,  and  so  be  able  to  reward  his  friends.* 
God,  they  say,  is  so  good  he  need  not  be  propitiated ;  but  it  is  needful  to  keep 
on  good  terms  with  the  evil  spirit.  They  speak  of  him  as  Melek  Taoos,^  and 
the  cawals  carry  round  with  them  brazen  images  of  a  bird  on  a  sort  of  Oriental 
candlestick,  as  vouchers  for  their  mission,  and  a  means 
of  blessing  to  their  followers.  There  is  here  given  an 
engraving  of  it,  from  Layard's  Babylon  and  Nineveh^  p. 
48.  One  of  them  gave  Dr.  Lobdell  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  this  name :  In  the  absence  of  his 
disciples,  Satan,  in  the  form  of  a  dervish,  took  Christ 
down  from  the  Cross  and  carried  him  to  heaven.  Soon 
after  the  Marys  came  and  asked  the  dervish  where  Christ 
was.  They  would  not  believe  his  reply,  but  promised  to 
do  so  if  he  would  restore  the  chicken  he  was  eating  to 
life.  He  did  so;  and  when  he  told  them  who  he  was  they 
adored  him.  When  he  left  them  he  promised  always  to 
appear  to  them  as  a  beautiful  bird,  and  so  the  peacock 
became  his  symbol.*^ 

They  say  that  Melek  Taoos  so  loved  Christ  that  on 
one  occasion  he  snatched  an  arrow  from  a  Jew,  with 
which  he  was  about  to  kill  him  ;  and  just  before  he  was 
nailed  to  the  Cross  he  conveyed  him  away  and  substituted 
another  in  his  place,  who  was  put  to  death". '' 

They  cannot  endure  that  any  should  pronounce  a  word 
even  remotely  resembling  the  name  of  Satan.  Hence 
Shat,  the  Arabic  name  of  the  Tigris,  and  naal,^  from  its  resemblance  to  laan,^ 
both  come  under  the  ban.^"  Mr.  Layard  once  came  very  near  causing  a  great 
commotion  through  inadvertently  forgetting  this ;  and,  though  he  recollected 
himself  before  he  got  the  word  half  uttered,  and  stopped,  it  was  some  time 
before  the  Yezidees  recovered  their  composure.^^  Indeed,  he  tells  us  that  they 
are  said  to  have  put  to  death  some  who  had  outraged  their  feelings  in  this  way.^" 
Mr.  Layard  describes  a  part  of  their  worship,  which  he  was  allowed  to  at- 
tend ;  for  there  were  parts  of  it  at  which  he  could  not  be  permitted  to  be  present. 
He  speaks  of  thousands  of  lights  in  the  darkness,  glimmering  among  the  trees, 
dancing  in  the  distance,  and  reflected  from  the  streams  and  tanks  —  for  he 
estimated  that  seven  thousand  persons  were  present.     Suddenly  the  hum  of 

^  Life  0/ Lobdell,  x>.  21J.  ^'Do.,-p.  2ij.  ^  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  p.  (j^. 

^ Lost  Tribes,  p.  46;   Biblioiheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  169.  "King  Peacock. 

'^Memoir,  p.  223.  "Biblioiheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  169.  ^  K  horse  shoe.  "A  curse. 

'^'^Biblioiheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  169.  ^'^  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  238.  ^-Do.,  p.  245. 


3l6  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

voices  was  hushed,  and  a  strain,  solemn  and  sad,  rose  from  the  valley  ;  music 
so  sweet  and  pathetic  he  had  never  heard  in  the  East.  It  reminded  him  of  the 
cathedral  chants  of  old  England  —  voices  of  men  and  women,  blended  with 
the  soft  notes  of  flutes,  broken  at  intervals  by  the  loud  clash  of  cymbals  and 
tambourines.  He  hastened  to  the  sanctuary,  and  found  it  lighted  up  with 
torches  and  lamps,  throwing  a  soft  light  on  the  white  walls  and  green  foliage. 
The  sheikhs  were  ranged  on  one  side,  and  thirty  cawals  were  seated  opposite, 
each  performing  on  tambourine  or  flute.  The  fakirs  stood  around  in  their 
dark  dresses,  and  the  women  priests  in  pure  white.  No  others  were  allowed 
in  the  court.  The  music  lasted  for  an  hour.  He  could  not  catch  the  words. 
As  the  time  quickened,  the  tambourines  broke  in  more  frequently ;  the  sad 
music  gave  place  to  a  lively  melody,  and  this  was  finally  lost  in  a  confusion  of 
sounds.  The  tambourines  beat  furiously,  the  voices  were  raised  to  the  highest 
pitch;  the  men  outside  took  up  the  sounds,  and  the  women  raised  their  shrill 
tahlehl,  till  the  performers  threw  their  instruments  into  the  air ;  and  he  never 
heard  a  yell  so  frightful  as  that  which  followed.  Then  the  noise  gradually  died 
away,  and  the  crowd  dispersed.^ 

Another  writer  describes  it  thus  :  "It  is  at  night  that  they  adore  the  being 
without  name,  with  songs  and  dances,  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  tambourine. 
The  peacock  of  the  angels  has  his  seat  in  the  midst ;  and  when  he  is  perfectly 
satisfied  with  the  honors  paid  him,  announces  it  by  a  yell  that  reverberates 
through  the  mountains,  and  the  tambourines  vibrate  without  the  touch  of  mor- 
tal hand."^     This  is  of  course  overdrawn. 

The  writer  heard  it  once,  though  not  allowed  to  see  it,  and  thus  described 
it:"  "After  midnight  we  heard  a  loud  lamentation,  as  though  from  one  in 
extreme  terror,  broken  by  bursts  of  weeping.  It  gradually  came  nearer,  till  it 
entered  the  temple.  It  resembled  nothing  so  much  as  the  remonstrances  of 
a  Hindoo  widow,  forced  to  ascend  the  funeral  pile ;  now  and  then  varied  by 
a  burst  of  uncontrollable  despair." 

It  is  pleasant  to  note  that  nothing  indecorous  or  immodest  takes  place  in 
this  midnight  worship.  Neither  Dr.  Azariah  Smith  nor  the  writer,  in  1844,  Mr. 
Layard,  in  1846  and  1848,  nor  Dr.  Lobdell,  in  1852,  saw  the  slightest  approach 
to  anything  of  the  kind. 

The  Yezidees  may  have  been  merciless  in  the  days  of  their  power ;  but  what 
people  can  point  to  a  faultless  past  ?  They  may  be  very  untruthful  now ;  but 
on  that  point  what  Oriental  people  are  without  blame  ?  Everything  that  we 
know  concerning  them  leads  us  to  wish  to  understand  them  better,  and  to  see 
what  a  beautiful  character  would  blossom  out  of  these  worshipers  of  Satan, 
when  brought  under  the  quickening  power  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

1  Nmeveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  241-242.  ^  Kelly's  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  p.  50. 

^  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S4S,  p.  170. 


XVI. 
CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  HISTORY. 


Missionaries  have  more  to  do  with  making  history  than  with  writing  it. 
Still  that  does  not  hinder  others  from  preparing  a  modest  record  of  their 
labors.  Neither  the  brilliant  rhetoric  of  a  Macaulay,  nor  the  vivid  portraiture 
of  a  Prescott,  have  yet  been  employed  in  setting  forth  their  work ;  but  that 
work  itself  does  not  shrink  from  comparison  with  any  deeds  that  have  called 
forth  the  exercise  of  the  highest  genius. 

Dr.  Joseph  Tracy  prepared  a  history  of  the  American  Board  down  to  the 
year  1841,  in  the  form  of  annals,  which  bears  the  marks  of  his  characteristic 
accuracy.  This  work  reached  a  second  edition.  After  the  stream  of  history 
had  advanced  more  than  a  score  of  years  beyond  the  point  where  he  left  off, 
historical  sketches  of  the  various  missions,  in  the  form  of  octavo  pamphlets,  be- 
gan to  be  issued  by  the  Board,  as  an  aid  to  pastors  in  their  preparation  for  the 
monthly  concert.  One,  of  the  Ceylon  mission,  by  Rev.  W.  W.  Rowland,  and 
of  the  Madura  and  Madras  missions,  by  Rev.  J.  Herrick  —  forty-eight  pages  in 
all — bears  the  date  of  1865.  Others  of  the  Marathi  (thirty-two  pages),  by  L. 
Bissell,  D.D.  ;  Turkish  (forty-eight  pages),  by  G.  W.  Wood,  D.D. ;  Syrian 
(thirty-two  pages),  by  T.  Laurie  ;  and  Nestorian  and  Assyrian  missions,  (thirty- 
two  pages),  by  J.  Perkins,  D.D.,  and  T.  Laurie,  were  issued  in  or  previous  to 
1866.  The  missions  of  the  Board  in  the  Pacific  were  described  by  Dr.  S.  C. 
Bardett  (thirty-two  pages),  in  1869  ;  and  a  pamphlet  describing  our  missions  in 
Africa  (thirty-two  pages),  by  Rev.  W.  Ireland,  appeared  without  date.  They 
may  seem  small  things  to  mention,  yet  one  of  them  has  been  referred  to  as 
authority  in  a  recent  history  of  the  Christian  Church,  by  Philip  Schaff,  D.D.^ 
The  same  work  refers  twice  to  Smith  and  Dwight's  Researches  in  Armejiia  ,'^ 
once  to  Dr.  Perkins'  Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia;^  to  Dr.  Dwight's 
Christianity  Reviewed  in  the  East;  *  and  to  the  Memoir  of  Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard.^ 

In  the  year  1861  Dr.  Anderson,  the  then  senior  Secretary  of  the  Board, 
published  a  memorial  volume  of  its  first  fifty  years,  giving  an  account  of  its  ori- 
gin and  early  history  ;  its  constitution  and  relations  to  ecclesiastical  bodies ; 

1  Vol.  II,  p.  733.  2 Do.,  pp.  730  and  782. 

3 Do.,  p.  730.  4 Do.,  p.  7S2.  "Do  ,  p.  733. 

(317) 


3l8  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

its  founders,  meetings,  committee,  correspondence,  library,  and  cabinet ;  its 
finances,  agencies,  relations  to  governments,  and  deceased  secretaries.  Then 
its  missions  were  described  in  their  constitution  and  origin  ;  their  development 
and  laws  of  growth;  the  missionaries  themselves;  their  churches,  schools; 
their  preaching,  and  printing ;  their  intercourse  with  the  Board  ;  their  literary- 
labors —  and  the  wliole  was  brought  down  to  the  close  of  the  half  century. 
This  was  followed  by  a  volume  in  1864,  giving  an  account  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  their  advance  under  missionary  labors.  The  year  1872  saw  two 
more  volumes  from  his  pen,  devoted  to  our  missions  in  Western  Asia;  and 
1874  brought  two  additional  volumes  :  one  on  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the 
other  on  India ;  when  he  who  had  done  such  good  service  and  so  long,  rested 
from  his  labors,  waiting  for  the  summons  that  so  recently  called  him  home  —  not 
to  cease  from  service,  but  to  render  it  still,  in  ways  so  much  better  that  to 
know  them  we  must  wait  till  we  also  follow  after. 

In  the  year  1878  a  smaller  set  of  historical  sketches  were  issued  in  i2mo 
pamphlet  form,  prepared  by  Rev.  Dr.  S.  C.  Bartlett — one  on  our  missions  in 
Africa,  of  thirteen  pages,  from  the  same  pen,  having  appeared  in  187 1.  They 
were  :  On  our  missions  in  Turkey,  thirty-four  pages ;  those  in  India,  twenty-nine 
pages  ;  in  China,  twenty-four  pages  ;  among  the  North  American  Indians,  forty- 
seven  pages;  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  Micronesia,  thirty-four  pages.  Dr. 
I.  R.  Worcester,  for  many  years  editor  of  the  Missionary  Het-ald,  wrote  one 
on  our  missions  in  Japan,  twenty-four  pages,  and  another  on  the  same  in  Papal 
lands,  twenty-eight  pages;  both  published  in  1879.  Various  missionaries  have 
written  histories  of  the  countries  where  they  have  labored.  Among  these.  Rev. 
S.  Dibble  and  Rev.  H.  Bingham  have  written  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  includ- 
ing not  only  the  progress  of  the  people  under  the  influence  of  the  Gospel, 
but  all  that  was  know^n  of  their  history  previous  to  the  arrival  of  missionaries 
among  them,  and  giving  an  account  of  the  native  traditions  that  go  back  to 
the  ages  preceding  their  discovery  by  Capt.  Cook. 

Rev.  Drs.  E.  Smith  and  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  preface  the  account  of  their  travels 
in  Armenia  with  a  sketch  of  its  ancient  history,^  going  back  to  the  traditional 
origin  of  the  nation,  from  Haik,  the  grandson  of  Japhet,  and  bringing  it  down 
to  the  present  time,  through  all  the  varied  and  intensely  interesting  fortunes  of 
that  nation.  One  hardly  recognizes  the  familiar  names  of  history  in  their  Ar- 
menian dress.  Tigranes  indeed  cannot  be  concealed  under  Dikran  ;  but  one 
hardly  suspects  Ajtahag  to  be  the  same  as  Astyages ;  or  thinks  of  Arsaces  in 
connection  with  Arshag ;  or  of  Mithridates,  when  reading  of  Mihrtad  ;  or  of 
finding  Barzaphanes  in  Pazapran,  Artaxerxes  in  Ardeshir,  or  Tiridates  in  Dur- 
tad  ;  though  Pacorus  can  be  recognized  in  Pagoor.  Passing  by  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Persian  fire  worshipers,  the  Seljookians,  Tamerlane,  and  others  who 
drenched  the  land  in  blood,  it  is  distressing  to  read  of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great 
drawing  through  the  land  a  broad  intrenchment  of  desert,  as  the  best  defence 
of  his  western  frontier,  and  driving  off,  like  so  many  cattle,  the  entire  popula- 
tion to  Persia  —  families  separated,  multitudes  drowned  in  crossing  the  rivers, 
and  destroyed  in  many  other  ways  before  reaching  their  place  of  exile.      Five 

'  Vol.  I,  pp.  13-41. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  3x9 

hundred  thousand  Georgians  and  Armenians  were  thus  torn  from  their  homes, 
and  deported  into  Persia.^ 

Dr.  Allen  devotes  two  hundred  and  eighty  pages  of  his  large  work  on  India 
to  the  history  of  that  countr}'.  He  begins  in  the  mythical  antiquity  of  their 
own  yugas.  These  are  said  to  have  been  from  eight  hundred  and  sixty-four 
thousand  to  one  million  seven  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand  years  in 
length,  and  it  takes  four  billion  three  hundred  and  twenty  million  years  to 
make  a  kalpa,  or  day  of  Brahm."  He  then  describes  the  original  inhabitants, 
now  existing  only  in  widely  separated  fragments  of  the  present  population ;  as, 
Bheels  in  Central  India,  Coolees  in  Gujerat,  Goands  ^  in  Orissa,  and  Shanars, 
and  others  in  the  South.* 

The  Hindoos  are  next  described  as  an  invading  race  from  the  northwest,  as 
was  done  by  Mr.  Hoisington.  The  distinctions  of  caste,  the  Vedas,  the  insti- 
tutes of  Menu,  the  Puranas,  the  Ramayana,  and  Mahabharat,  all  pass  under 
review.^  Then  the  invasion  of  Darius,  nearly  twenty-four  hundred  years  ago  — 
about  500  B.  C. — followed  two  centuries  later,  by  that  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  Porus  and  Sandracottus  "  reigned  and  fought,  and  Palibothra  was  a  noted 
city  in  the  land/ 

The  Mohammedan  period  next  passes  before  us,  from  Mohammed  Kasim, 
sent  with  six  thousand  men  by  the  Caliph  Waleed,  who,  landing  at  Dewal, 
sacked  a  number  of  cities  in  Scinde,  but  was  at  length  driven  from  the  country, 
down  through  the  more  permanent  invasion  of  Subuctajee,  to  the  reign  of  his 
son  Mahmoud,^  who  captured  the  great  temple  of  Somnat.  The  house  of 
Ghori,  who  reigned  A.  D.  1 160-1206;  Cuttub  ed  Deen  and  his  successors, 
A.  i).  1206-1288,  including  Altumsh,  Bulbun,  and  Kei  Kobad,  and  the  house  of 
Khiljee,  A.  D.  i288-i4r2i,  follow  in  succession.^  During  this  last  period,  the 
house  of  Toghluck,  A.  D.  1321-1412,  reigned,  and  Tamerlane  devastated  the 
region.-"^  Baber,  A.  D.  1526,  Humayoon  five  years  la,ter,  and  Acber,  A.  D.  1556, 
carried  the  Mogul  empire  up  to  the  zenith  of  its  glory.  Acber's  camp  equi- 
page consisted  of  tents  and  portable  houses  framed  of  the  most  costly  materials, 
in  an  enclosure  of  high  canvas  walls,  fifteen  hundred  and  thirty  j'^ards  square. 
This  contained  large  halls  for  public  receptions  and  banquets,  galleries  for 
exercise,  and  chambers  for  retirement.  All  was  fitted  up  for  the  most  luxuri- 
ous enjoyment,  and  seemed  like  a  castle  in  the  camp,  which  stretched  away  on 
all  sides  in  regular  streets,  and  covered  a  square  space  five  miles  across  —  an 
immense  city  of  tents. 

On  festivals,  the  Emperor's  usual  place  was  on  his  throne,  in  a  royal 
pavilion,  in  the  center  of  two  acres  spread  with  silk  carpets  interwoven  with 
gold,  and  adorned  with  hangings  as  rich  as  velvet,  embroidered  with  gold, 
pearls,  and  precious  stones  could  make  them.  The  nobility  interchanged  visits 
in  pavilions  only  less  costly.  Their  turbans  sparkled  with  diamonds,  and  were 
adorned  with  waving  heron  plumes ;  and  they  received  royal  gifts  of  dresses 
and  jewels,  horses  and  elephants.  Acber  himself  was  weighed  in  golden  scales 
against  gold,  silver,  perfumes,  and  other  precious  things,  which  were  then  scat- 

'  Do.,  pp.  39,  40.  -  Dr.  D.  O.  Allen's  India,  A  ncient  and  Modern,  pp.  19-20.  ^  Khonds. 

*  Dr.  D.  O.  Allen's  India,  Ancient  and  Modern,  p.  22.  ^Do.,  pp.  23-26.  ^  Chandragupta. 

'  Ur.  Allen's  India,  pp.  27-32.  ^Dc,  pp.  38-5O.  ^Do.,  pp.  56-83.  '^^Y)o.,  pp.  83-94. 


32 O  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

tered  among  the  spectators,  while  his  own  hand  showered  gold  and  silver  fruit 
among  his  courtiers.  Hundreds  of  elephants  passed  before  him  in  review,  the 
reading,  ones  wearing  gold  plates  glittering  with  precious  stones  on  head  and 
breast. 

Acber,  though  a  deist,  delighted  in  discussions  concerning  religion  and  phi- 
losophy, and  invited  the  Papal  priests  of  Goa  to  teach  him  their  religion  ;  but 
when  they  saw  the  homage  he  paid  to  the  sun,  and  himself  accepted  from  the 
people,  feeling  that  they  made  no  impression,  they  left  him  and  returned. 

After  a  reign  of  fifty-one  years,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Selim, 
A.  D.  1605,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Jehangeer,^  and  made  the  famous  Noor 
Mahal  ^  his  empress.''' 

Khurrum,  his  son,  after  various  fortunes  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  at 
once  put  to  death  his  brothers  and  their  families,  leaving  no  descendant  of 
Tamerlane  except  himself  and  his  own  children.  He  seemed  to  prosper  for  a 
while;  erected  splendid  palaces  and  mosques  in  his  principal  cities,  and  was  so 
fond  of  pomp  and  show  that  he  spent  $7,500,000  on  a  single  festival.  Among 
other  wavs  of  getting  rid  of  so  much  money  on  such  occasions,  he  had  vessels 
full  of  gold  coin  and  jewels  poured  over  him  and  then  distributed  among  the 
o-uests.  Such  extravagance  did  not  lighten  the  burdens  of  the  people.  We 
have  already  seen  how  he  mourned  over  the  death  of  the  empress,  for  whose 
mausoleum  he  erected  the  celebrated  Taj  Mahal ;  and  for  seven  years  before 
his  death,  he  was  imprisoned  in  his  own  palace,  by  his  son  Aurungzebe. 

After  him  the  Mogul  dynasty  dwindled  away,  until  it  became  a  mere  appa- 
nao-e  of  the  East  India  Company.  The  reader  may  well  be  startled  by  the 
suddenness  of  its  decadence;  but  in  this  it  does  not  differ  from  any  other 
Mohammedan  power.  Where  is  the  splendid  magnificence  of  the  Caliphate  of 
Bagdad?  Where  the  Fatimite  dynasty  in  Egypt?  And  where,  but  for  the 
European  powers,  whose  jealousies  prop  up  dead  dynasties  on  the  thrones 
of  Turkey  and  Persia  to-day,  would  be  those  Mohammedan  empires?  Where, 
too,  is  the  throne  of  Tamerlane  at  Samarcand  ?  And  what  is  the  condition  of 
Tunis  and  Morocco  in  the  West?  It  is  easy  to  say  that  other  empires  have 
had  their  rise  and  fall,  and  so  also  these ;  but  no  empire  that  has  fallen  has 
fallen  without  a  cause  ;  and  these  form  no  exception.  -  It  may  be  said  that 
their  fate  proves  that  "they  that  take  the  sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword."  A 
more  complete  reply  is  :  They  fell,  because,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  they 
could  not  stand.  The  elements  of  which  they  were  composed  made  prosperity 
impossible,  for  — 

First.  They  trampled  on  the  rights  of  man.  Instead  of  admitting  that 
manhood  gave  to  every  man  the  right  to  live,  and  seek  his  own  happiness,  so 
long  as  he  did  not  infringe  on  the  rights  of  his  neighbor,  they  held  that  no  man 
had  a  right  to  live  unless  he  was  a  Moslem,  or  purchased  immunity  from 
death,  by  tribute.  The  sect  or  nation  that  thus  sets  itself  in  opposition  to 
humanity,  cannot  prosper.  It  would  be  an  argument  against  Providence  if  it 
did.  The  same  divine  law  that  makes  it  impossible  for  a  nation  of  robbers  or 
pirates  to  prosper,  forbids  a  Mohammedan  nation  to  do  so,  unless  it  practically 

1  Conqueror  of  the  world.  "  Light  of  the  world.  ^  Ur.  Allen's  /niiia,  pp.  103-114. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY.  321 

renounces  that  article  of  its  creed.     But  that   is   a  fundamental  principle   of 
Islam. 

Second.  It  may  be  replied  :  But  they  believe  in  God  ?  That  depends  on 
what  is  meant  by  faith  in  God.  If  by  it  is  intended  an  intellectual  appre- 
hension of  the  abstract  idea  of  the  unity  of  God,  that  they  have ;  but  if  love  to 
God  is  included,  that  they  have  not ;  for,  "  if  a  man  love  not  his  brother,  whom 
he  hath  seen,  how  can  he  love  God,  whom  he  hath  not  seen  ?  "  And  so  their 
abstraction  is  lifeless. 

Third.  In  common  with  many  forms  of  idolatry,  Mohammedanism  tramples 
woman  in  the  mire  by  its  legalized  polygamy,  and  all  its  attendant  abomina- 
tions. The  writer  can  never  forget  a  scene  in  Mosul,  in  1843.  A  Moslem 
woman  came  to  Dr.  Grant  for  medicine  for  her  little  boy,  ten  years  of  age. 
She  was  unusually  prepossessing  in  appearance,  and  was  still  young.  As  the 
doctor  was  busy,  he  did  not  notice  her  at  first,  and  she  began  to  plead,  among 
other  things,  "  He  is  all  I  have  ! "  "  What !  have  you  forgot  your  husband  .''  " 
"  Husband  !  "  she  repeated  ;  "  can  a  husband  love  ?  He  is  a  stranger  to  me, 
and  I  to  him.  Ah  !  the  religion  of  Christ  is  better  than  ours.  It  does  not  tol- 
erate such  evils."  Others  had  been  taken  into  the  harem  since  her,  and  she 
was  cast  aside  ;  while  her  more  favored  rivals  did  their  utmost  to  embitter  a 
life  already  crushed.  Even  her  son  had  been  trained  to  despise  her;  and 
while  she  was  pleading  for  him  with  the  doctor,  he  was  mocking  her  appeals, 
and  ordering  her  to  "shut  her  mouth."'  After  receiving  medicine  for  him,  she 
began  to  tell  her  own  ailments  ;  but  their  roots  were  too  deep  for  medicine.  It 
was  a  little  incident,  but  it  gave  a  sad  insight  into  the  suffering  hidden  behind 
the  windowless  walls  of  a  Mohammedan  city.  Does  the  reader  point  to  the 
Taj  Mahal  ?  That  told  of  love  for  an  individual,  whose  personal  excellence 
had  awakened  something  like  love  in  a  sated  voluptuar}'- ;  but  the  harem  con- 
tained just  as  many  inmates  as  before,  and  just  as  imbruted.  The  virtues  of 
Moomtaj  availed  only  for  her  own  elevation  ;  her  sex  were  no  less  slaves  than 
before.  And  a  religion  that  thus  destroys  the  homes  of  a  people,  destroys  the 
foundation  of  all  prosperity. 

Fourth.  Mohammedanism  is  a  religion  of  unmingled  selfishness.  It  has 
nothing  but  hatred  and  contempt  for  those  outside  its  own  pale  ;  and  within 
that,  it  makes  men  Pharisees  of  the  Pharisees.  No  follower  of  the  Talmud  is 
more  devoted  to  quibbles  about  things  lawful  and  forbidden.  Is  it  replied  that 
the  Koran  enjoins  almsgiving?  Yes  ;  but  why  ?  Is  it  for  the  sake  of  the  poor 
who  are  relieved  ?  Not  at  all.  But  solely  for  the  sake  of  the  reward  it  is 
expected  to  bring  to  the  giver  —  thus  turning  even  that  show  of  benevolence 
into  the  worst  of  selfishness.  It  appeals  to  no  higher  motive  than  the  promo- 
tion of  one's  own  interest.     It  knows  no  other. 

Fifth.  It  is  destitute  of  that  spiritual  life  that  is  in  Christ,  and  can  come 
from  him  alone.  If  he  said  to  his  own,  in  daily  communion  with  him,  "  As  the 
branch  cannot  bear  fruit  of  itself  except  it  abide  in  the  vine,  no  more  can  ye, 
except  ye  abide  in  me,"  much  more  is  it  true  of  these. 

Sixth.  Its  false  doctrine  of  inevitable  fate,  independent  of  human  agency, 
cuts  the  sinews  of  public  prosperity,  and  makes  a  nation  without  energy.     The 

21 


322  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

only  enthusiasm  it  is  capable  of  is  enthusiasm  in  slaughtering  those  who  repu- 
diate its  dogmas ;  for,  as  the  reward  of  that,  the}-  expect  the  delights  of  a  sen- 
sual paradise. 

Seventh.  This  utter  selfishness,  when  crowned  with  even  such  transient 
prosperity  as  marked  the  Mogul  empire  in  India,  unhinges  the  faith  of  men  in 
God,  and  leads  to  a  reckless  scramble  for  a  share  in  the  spoils.  Hence  "  truth 
falls  in  the  streets,  and  equity  cannot  enter."  Men  learn  to  lie;  and  sin  brings 
few  retributions  in  this  life  more  dreadful  than  when  a  nation  ceases  to  be 
truthful,  and  no  man  can  rely  on  the  word  of  his  neighbor.  Yet  this  is  the 
character  stamped  by  every  false  religion  on  the  nation  that  receives  it ;  and  it 
is  preeminently  true  of  Islam  and  the  nations  cursed  by  its  presence  to-day. 

When  such  a  system  intruded  itself  among  the  Hindoos,  bringing  with  it 
only  slaughter  and  oppression,  it  is  no  wonder  they  did  not  love  it.  What  was 
there  in  it  to  call  forth  their  love  ?  Its  costly  splendor  was  nourished  by  the 
robbery  of  their  own  possessions.     And  if  — 

"  High  though  his  titles,  proud  his  name, 
Boundless  his  wealth  as  wish  can  claim, 
Despite  those  titles,  power  and  pelf, 
The  wretch,  concentered  all  in  self, 
Living,  shall  forfeit  fair  renown, 
And,  doubly  dying,  shall  go  down 
To  the  vile  dnst  from  whence  he  sprung. 
Unwept,  unhonored,  and  unsung  "  — 

it  is  not  strange  if  a  whole  dynasty  of  such  characters  passed  away  unregretted, 
or  that  the  plundered  even  enjoyed  the  despoiling  of  their  plunderers  by  the 
hordes  of  Nadir  Shah. 

Dr.  Allen  passes  from  the  Mohammedan  into  the  European  period  ;  and 
here  his  pages  become  intensely  interesting,  for  they  give  full  accounts  of  inci- 
dents already  familiar,  and  give  them,  too,  in  their  connection  with  each  other. 
The  beginnings  of  the  Portuguese,  French,  and  English  power  in  India  are 
spread  out  before  us.  The  horrors  of  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  are  given  in 
detail.  The  romantic  career  of  Lord  Clive,  from  a  simple  writer  sent  out  by  the 
East  India  Company,  until  he  became  the  head  of  their  government  in  India, 
is  given  in  full ;  and  so  is  the  career  of  Warren  Hastings,  doomed  by  Edmund 
Burke  to  immortal  infamy.  Lord  Cornwallis,  of  Yorktown  celebrity,  also 
passes  across  the  stage ;  and  so  through  a  host  of  others,  from  Bombay  to 
Burmah,  and  from  Cashmere  to  Cape  Comorin,  down  to  the  year  1S50,  the 
whole  covering  one  hundred  and  forty-five  8vo  pages ;  or,  if  we  include  his 
account  of  the  government  and  European  population,  sixtj^-two  pages  more  — 
two  hundred  and  seven  in  all.  Without  following  him  through  this  deeply 
interesting  history,  let  us  content  ourselves  with  a  glimpse  of  Papal  missionary 
effort,  and  of  the  secular  enterprise  of  Protestant  countries,  here  afforded. 

Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  from  Lisbon  for  India  in  July,  1497,  only  five  years 
after  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  His  first  voyage  effected  little, 
and  he  awakened  great  indignation  by  carrying  off  several  natives  to  Portugal. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  323 

The  next  enterprise,  under  Alvarez  Cabral,  in  1500,  carried  eight  Franciscan 
friars,  who,  according  to  their  own  historian,  DeBarros,  were  instructed  "  to 
carry  fire  and  sword  into  every  nation  that  would  not  listen  to  their  preaching." 
Certainly  a  little  different  from  the  sort  of  instructions  given  by  the  American 
Board  to  its  missionaries.  It  meant  something,  however,  in  view  of  the  twelve 
hundred  men  in  the  thirteen  ships  that  formed  the  expedition.  Cabral, 
annoyed  by  the  Mohammedans  at  Calicut,  plundered  one  of  their  ships,  and 
they,  in  turn,  attacked  the  Portuguese  factory,  and  killed  fifty  out  of  seventy  of 
its  inmates.  Then  Cabral  seized  ten  ships,  and,  after  plundering  their  cargoes, 
burned  them,  and  cannonaded  the  city  —  strange  mixture  of  war  and  missions. 
After  his  return,  the  king  of  Portugal,  by  authority  from  the  Pope,  assumed  the 
title  of  "  Lord  of  the  navigation,  conquest,  and  commerce  of  Ethiopia,  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  India,"  and  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  those  countries,  peace- 
ably if  he  could,  forcibly  if  he  must.  Fifteen  ships  now  sailed  under  Vasco  da 
Gama ;  and,  on  nearing  India,  he  took  a  large  Moslem  ship,  and  after 
plundering  it,  fastened  the  crew  in  the  hold  and  set  it  on  fire,  burning  alive, 
according  to  Lafiteau,  three  hundred  persons.  At  Calicut  he  collected  fifty 
natives,  and  threatening  to  put  them  to  death  if  his  demands  were  not  complied 
with  in  an  hour,  coolly  carried  out  his  threat.  Then  mutilating  —  some  sa}'  fifty 
more  —  by  cutting  off  a  hand  or  foot,  sent  them  ashore,  and  bombarded  the 
city. 

In  1505  a  large  fleet,  under  Francesco  Almeida,  after  some  encounters  with 
the  Egyptian  fleet,  attacked  the  city  of  Dabool,  and  besides  giving  it  up  to 
plunder  and  massacre,  set  it  on  fire.  Neither  age  nor  sex  were  spared.  The 
streets  streamed  with  blood,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  city  was  a  smoking  ruin. 
The  wife  of  the  governor  could  not  purchase  his  life  with  the  offer  of  all  her 
wealth.  Children  were  torn  from  their  mothers'  arms,  and  their  brains  dashed 
out  against  the  walls ;  so  that  the  cruelty  of  the  Portuguese  became  a  proverb 
in  the  land. 

It  was  their  custom  to  plunder  all  ships  found  without  a  license  from  them- 
selves ;  and  if  any  city  refused  to  trade  with  them  on  their  terms,  they  attacked 
it.  Three  times  during  five  years  they  did  this  to  Calicut,  burning,  destroying, 
and  making  slaves  of  the  crews  of  the  ships  taken.  More  than  seventeen 
other  cases  of  similar  attacks  are  recorded  on  one  page  (164),  between  the 
years  1507  and  1531.^ 

What  could  the  Hindoos  think  of  a  religion  that  lent  its  authority  to  such 
doings  ? 

Is  it  said  that  the  English  were  also  cruel,  unjust  and  treacherous  ?  That 
is  true;  and  Dr.  Allen  covers  up  none  of  their  misdeeds  —  neither  the  glaring 
wrongs  of  Clive,  or  Hastings,  nor  the  grinding  oppression  of  Lord  Cornwallis, 
who  required  three  fifths  of  the  produce  of  the  land  as  tax  from  its  cultivators, 
and  required  it  in  cash.  His  no  less  unjust  law  that  the  official  Zemindars 
should  be  counted  the  proprietors  of  the  lands  of  which  they  had  been  only  the 
tax-gatherers,  is  not  covered  up ;  nor  the  unjustifiable  dealings  of  other  gov- 
ernors with  the  natives.     The  wicked  dealings  of  French  with  English,  and 

^Dr.  Allen's  India,  pp.  152-166. 


324 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


English  with  French,  are  also  laid  bare.  The  wonder  is  that  Hindoos  ever 
consented  to  receive  a  religion  introduced  among  them  under  such  auspices ; 
but  there  is  this  wide  difference  between  the  two  cases  :  In  the  one,  all  the 
wrong,  cruelty,  and  bloodshed  were  committed  under  direct  and  explicit  authority 
from  the  Pope,  whose  missionaries  were  on  board  the  fleets,  guilty  of  the  out- 
rages. In  the  other,  men  without  the  pretence  of  any  ecclesiastical  authority, 
but  as  individuals,  bent  on  their  own  gain,  or  banded  together  exclusively  for 
that  purpose,  were  guilty  of  grave  misdeeds ;  but  they  claimed  no  church 
authority  for  them.  On  the  contrary,  when  Protestant  missionaries  came,  they 
were  at  once  ordered  away,  and  the  attitude  of  the  East  India  Company  was  at 
first  that  of  decided  hostility  to  all  missionary  effort.  Even  the  good  men 
whom  they  sent  for  to  minister  to  their  own  spiritual  needs  could  not  at  first 
do  anything  for  the  natives,  however  much  they  desired  it ;  and  began  to  do  so 
only  in  a  very  cautious  way,  as  any  one  may  see  who  reads  their  biographies  — 
so  that  there  is  no  parallel  between  the  two  cases.  The  truth  is,  there  was  as 
decided  antagonism  between  the  old  East  India  Company  and  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries as  there  is  to-day  between  the  emissaries  of  the  Pope  in  heathen 
lands  and  the  missionaries  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ ;  and  it  is  well  for  the 
cause  of  Christ  to-day  in  India  that  it  was  so;  for  no  missionary  zeal  could 
have  overcome  the  prejudice  awakened  by  alliance  with  such  a  body. 

HISTORY   OF    CHINA. 

The  chapter  in  the  Middle  Kingdom  on  the  history  and  chronology  of  China^ 
is  full  of  interesting  information  on  matters  which  we  outside  barbarians  know 
little  about.  It  is  not  the  only  chapter  relating  to  history,  in  the  broad  sense 
of  a  Macaulay ;  but  this  one  relates  especially  to  the  rulers  and  their  personal 
history. 

Dr.  Williams  first  refers  us  to  works  which  treat  of  the  subject — such  as 
Mailla,  and  Pauthier,  Du  Halde,  Grosier,  and  Gutzlaff ;  then  states  that  though 
some  Chinese  historians  preface  their  histories  with  much  that  is  mythical,  yet 
they  themselves  do  not  receive  it  as  sober  fact,  and  their  real  records  are  much 
more  worthy  of  credit  than  such  legends  would  imply.  The  ancient  history  of 
China  is  clearly  distinguished  from  her  mythological  history. 

Chinese  historians  begin  with  the  creation,  which  they  suppose  was  effected 
by  the  retroactive  agency  of  the  yin  and  the  yang  —  the  male  and  female  princi- 
ples—  which  first  outlined  the  universe,  and  then  were  influenced  by  their  own 
creations.  Heaven  was  a  chaos ;  but  order  was  produced,  and  out  of  it  came 
the  universe.  The  male  principle  (yang)  first  formed  the  heavens,  and  the 
heavier  matter  coagulated  and  formed  the  earth,  while  from  the  subtle  essence 
of  heaven  and  earth  the  dual  principles  yin  and  yang  were  formed,  and  from 
their  joint  action  came  the  four  seasons;  and  these  produced  all  terrestrial 
objects.  The  condensed  effluence  of  the  yang  produced  fire,  and  that  again 
the  sun.  The  condensed  exhalations  of  the  yin  produced  water,  and  that  the 
moon  ;  and  the  seminal  influence  of  sun  and  moon  the  stars.  It  is  not  strange 
that  this  explanation  was  too  transcendental  for  the  common  people,  who  pre- 

'  Vol.  II,  pp.  193-229. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  325 

ferred  the  story  of  Pwanku,  toiling  with  mallet  and  chisel  for  eighteen  thousand 
years  among  huge  masse's  of  granite,  fashioning  the  universe.  Heaven,  earth, 
and  Pwanku  each  grew  six  feet  every  day  till  he  died ;  then  his  head  became 
mountains,  his  breath  winds  and  clouds,  and  his  voice  thunder;  his  limbs  pro- 
duced the  four  poles  ;  his  veins  rivers  ;  his  sinews  the  undulations  of  the  earth's 
surface  ;  and  his  flesh  the  fields.  His  beard  was  turned  into  stars  ;  his  skin 
and  hair  into  herbs  and  trees  ;  and  his  bones  and  marrow  into  rocks,  metals 
and  precious  stones  ;  his  dropping  sweat  increased  into  rain  ;  and  lastly,  the 
insects  that  infested  his  body  were  changed  into  men  and  women  !  Such  is 
the  lucid  idea  the  Chinese  have  of  the  creation.  Pwanku  was  succeeded  by 
three  monstrous  forms  called  the  celestial,  terrestrial  and  human  rulers,  who 
continued  another  eighteen  thousand  years,  and  invented  all  useful  things. 
These  were  followed  by  Yu  chau  and  Sui  jin,  the  last  of  whom,  like  Prome- 
theus, invented  fire. 

This  mythological  period  ends  with  Fuhhi,  whom  some  identify  with  Noah. 
According  to  the  Chinese,  he  flourished  in  B.  C.  2852,  or  1152  after  the  crea- 
tion, according  to  Usher  ;  or,  according  to  Hales,  who  agrees  better  with  Chinese 
dates,  B.  C.  3155.  Chinese  history  begins  three  hundred  and  three  years  after 
the  deluge,  and  forty-seven  years  before  the  death  of  Noah ;  and  possibly  some 
of  his  descendants  found  their  way  to  China  in  less  than  three  hundred  years 
after  the  flood.  Fuhhi  and  his  seven  successors  reigned  seven  hundred  and 
forty-seven  years.  The  common  chronology  brings  the  deluge  thirteen  years 
after  the  accession  of  Yau,  and  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  seven,  B.  C.  2205, 
or  twenty-five  years  after  the  dispersion  at  Babel ;  but  according  to  Hales,  one 
hundred  and  twelve  years  before  the  call  of  Abraham.  These  eight  kings 
would  then  be  cotemporary  with  the  patriarchs  between  Shem  and  Abraham, 
from  Salah  to  Nahor.  The  capital  of  Fuhhi,  near  Kaifung  fu,  in  Honan,  favors 
their  entrance  through  the  Kiayii  pass,  in  Kansuh. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Chinese  fix  the  establishment  of  the  sexagenary 
C)'cle  in  the  sixty-first  year  of  Hwangti,  B.  C.  2637,  ^^^  hundred  and  eighteen 
years  after  the  deluge.     It  was  invented  by  Yau  the  Great. 

Three  reigns  intervened  between  Hwangti  and  Yau,  but  nothing  is  recorded 
of  their  doings,  only  that  they  were  elected  by  the  people,  like  several  of  the 
judges  of  Israel.  A  great  deluge  occured  in  the  reign  of  Yau,  B.  C.  2293. 
But  Dr.  Williams  inclines  to  regard  it  as  a  local  overflow  of  the  rivers  in  the 
north  of  China.     The  kings  thus  far  may  be  tabulated  as  follows  :  ^ 

Names.  Length  of  Reign.         Began  B.  C.  Other  Events. 

1.  Fuhhi  115  2852  The  deluge  B.  C.  3155. 

2.  Shinnung  140  2737  Death  of  Noah,  B.  C.  2805. 

3.  Hwangti  100  2697 

4.  Shauhau  84  2597  Death  of  Arphaxad,  B.  C.  2715. 

5.  Chiuenliiuh  78  2513  Death  of  Shem,  B.  C.  2555. 

6.  Kuh  78  2435  From  B.  C.  2715  to  B.  C.  2082, 


7.  Yau  102  2357 

8.  Shun  50  2255 


sixteen    dynasties    ruled    in 
Egypt. 


*  Do.,  p.  203. 


326  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

The  Chinese  Dynasties. 

I.  Yu,  the  first  of  the  Hia  dynasty,  B.  C.  2205,  is  said  to  have  been  nine 
cubits  high,  a  little  more  than  Og  of  Bashan ;  and  a  rain  of  gold  is  said  to 
have  occurred  in  his  days,  which  may  have  been  a  meteoric  shower.  Kieh 
Kwei,  B.  C.  18 18,  the  last  of  the  said  dynasty,  is  said  to  have  been  a  cruel  and 
oppressive  voluptuary.  He  made  a  large  pond  of  wine,  at  which  three  thou- 
sand could  drink  at  once,  surrounded  by  pyramids  of  viands,  which  no  one  might 
touch  till  intoxicated.  Drunken  quarrels  were  common,  and  the  vilest  orgies 
were  practiced  in  the  palace ;  while  those  who  remonstrated  were  either  killed 
or  exiled.     The  people  rose  up  in  their  wrath  and  dethroned  him. 

II.  The  Shang  dynasty  began  B.  C.  1766,  one  hundred  and  twenty  years 
before  the  Exodus,  and  reigned  six  hundred  and  four  years.  The  first  of  this 
line,  Chingtang,  is  said  to  have  worshiped  Shangti,  the  name  given  to  the 
Supreme  Being.  Images  are  not  mentioned  till  B.  C.  1198,  or  four  years  after 
the  death  of  Samson.  Chausin  and  Tanki  are  represented  as  counterparts  of 
Nero  and  Messalina,  and  were  dethroned  by 

III.  Wu  Wang,  the  founder  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  B.  C.  1122.  Like  Ching- 
tang, a  worshiper  of  Shangti,  he  removed  the  capital  to  Singan  fu,  in  Shensi. 
Duke  Chau  is  said  to  have  invented  the  compass,  B.  C.  11 12. 

These  three  dynasties,  Hia,  Shang,  and  Chau,  extended  from  B.  C  2205  to 
B.  C.  249,  or  from  the  residence  of  Terah  in  Haran  to  the  reigns  of  Antiochus 
Soter  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who  translated  the  Septuagint.  During  the 
first,  occurred  the  call  of  Abraham,  and  the  descent  of  Jacob  into  Egypt.  Dur- 
ing the  second,  the  Exodus  and  the  death  of  Samuel ;  and  during  the  third,  the 
accession  of  Saul;  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Persia;  and  the  accession  of 
Alexander  the  Great. 

IV.  The  next  dynasty,  the  Tsin,  lasted  only  three  years,  B.  C.  249,  B.  C. 
246. 

V.  Chi  hwangti,  the  first  of  the  After  Tsin  dynasty,  B.  C.  246,  has  been 
called  the  Napoleon  of  China.  His  capital  was  Hienyang,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hwai.  He  drove  the  Huns  into  Mongolia,  and  built  the  great  wall.  He  also 
destroyed  all  the  records  of  his  predecessors,  that  he  might  appear  the  first 
emperor ;  and  even  buried  alive  five  hundred  of  the  literati,  that  he  might  not  be 
reproached  for  the  vandalism.. 

VI  and  VII.  Kautsu  founded  the  Han  dynasty  B.  C.  202,  and  literature 
flourished  during  his  reign.  The  removal  of  the  capital  to  Lohyang  occasioned 
a  split,  called  the  Eastern  Plan  dynasty.  Christ,  the  Prince  of  Peace,  was  born 
during  this  period  —  during  the  reign  of  Pingti,^  —  and  the  Western  world  was 
consolidated  under  Rome.  During  the  reign  of  Mingti,  A.  D.  65,  the  deputation 
was  sent  west  that  brought  back  with  them  Buddhism  from  India.  This  king 
and  his  successor,  Chingti,  sent  their  armies  as  far  west  as  the  Caspian  Sea, 
where  they  heard  of  the  Romans. 

VIII.  The  After  Han  dynasty  began  A,  D.  211,  and  continued  till  A.  D. 
265. 

'The  Emperor  Peace. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  327 

IX.  The  Tsin  dynasty  then  came  in,  and  flourished  till  A.  D.  317  ;  though 
Shensi  was  under  the  Hans  till  A.  D.  352. 

The  Eastern  Tsin  dynasty,  which  removed  the  capital  to  Nanking,  and  was 
Buddhist  in  religion,  reigned  till  A.  D.  450.  During  this  time  Constantine 
built  his  eastern  capital  on  the  Bosphorus,  and  Attila  invaded  Italy. 

Then  follow  several  dynasties  : 

XI.  The  Sung,  from  A.  D.  420  to  479. 

XII.  The  Tsi,  from  that  date  till  A.  D.  502. 

XIII.  The  Liang,  till  A.  D.  557. 

XIV.  The  Chin,  till  A.  D.  589  ;  and 

XV.  The  Sui,  till  A.  D.  618. 

XVI.  The  celebrated  Tang  dynasty  then  began  its  reign  of  two  hundred 
and  eighty-seven  years.  These  were  bright  years  for  China,  though  "  Dark 
Ages  "  for  Europe. 

During  the  reign  of  Tai-tsung,  A.  D.  627,  schools  were  established,  an 
accurate  edition  of  the  Chinese  classics  published,  and  a  code  of  laws  drawn 
up.  The  empire  also  was  extended  from  Kansuh  as  far  as  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Sogdiana,  part  of  Khorassan,  and  the  region  of  the  Hindoo-kush,  obeyed  him. 
Nipal  (Nepaul)  and  Magadha  (Bahar)  in  India  —  even  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
—  sent  embassies  to  Singan  fu  in  A.  D.  643,  carrying  presents  of  rubies  and 
emeralds.  Nestorian  missionaries  also  came,  and  the  emperor  built  a  church 
for  them  at  his  court,  and  examined  translations  of  their  books.  He  also 
invaded  Corea;  but  only  after  his  death  did  his  son  complete  its  conquest. 
None  of  his  successors  equaled  him,  though  the  empress  of  his  son  showed 
energy  enough  —  not  always  righteously,  or  well. 

XVII.  Then  followed  several  dynasties ;  as  the  After  Liang,  till  A.  D.  923. 
XVIII.  The  After  Tang,  till  A.  D.  936.  XIX.  After  Tsin,  till  A.  D.  947. 
XX.     After  Han,  till  A.  D.  951 ;  and     XXI.     The  After  Chau,  till  A.  D.  960. 

XXII.  The  Sung  dynasty  then  succeeded,  from  A.  D.  970  to  A.  D.  1127. 
Under  this  the  Tartars  drove  the  Chinese  south  of  the  Yellow  River  in  A.  D. 
1 1 18,  and  retained  all  north  of  it  till  A.  D.  1235. 

XXIII.  The  Southern  Sung  dynasty,  so  designated  from  that  loss,  con- 
tinued till  A.  D.  12S0.  Then  Southern  China  was  also  subdued  with  great 
slaughter,  and 

XXIV.  The  Mongol  Chief  Kublai  Khan  founded  the  Yuen  dynasty  in  that 
year.  He  was  energetic  and  magnificent ;  dug  the  grand  canal,  and  had  Marco 
Polo  to  admire  and  record  his  greatness. 

XXV.  The  Mongols  were  expelled  in  A.  D.  1368,  and  the  Ming  dynasty 
was  founded  by  Hungwu,  or  Chu  Yuenchang.  He  established  his  capital  at 
Nanking,  and  reigned  thirty  years.  Yungloh,  his  son,  removed  the  capital  to 
Peking,  and  framed  the  code  of  laws  which  is  still  in  force. 

During  the  reign  of  Kiahtsing  the  Portuguese  came  to  China,  and  in  1580 
the  Jesuits  arrived.  About  this  time  the  Manchus,  or  eastern  Tartars,  began 
to  threaten  the  empire,  and  overran  the  northeastern  provinces,  but  did  not 
overturn  it  till  A.  D.  1644,  when  Shunchi,  the  Manchu  Khan,  inaugurated 

XXVI.  The  Tsing  dynasty.     He"  subdued  the  Chinese  so  thoroughly  as  to 


328 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


compel  them  to  wear  the  queue,  which  has  been  borne  ever  since  as  the  badge 
of  submission  to  the  Manchus,  though  many  at  first  lost  their  heads  rather  than 
submit  to  it. 

Kanghi,  who  ascended  the  dragon  throne  in  1661,  showed  a  vigor,  prudence, 
and  success,  that  made  his  name  illustrious.  He  reigned  sixty-one  years  — 
longer  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  save  one  —  and  extended  the  empire  to 
Kokand  and  Badakshan  on  the  west,  and  Tibet  on  the  southwest,  consolidating 
it,  and  marking  it  with  that  stability  that  has  produced  the  impression  abroad 
of  the  unchangeableness  of  Chinese  institutions.  He  subdued  the  Eleuths,  and 
other  tribes  near  the  Celestial  mountains  ;  settled  the  frontier  between  China 
and  Russia;  carried  out  a  mathematical  survey  of  the  empire;  and  in  his 
reign  there  was  published  a  dictionary  of  the  language.  His  son,  Yungching, 
who  succeeded  in  1722,  sought  to  put  down  Christianity  and  restore  ancient 
usages.  Kienlung  followed  in  1736,  and  reigned  sixty  years,  during  which  he 
managed  to  annex  Tibet,  under  cover  of  aid  against  the  Nepaulese.  Kiaking 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his  father  in  1796,  and  his  reign  of 
twenty-five  years  was  disturbed  by  insurrections  and  pirates.  Taukwang  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1820,  and  had  a  constant  succession  of  troubles.  Turkestan 
rebelled  in  1828  ;  there  were  insurrections  in  Formosa  and  in  Kwangtung  in 
1830  ;  and  v/ar  with  England  in  1840.  Heenfung  followed  him  in  1850,  who 
was  succeeded  by  Tungche  in  1859,  and  he  in  turn  by  Kwangseu,  the  present 
emperor,  in  1875,  then  a  mere  child  in  his  fourth  year. 


Table  of  the  Emperors  of  the  Ming  and  Tsing  Dynasties. 

Contemporaries. 

Tamerlane.     Richard  II. 

Manuel  Paleologus.     Henry  IV  (England). 

James  I.     Henry  V. 

Amurath  II.     Henry  VI. 

Albert  II.     Cosmo  de  Medicis. 

James  II.     Nicholas  V. 

Mahomet  II.     Edward  IV. 

James  HI.     Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Bajazet  II.     James  IV. 

James  V.     Henry  VII I. 

Solyman  II.     Mary.     Philip  II. 

Selim  II.     Elizabeth. 

James  I.     Henry  IV. 

Othman  II.     Philip  IV. 

Amurath  IV.    Charles  I. 

Innocent  X.     Frederic  the  Great. 

Mahomet  IV.    Cromwell. 
Charles  II.     Clement  IX. 
Mahomet  V.     George  II. 
Osman  HI.     George  HI. 
Selim  III.     Napoleon. 
Mahmoud.     George  IV. 
Victoria.     Alexander  II. 
A.  Lincoln.     Abdul  Aziz  Khan. 
U.  S.  Grant.     M.  Grevy. 


Title.          Accession. 

Years  of  Reign. 

I.  Hungwu 

1368 

30 

2.  Kienvvan 

139S 

5 

3.  Yungloh 

1403 

22 

4.  Hunghi 

1425 

I 

5.  Siuentih 

1426 

10 

6.  Chingtung 

1436 

21 

7.  Kingtai 

1457 

8 

8.  Chinghwa 

1465 

23 

9.  Hungchi 

1488 

18 

10.  Chingtih 

1506 

16 

II.  Kiahtsing 

1522 

45 

12.  Lungking 

1567 

6 

13.  Wanleih 

1573 

47 

14.  Taichang 

1620 

I 

15.  Tienki 

1621 

7 

j6.  Tsungching 

1628 

16 

a.  Shunchi 

1644 

18 

■_2.  Kanghi 

1662 

61 

3.  Yungching 

1723 

13 

4.  Kienlung 

1736 

60 

5.  Kiaking 

1796 

25 

6.  Taukwang 

1821 

29 

7.  Heenfung 

1850 

9 

8.  Tungche 

1859 

16 

q.  Kwangseu 

1875 

CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  329 

The  whole  number  of  emperors  in  the  twenty-six  dynasties  during  four 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty-two  years,  from  B.  C.  2852  to  A.  D.  1880, 
or  from  Fuhhi  to  Kwangseu,  is  two  hundred  and  forty-six ;  giving  to  each 
dynasty  an  average  of  one  lumdred  and  eighty,  and  to  each  monarch  an 
average  of  nineteen  and  one  third  years.  In  England,  during  the  seven  hun- 
dred and  seventy-one  years  from  William  the  Conqueror  to  Victoria,  there 
have  been  thirty-four  sovereigns,  averaging  twenty-two  years  and  two  thirds  of 
a  year  to  each  reign. 

The  mere  reader  may  find  this  resume  of  Chinese  history  rather  tedious ;  but 
the  student  will,  it  is  hoped,  find  it  a  valuable  aid,  especially  toward  an  intelli- 
gent understanding  of  the  many  references  in  works  on  China  to  dynasties 
whose  date  and  character  are  unknown  to  ordinary  readers. 

Dr.  Williams,  in  the  closing  chapters  of  the  Middle  Kingdom^  gives  a  very 
elaborate,  impartial,  and  discriminating  history  of  the  origin  of  the  so-called 
opium  war  between  England  and  China,  in  1840  —  its  progress  and  results. 
But  it  is  impossible  to  give  even  a  resume  of  them,  as  so  much  depends  on  the 
accurate  statement  of  minute  details.  The  chapters  are  well  worthy  the  study 
of  all  who  love  to  note  the  methods  of  that  wonderful  Providence  which  deals 
with  the  greatest  complication  of  wrongs  in  a  way  to  correct  the  evils  of  all, 
and  make  them  productive  of  the  greatest  possible  good.  The  unjustifiable 
attempt  of  a  Christian  people  to  force  a  poisonous  drug  on  a  heathen  empire  has 
been  fully  exposed  —  we  wish  we  could  add  forsaken  —  and  the  blind  arrogance 
of  an  ignorant  nation  has  been  most  effectually  rebuked.  The  issue  is  sure  to 
furnish  another  endorsement  of  the  truth  that  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  come, 
while  guilt  and  retribution  are  measured  by  the  degree  of  light  resisted,  and  the 
amount  of  truth  "held  [down]  in  unrighteousness." 

As  to  the  population  of  China,  see  Middle  Kingdom^  Vol.  I,  pp.  206-239. 
Dr.  Williams  thinks  that  it  is  less  now  than  in  1812  ;  for  the  Taeping  rebellion 
probably  destroyed  twenty  millions.  He  would  not  place  it  much  higher  than 
three  hundred  and  forty-three  millions.^  Dr.  Happer  estimates  the  present 
population  at  three  hundred  millions.^ 

ASHANTI. 

Dr.  J.  L.  Wilson  makes  several  valuable  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  history  of  Africa,  besides  an  account  of  its  ancient  races,  and  a  7'esumk  of 
Phoenician  attempts  to  circumnavigate  that  continent.*  He  goes  very  fully  into 
the  history  of  .Portuguese  discoveries  in  Western  Africa,  the  doings  of  that 
nation  in  connection  with  the  slave  trade,  and  their  other  commercial  relations 
with  its  people.^  The  early  enterprises  of  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch  in 
the  same  region,  come  in  for  their  share  of  attention.^  But  we  pass  on  to  his 
notice  of  Ashanti,  as  a  specimen  of  his  contributions  to  African  history.' 

Originally  a  small  district,  Ashanti  grew  till  it  covered  an  area  nearly  three 
hundred  miles  square.  Osai  Tutu,  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  her  kings,  and 
his  successors,  during  the  eighteenth  century  added  to  it  Buntuku  and  Denkera 

'  Chapters  xxii,  xxiii,  Vol.  II,  pp.  468-604.  "Missionary  Herald,  1879,  pp.  50,  51. 

3 Do.,  1881,  p.  85.        ^Do.,  pp.  13-22.  15 Do.,  pp.  33-45-  "Do.,  pp.  45-69.  'Do.,  pp.  157-173. 


$Z°  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

on  the  northwest,  Sarem  on  the  north,  and  Axim  and  Warsaw  on  the  south. 
The  origin  of  the  people  is  unknown,  and  the  time  when  they  first  took  posses- 
sion of  their  territory.  Their  language  is  essentially  the  same  with  that  of  the 
Fantis,  and  so  are  their  physical  characteristics.  Probably  both  tribes  were 
driven  from  the  valley  between  the  Kong  mountains  and  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Niger,  by  the  Mohammedans.  The  Fantis  crossed  first,  followed  and 
attacked  by  the  Ashantis,  till  the  help  of  Europeans  enabled  them  to  hold  their 
own.  Ashanti  alone  of  Western  African  kingdoms  has  a  history;  and  that 
goes  back  only  to  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  that  time  their 
weapons  were  the  bow  and  spear. 

Osai  Tutu,  after  two  desperate  battles,  routed  the  army  of  Denkera,  and 
slew  its  king,  whose  bones,  stripped  of  their  flesh,  became  fetiches  at  Kumasi. 
The  king  of  Axim,  the  ally  of  Denkera,  lost  an  immense  number  of  soldiers ; 
and  in  a  third  battle  his  army  was  utterly  destroyed.  He  became  tributary, 
and  promised  four  thousand  ounces  of  gold  toward  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
Failing  to  pay  this,  he  was  attacked  again  ;  but  Osai  Tutu  was  killed,  and  his 
harem  and  court  taken  captive.  The  army  took  a  terrible  revenge  for  the  loss 
of  its  leader ;  and,  though  they  never  recovered  his  body,  sacrificed  hosts  of 
their  foes  to  his  manes  at  the  capital.  Osai  Tutu  was  much  beloved,  and  great 
confusion  ensued  at  his  death  ;  many  tributary  tribes  improving  the  opportunity 
to  shake  off  the  yoke. 

Osai  Apoko,  his  brother,  at  length  became  king,  and  subdued  the  rebels, 
besides  quelling  a  conspiracy  at  home;  dying  in  1742,  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  Osai  Akwasi.  He  engaged  in  war  with  Dehomi,  now  the  only 
rival  of  Ashanti.  The  king  of  that  tribe  had  induced  three  provinces  to  revolt 
and  join  him ;  but  Osai  Akwasi  defeated  them  all  in  a  battle  near  the  Volta. 
Crossing  that  river  into  the  heart  of  Dehomi,  he  suffered  an  equally  signal 
defeat  himself  ;  and,  dying  soon  after  of  his  wounds,  his  nephew,  Osai  Kudjoh, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1752.  He  was  immediately  called  to  suppress  an  exten- 
sive revolt,  and  not  only  succeeded  in  that,  but  subdued  additional  provinces, 
till  even  the  king  of  Dehomi  sent  to  congratulate  him,  and  seek  his  alliance. 
When  he  became  old  and  infirm,  the  smothered  flames  again  broke  out ;  and 
before  his  army  could  march  to  subdue  the  rebels,  he  died. 

His  grandson,  Osai  Kwamina,  succeeded  him  in  1781,  and  vowed  not  to 
enter  his  palace  till  he  had  the  heads  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolt ;  and  they  are 
still  to  be  seen  among  the  trophies  of  Kumasi.  He,  however,  was  deposed  for 
favoring  Mohammedanism.  Osai  Apoko  II  began  to  reign  in  1797  ;  but  the 
kings  of  Gaman  and  Kongo  united  to  reinstate  the  deposed  king,  and  in  the 
first  battle  the  new  king  met  with  a  severe  defeat.  Another  battle  followed,  in 
which  he  was  victorious,  though  he  soon  after  died,  and  gave  place  to  his 
brother,  Osai  Tutu  Kwamina,  about  1800. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  he  fought  a  battle  at  Kaha  with  two  Moslem 
chiefs,  who  had  burned  the  capital  of  Banna,  a  tributary  province,  and  com- 
pletely routed  them,  one  of  them  dying  of  his  wounds  in  the  Ashanti  camp. 
This  battle  added  the  Moslem  provinces  of  Ghofan  and  Ghobago  to  the  pagan 
kingdom  of  Ashanti.  The  king  also  subdued  Gaman,  and  consolidated  his 
kinirdom. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  33 1 

Two  tributary  chiefs  of  Axim  now  took  refuge  among  tlie  Fantis,  whom  the 
king  requested  to  surrender  them.  Their  reply  was  the  slaughter  of  his 
messengers,  which  called  forth  an  invasion,  and  the  combined  armies  of  Fanti 
and  Axim  were  defeated.  The  chiefs  now  pretended  to  be  about  to  submit, 
but  really  only  sought  time  to  prepare  for  another  battle,  and  again  put  his 
messengers  to  death,  which  led  the  king  to  swear  that  he  would  never  return 
to  Kumasi  without  their  heads.  He  invaded  Fanti,  and  wrought  a  desolation 
scarcely  paralleled  in  history.  Towns  were  destroyed  ;  all  ages  and  both  sexes 
were  butchered,  and  provisions  of  every  kind  destroyed.  The  Fantis  fled  to 
the  shelter  of  the  English  forts  on  the  coast,  but  the  king  followed  them  to  the 
gate,  cut  to  pieces  the  population  of  the  town,  and  assailed  the  fort  itself, 
despite  the  deadly  fire  of  its  guns.  Night,  however,  stopped  his  advance. 
Still  the  walls  were  mined,  all  ready  for  explosion,  when  a  flag  of  truce  was  dis- 
played from  the  fort.  One  of  the  offending  chiefs  escaped  during  the  negotia- 
tions, but  the  other  was  delivered  up,  and  afterwards  subjected  to  most  cruel 
tortures  at  Kumasi.  Not  less  than  twelve  thousand  persons  are  supposed  to 
have  fallen  that  day.  This  was  in  1S07.  Four  years  later  the  king  sent  an 
army  to  Elmina  to  defend  that  town  from  the  Fantis ;  but  no  marked  results 
followed. 

In  1817  he  invaded  the  Fanti  country  a  third  time,  and  reduced  the  people 
of  Cape  Coast  to  such  straits  that  the  English  governor  thought  it  best  to  pay 
the  fine  the  king  had  imposed  on  them  ;  whereupon  the  Ashantis  withdrew. 

These  repeated  incursions  so  interrupted  trade  that  the  English  sent  an 
envoy  to  Kumasi,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  commerce.  The  Ashantis  had  no 
quarrel  with  the  English,  but  only  with  the  Fantis,  who  became  insolent,  rely- 
ing on  the  forts  for  help.  The  result  was  that  the  four  ounces  of  gold  paid 
monthly  by  the  English,  as  rent  to  the  Fantis,  was  paid  over  to  the  king  of 
Ashanti.  Mr.  Hutchinson  went  to  Kumasi  as  British  Resident,  and  Mr, 
Dupuis  was  sent  from  England  as  Consul  to  Ashanti,  to  promote  commerce 
with  the  interior.  On  his  arrival  at  Cape  Coast,  Ashanti  was  at  war  with 
Gaman.  Mr.  Hutchinson  had  returned  from  Kumasi,  and  the  appointment  of 
Mr.  Dupuis  did  not  please  the  local  authorities.  Soon  the  news  of  the  defeat 
of  the  king  led  to  great  rejoicing  among  the  Fantis,  which,  if  not  favored,  was 
yet  not  rebuked  by  the  English  ;  and  other  insults  were  offered  by  the  Fantis, 
which  the  governor  refused  to  notice,  though  pointed  out  to  him  by  the  king, 
and  matters  became  threatening. 

Mr.  Dupuis,  long  thwarted,  was  now  permitted  to  set  out  on  his  embassy. 
He  was  kindly  received,  and  a  treaty  made,  equally  advantageous  to  both  par- 
ties. But  on  his  return  to  the  coast  the  treaty  was  set  aside,  and  the  British 
naval  officer,  siding  with  the  authorities,  refused  to  send  the  king's  commis- 
sioners, whom  Mr.  Dupuis  had  brought  with  him  from  Kumasi,  to  England. 
So  the  latter  sent  word  to  the  king  to  be  patient  till  he  heard  from  England ; 
and  himself  went  there  to  expedite  affairs. 

The  charter  of  the  African  Company  was  now  abolished,  and  Sir  Charles 
McCarthy  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  British  Possessions  on  the  Gold 
Coast.      He  found  everything  in  confusion  in  March,  1822.      The  ambassador 


332  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

of  the  king,  having  waited  two  months  beyond  the  time  set  by  Mr.  Dupuis  to 
hear  from  England,  had  returned,  and  the  place  was  virtually  under  blockade. 
Had  Sir  Charles  known  the  true  state  of  things,  his  course  had  no  doubt  been 
more  pacific;  but  he  was  misled  by  the  Fantis,  and  his  name  resounded  along 
the  whole  coast  as  their  deliverer.  The  king  looked  on  all  this  with  sullen 
silence,  and  in  secrecy  prepared  for  war  on  a  large  scale. 

At  first  a  negro  sergeant  in  the  British  service  was  carried  off  and  put  to 
death.  This  led  to  reprisals ;  and  hearing  that  the  king  was  on  his  way  to  the 
coast,  the  governor  resolved  to  meet  him ;  but,  unfortunately,  without  waiting 
for  the  arrival  of  some  regular  troops,  he  crossed  the  Prah  with  such  an  army 
of  natives  as  he  could  muster. 

Next  day,  January  21,  1824,  the  war-horns  of  the  Ashantis  sounded  to  battle. 
A  heavy  fire  was  kept  up  most  of  the  day,  and  the  English  ammunition  began 
to  fail.  The  Ashantis,  however,  were  driven  back  by  the  bayonet  ;  but  some 
who  had  crossed  the  river  higher  up  attacked  the  English  army  in  the  rear, 
and  cut  it  to  pieces.  Sir  Charles,  being  wounded,  fell  back  to  where  the  king 
of  Denkera  still  stood  his  ground,  and  tried  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Ashan- 
tis, by  bringing  a  field-piece  to  bear  on  their  thickest  ranks  ;  but  they  pressed 
on  steadily  and  irresistibly,  till  Sir  Charles  and  his  officers  were  slain.  His 
secretary  was  taken  prisoner,  and  locked  up  every  night  in  a  room  with  the 
heads  of  his  master  and  associates.  It  is  said  the  heart  of  Sir  Charles  was 
devoured  by  the  chiefs,  in  order  to  imbibe  his  courage ;  and  his  flesh  was  dried 
and  eaten  by  their  subordinates,  for  the  same  object.  His  bones  were  long  kept 
in  Kumasi  as  national  fetiches.  Capt.  Raydon  was  sacrificed  to  the  town  fetich. 
Two  other  staff  officers,  who  had  not  been  able  to  reach  the  field  in  time,  now 
hastened  to  put  Cape  Coast  castle  in  a  state  of  defense.  The  allied  arm}^ 
though  thirty  thousand  strong,  could  not  be  induced  to  make  another  stand; 
but  the  Ashantis,  instead  of  pressing  their  advantage,  made  overtures  of  peace 
through  the  Dutch  governor  of  Elmina.  The  Ashanti  deputies  there  met  the 
acting  governor  of  Cape  Coast,  and  assured  him  that  the  king  wished  no  war 
with  the  English ;  only  the  surrender  of  the  vice  king  of  Denkera  ;  and  in  token 
of  their  sincerity,  they  surrendered  Secretary  Williams,  and  suspended  hos- 
tilities. 

The  vice  king  of  Denkera  meanwhile  crossed  the  Prah  and  attacked  the 
Ashantis ;  and  the  English  followed  up  this  bold  stroke,  only  to  be  driven  back 
to  the  gates  of  Cape  Coast  castle.  At  this  crisis  a  reinforcement  arrived,  and 
another  desperate  battle  was  fought  before  the  arrival  of  the  king  from  Kumasi, 
but  with  no  decided  advantage  to  either  side  ;  then,  as  the  natives  were  unwill- 
ing to  do  more,  the  troops  were  withdrawn  into  the  fort.  Soon  the  new  king 
arrived,  and  marched  his  army  up  in  full  view  of  the  fort.  Every  preparation  was 
made  for  defense.  The  marines  of  the  men-of-war  and  the  sailors  of  other  ves- 
sels were  landed,  a  large  native  force  was  collected,  and  in  the  battle  that  ensued 
both  sides  fought  with  desperation  till  night  separated  them.  The  engagement 
would  have  been  renewed  next  day,  but  dysentery  and  small-pox  compelled 
the  king  to  retreat.  The  other  side  was  not  much  better  off,  and  but  for  the 
arrival  of  rice  from  England  more  would  have  died  of  famine  than  in  the  war. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY.  333-, 

The  Ashantis  now  found  that  there  was  another  nation  as  strong  as  them- 
selves ;  and  in  subsequent  battles  cannon  and  grape-shot  turned  the  scale. 

Sir  Neill  Campbell,  a  new  governor,  came  with  peremptory  orders  to  put  an 
honorable  end  to  the  war.  The  Fantis  would  fain  have  humbled  the  Ashantis 
still  more,  but  the  governor  was  firm.  Peace  was  secured,  and  the  Ashantis 
were  required  to  deposit  four  thousand  ounces  of  gold  at  Cape  Coast,  to  pur- 
chase ammunition  for  the  allied  army,  should  they  provoke  another  war,  besides 
sending  two  of  the  royal  family  as  hostages  to  Cape  Coast.  This  was  not 
done,  however,  till  183 1,  when  his  son,  and  the  son  of  his  predecessor,  with  six 
hundred  ounces  of  gold,  were  sent  as  security  for  the  good  behavior  of  the 
king.  And  thus  the  Ashanti  claim  to  the  government  of  the  country  of  the 
Fantis  was  virtually  renounced. 

Both  of  these  young  men  were  afterwards  educated  in  England,  and  are 
now  in  Ashanti ;  one  of  them  is  a  missionary. 

This  fragment  of  West  African  history  shows  how  nearly  the  history  of  a 
savage  African  tribe  resembles  that  of  the  most  civilized  nations,  in  being 
mainly  a  record  of  war  and  violence. 

It  also  shows  the  opportunities  missionaries  have  for  learning  the  facts  of 
history,  and  the  intelligence  and  impartiality  with  which  they  improve  them. 
Dr.  Wilson  "nothing  extenuates,  nor  sets  down  aught  in  malice."  He  is  allied 
to  one  side  by  the  ties  of  race  and  religion,  and  to  the  other  by  the  interest  the 
missionary  feels  in  the  people,  to  benefit  whom  he  consecrates  his  life.  A  his- 
torian from  Cape  Coast  might  not  have  held  the  balances  so  evenly. 

KINGDOM  OF  CONGO. 

Dr.  Wilson,  however,  has  written  a  chapter  of  history  more  appropriate  for 
the  present  volume,  in  his  account  of  the  kingdom  of  Congo. ^  It  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  about  A.  D.  1485.  It  lies  on  the  south  side 
of  the  river  Congo ;  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  mountains  of  Matamba,^ 
which  divide  it  from  the  savage  Giaghi,^  west  by  the  Atlantic,  and  south  by 
Angola.  It  extends  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  along  the  coast,  and  three 
hundred  and  fifty  into  the  interior.  It  was  divided  into  six  provinces  :  Sogno,* 
Bamba,  Pembe,  Batta,  Pango,  and  Sundi ;  whose  chiefs  the  Portuguese  called 
dukes,  counts,  and  marquises.  Sogno  and  Bamba  were  the  largest,  the  latter 
as  large  as  Sicily,  and  the  former  still  larger,  and  more  important  as  the  entrepot 
of  commerce.  San  Salvador,  the  capital,^  was  in  Pemba,  fifty  Italian  miles 
south  of  the  Congo,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  northeast  of  St,  Paul  de 
Loando.  It  was  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  and  counted  healthy 
for  Europeans.  Here  were  the  headquarters  of  the  missionaries,  and  of  many 
Portuguese  merchants ;  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  it  is 
said  to  have  contained  forty  thousand  inhabitants.  The  palace  was  of  wood, 
partly  enclosed  by  a  stone  wall.  For  many  years  a  bishop  and  chapter,  a  col- 
lege of  Jesuits,  and  a  convent  of  Capuchins,  were  supported  here  by  Portugal. 
Besides  a  large  cathedral,  were  ten  smaller  churches.     The  other  important 

'  /-Fc-i^t'r«  ^yV/ca;,  pp.  313-346.  '^(^■ae.xy:  Dembo  of  Stanley  ? 

3  Query :  Enkoji  of  Stanley  ?  ^  Sonyo  of  Stanley.  ^  Congo,  or  Grundy,  of  Stanley. 


334  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

towns  were  the  capitals  of  Sogno  and  Bamba,  neither  of  which  had  more  than 
six  or  eight  hundred  houses.  In  both  were  convents  of  Capuchins,  and  in 
Sogno  six  churches.  This  was  the  seaport  of  Congo.  Diego  Cam,  who  dis- 
covered the  river  and  kingdom  of  Congo,  hurried  back  to  Portugal  to  report 
his  discovery,  and  the  king  and  court  were  so  interested  in  it  that  he  was  sent 
back  with  three  Dominicans.  Two  of  these  soon  died,  and  the  third  was  some 
years  after  killed  by  the  Giaghi,  while  chaplain  of  the  army  of  Congo.  On  his 
third  voyage  Diego  took  with  him  twelve  Franciscans.  The  count  of  Sogno 
and  the  king  of  Congo  were  among  the  first  converts.  The  latter  was  very 
zealous  till  he  found  that  he  would  have  to  give  up  his  harem,  when  he  returned 
to  heathenism.  His  son  and  successor  was  a  devoted  Papist,  and  when  his 
heathen  brother  excited  a  rebellion,  St.  James  was  seen  fighting  for  the  king, 
and  victory  of  course  was  his.  His  brother,  taken  captive,  refused  to  turn 
Papist,  and  was  executed.  Soon  after  a  large  reinforcement  of  missionaries  was 
sent  out  by  the  Society  de  Propaganda  Fide,  and  in  the  course  of  twenty  years 
the  entire  population  of  Congo  were  within  the  pale  of  the  Papal  Church. 

In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  army  of  Congo  was  scattered 
like  chaff  before  the  warlike  Giaghi,  and  San  Salvador  was  burned.  The  king 
then  appealed  to  Don  Sebastian  of  Portugal  for  help,  and  Don  Francis  Gouvea 
was  sent  with  some  seven  hundred  troops.  As  soon  as  he  was  joined  by  three 
hundred  more  from  Angola  he  attacked  the  invaders,  and  after  several  battles 
drove  them  from  the  kingdom.  Don  Alvaro  I,  in  his  gratitude,  promised  the 
king  of  Portugal  an  annual  present  of  slaves,  and  offered  to  acknowledge  him 
as  sovereign ;  but  this  last  was  generously  declined. 

The  missionaries,  reinforced  by  new  recruits  from  Europe,  reestablished 
Popery  throughout  Congo,  and  extended  their  labors  into  neighboring  tribes. 
North  of  the  Congo  they  were  very  successful  in  Loango  and  Kakongo.  The 
capital  was  rebuilt,  commerce  was  more  extended  than  before,  and  the  country 
more  prosperous  than  ever;  but  in  1636  civil  war  broke  out  between  Congo 
and  Sogno,  occasioned  by  an  effort  of  the  king  to  transfer  Sogno  to  the  crown 
of  Portugal.  This  excited  the  indignation  of  the  people  of  Sogno,  and  the  king, 
with  a  large  army  and  eighty  Portuguese,  made  war  on  the  recusants.  In  the 
first  battle  the  army  of  Sogno  was  beaten,  and  the  count  slain.  His  son,  how- 
ever, continued  the  war,  and  not  only  defeated  the  royal  army,  but  took  the 
king  and  many  Portuguese  prisoners.  These  last  had  the  choice  of  death  or 
slavery,  and  choosing  the  first,  were  immediately  executed.  The  king  obtained 
his  liberty  by  acknowledging  the  independence  of  the  count,  and  ceding  to  him 
additional  territory. 

Soon  after  the  king  renewed  the  war,  but  with  no  better  success.  He  even 
sought  the  aid  of  Prince  Maurice,  then  in  Brazil ;  but  the  count  sent  another 
messenger  in  the  same  ship,  with  presents  of  equal  value,  and  the  prince 
decided  to  remain  neutral.  The  missionaries  were  now  driven  out  of  Sogno 
across  the  Congo;  but  some  of  their  followers  seized  the  count  and  drowned 
him  in  the  river  near  the  place  where  he  had  driven  out  the  missionaries.  On 
the  other  hand,  Don  Alvaro  1 1  sent  to  Pope  Urban  VIII  for  more  missionaries ; 
twelve  were  sent,  part  of  whom  went  to  Sogno,  and  the  rest  were  welcomed 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY. 


335 


by  Don  Garcia  II,  who  by  this  time  had  ascended  the  throne.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Don  Antonio  I,  whose  wickedness  and  brutahty  nearly  extirpated 
Popery  from  the  land.  The  Portuguese  of  Angola  were  roused  to  attack  him 
with  an  army  of  one  or  two  thousand  natives  and  four  hundred  Portuguese. 
The  missionaries  affirm  that  the  king  had  nine  hundred  thousand  men  !  But 
this  is  incredible,  especially  as  the  main  'army  was  entirely  routed  by  four  hun- 
dred Portuguese  musketeers.  Don  Antonio  was  killed,  and  his  crown  taken  to 
Loando.  They  did  not  seize  on  the  kingdom,  however,  for  the  kings  of  Congo 
had  generally  been  as  obedient  to  the  Pope  as  the  king  of  Portugal  himself ; 
and  they  had  all  been  crowned  according  to  the  Popish  ritual,  and  the  crown 
itself  was  the  gift  of  the  Pope. 

Order  was  soon  restored,  and  another  king  ascended  the  throne.  Father 
Carli,  in  1667,  saw  the  great  duke  of  Bamba,  the  leader  of  the  royal  forces, 
soon  after  disbanding  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  with  which  he 
had  failed  to  subdue  the  count  of  Sogno.  Twenty  years  later  and  that  great 
duke  had  also  renounced  allegiance,  and  we  hear  no  more  of  the  kingdom  of 
Congo.  Cut  off  from  the  sea,  both  by  way  of  the  river  and  Loando,  the  king 
sank  down  to  the  level  of  the  petty  chiefs  round  about  him. 

This  chapter  of  history  derives  its  chief  importance  from  its  connection  with 
the  question  of  the  permanence  of  the  results  of  Papal  missions.  It  is  said 
that  their  failure  in  India  is  owing  to  the  ascendency  of  a  Protestant  nation 
there.  England  rules  India,  and,  therefore,  Papal  missions  are  at  a  disadvan- 
tage. But  the  East  India  Company  opposed  Protestant  and  Papal  missions 
alike,  and  now  even  idolatry  is  guaranteed  all  its  rights.  The  courts  protect 
the  worshiper  of  Brahma  as  impartially  as  the  servant  of  Jesus  Christ.  Popery 
has  free  course  in  England  herself,  so  far  as  any  political  oppression  is  con- 
cerned ;  and  what  hindrance  does  she  meet  with  from  the  government  in  India  .>' 
So  it  has  been  said  that  Popery  failed  among  our  own  Indians,  because  these 
tribes  have  been  overshadowed  by  more  powerful  races,  without  allowing  time 
for  the  development  of  its  peculiar  principles.  But  the  same  hindrance  lies  in 
the  way  of  Protestant  missions  among  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Chippewas, 
and  Dakotas.  Why  does  it  not  in  their  case  produce  the  same  results  ?  If 
there  has  not  been  the  same  success  among  the  tribes  that  murdered  Dr.  Whit- 
man, Rome  knows  better  than  all  others  why  it  was  wanting.  But  even  there, 
despite  her  efforts  to  stamp  out  the  fire  of  the  truth,  travelers  find  Indians  who 
read  God's  Word  and  observe  family  prayer.  Why,  then,  is  the  kingdom  of 
Congo,  which,  according  to  her  own  missionaries,  was  for  more  than  two  cent- 
uries as  completely  under  her  influence  as  any  kingdom  in  Europe,  so  blotted 
out  that  no  relics  of  its  Christianity  can  be  found  to-day  ?  Rome  here  had  the 
field  all  to  herself,  with  nothing  to  interfere  with  her,  and  everything  favorable 
politically,  and  what  are  the  results  ?  During  the  eighteenth  century  every 
trace  of  Christianity  disappeared,  and  the  whole  region  has  fallen  back  into  the 
darkest  heathenism,  and  even  into  greater  poverty  and  weakness  than  before 
the  coming  of  the  missionaries.  Stanley,  though  he  passed  along  the  northern 
frontier  of  this  kingdom  for  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and 
si)ent  nearly  two  months  on  its  borders,  never  once  even  mentions  its  name 
■ —  so  utterly  has  that  once  flourishing  Papal  kingdom  perished  from  the  earth. 


;^;^6  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Capt.  Tuckey,  who  explored  the  lower  part  of  the  Congo  in  1816,  states  that 
three  years  before,  some  missionaries  had  been  murdered  in  Sogno,  and  a  Por- 
tuguese pinnace  cut  off  by  the  natives;  but  he  found  no  traces  of  Popery, 
except  a  few  crosses  and  relics  mixed  up  with  native  charms  and  fetiches,  no 
doubt  scattered  by  the  Portuguese  slave-traders,  who  still  frequent  the  river. 
One  man  introduced  himself  as  a  priest,  with  a  diploma  from  the  college  of 
Capuchins  at  Angola,  without  education,  and  having  a  wife  and  five  concu- 
bines !  The  nearest  allusion  Stanley  makes  to  the  kingdom  of  Congo  is  the 
following :  -^  "  Some  natives  of  Congo  were  here,  and  it  appeared  to  me,  on 
regarding  their  large  eyes  and  russet  brown  complexions,  that  they  were  results 
of  miscegenation,  probably  descendants  of  the  old  Portuguese  and  aborigines." 
•  We  know  not  the  extent  of  the  civilization  of  Congo ;  but  Prof.  Carl  Ritter 
states  on  the  authority  of  the  missionaries,  that  the  great  duke  of  Bamba  could 
at  any  time  raise  in  that  province  four  hundred  thousand  soldiers.  Dr.  Wilson 
doubts  whether  the  king  himself  could  raise  more  than  twenty  thousand.  And 
if  that  is  true,  do  not  such  statements  by  the  Papal  missionaries  go  far  to 
explain  the  utter  disappearance  of  their  work  ?  It  was  the  structure  of  wood, 
hay,  and  stubble,  built  on  the  one  foundation  that  we  are  forewarned  should 
be  burned.  —  I  Cor.  iii :  xv. 

What  are  the  facts  ?  The  missionaries  and  Portuguese  planted  gardens, 
cultivated  fruit  trees,  and  erected  substantial  dwellings  and  churches ;  but  f/ie 
people  still  lived  in  bamboo  huts,  and  were  clad  in  the  scantiest  apparel,  while 
multitudes  wore  no  clothing  at  all.  Their  roads  were  mere  foot-paths;  and 
the  one  between  the  capital  and  Loando  was  so  infested  with  wild  beasts  that 
the  traveler  required  an  armed  escort!  They  had  no  beasts  of  burden,  nor  car- 
riages, nor  occasion  for  either,  for  their  commerce  was  mainly  in  slaves ;  show- 
ing that  they  had  not  felt  the  quickening  power  of  true  religion  in  secular 
activities. 

We  know  not  the  number  of  missionaries,  though  Father  Merolla  mentions 
incidentally  at  least  one  hundred,  representing  almost  every  order  in  the  Papal 
Church.  In  the  province  of  Sogno  were  eighteen  churches ;  and  in  the  whole 
kingdom  not  less  than  a  hundred,  and  perhaps  twice  as  many  places  set  apart 
for  worship."  The  king  and  chiefs  vied  with  each  other  in  their  attendance  on 
mass,  and  scrupulously  observed  the  ceremonies  of  the  church.  Nor  were  the 
jieople  in  these  things  behind  their  leaders.  One  missionary  states  that  in  a 
village  the  women  rushed  on  him  like  "mad  women,"  to  have  their  children 
baptized.  When  an  adult  woman  presented  herself  for  baptism,  surprise  was 
expressed  that  one  had  so  long  neglected  the  ordinance;  and  one  complains 
that  he  found  no  children  to  baptize,  because  another  priest  had  just  preceded 
him. 

Then  the  authority  of  the  priests  in  all  civil,  as  well  as  religious  matters, 

»  Through  the  Dark  Coniincnt,  Vol.  II,  p.  426. 

2 The  view  here  inserted  of  St.  Paul  de  Loando,  from  the  ^Tissio^tary  Herald,  1880,  p.  4S6,  shows  some  of 
these  churclies  and  ecclesiastical  establishments  as  they  appear  to-day,  in  that  neighboring  province.  Loando  is  a 
city  of  ten  or  twelve  thousand  inhabitants,  one  third  of  them  being  whites.  It  was  once  the  great  shipping  port  of 
slaves  to  Brazil.  Now  the  city  is  connected  with  Lisbon  by  a  monthly  line  of  steamers,  and  with  Liverpool  by 
another  line.     Its  lawful  trade  in  the  products  of  the  country  is  quite  extensive. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY. 


337 


was  paramount.  No  acts  of  penance  were  ever  inflicted  by  Rome  on  the 
sovereigns  of  Europe,  in  the  Dark  Ages,  that  were  not  submitted  to  by  the 
chiefs  of  Congo. 

Nor  was  this  a  transient  excitement.  Successive  generations  of  mission- 
aries labored  with  untiring  assiduity  for  two  hundred  years.  Some  of  them 
were  among  the  most  able  and  learned  ever  sent  forth  from  Rome. 

And  what  is  the  end  of  it  all  ?  A  people  that  in  morality,  industry,  comfort, 
and  intelligence,  are  lower  to-day  than  millions  in  Africa  who  never  heard  the 
name  of  Christ. 

What  is  the  explanation  of  this  ?  Is  the  African  incapable  of  being  civilized 
and  Christianized  ?      The  fruits  of  Protestant  missions  among  them  show  that 


ST.    PAUL    DE    LOANDO. 


that  is  not  true.  Is  it  said  that  the  Portuguese  power  declined  ?  A'ery  true.  But 
are  there,  therefore,  no  Portuguese  traders  in  Congo  ?  And  if  traders,  why  not 
missionaries  too,  where  their  churches  once  filled  the  land  ?  For  the  same  rea- 
son the  climate  cannot  be  the  cause  ;  for  traders  live  there  in  spite  of  that  same 
climate.  There  are  more  foreigners  there  now  than  there  ever  were  mission- 
aries at  any  one  time.  Besides,  if  a  mission  cannot  live  after  being  nursed  by 
royal  nursing-fathers  for  two  centuries,  when  can  it  live  with  a  vitality  of  its 
own  ? 

Does  not  the  character  of  the  religion  planted  there  explain  the  mystery  ? 
Instead  of  translating  the  Bible,  crosses  and  relics  supplanted  the  charm  and 
the  fetich.       Instead  of  instructing -in  the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  the  outward 

22 


338  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

form  of  baptism  was  the  power  that  transformed  heathen  into  Papists  —  we 
cannot  say  Christians.  The  heathen  mind  is  proverbially  slow  in  apprehend- 
ing Bible  truths ;  but  one  missionary  in  Chiava  chianza  baptized  five  thousand 
children  in  a  few  days.  Another  baptized  twelve  thousand  in  Sogno  in  less 
than  a  year.  Father  Merolla  states  that  in  less  than  five  years  he  baptized 
thirteen  thousand ;  another  missionary  fifty  thousand ;  and  a  third,  during 
twenty  years,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand. 

Being  thus  made  Papists,  the  mass  was  celebrated,  the  confessional  erected, 
penances  imposed,  and  the  people  learned  —  what?  To  make  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  and  wear  medals,  while  ceremonies  resembling  their  heathen  customs 
took  the  place  of  those  customs. 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  it  is  worth  while  to  send  the  Gospel  to  the 
heathen,  if  it  produces  no  better  results  or  lays  no  surer  foundation  for  Chris- 
tian character.  The  new  religion  had  no  more  to  do  with  their  moral  and 
intellectual  natures  than  the  old  one.  If  they  showed  reverence  for  Papal  rites 
before  the  missionaries,  they  were  no  less  punctilious  in  their  own  pagan 
observances  behind  their  backs. 

Laboring  among  such  an  ignorant  people,  the  missionaries  gave  full  swing  to 
their  Romish  miracles.  Devils  fled  at  their  coming  ;  trees  withered  under  their 
rebuke ;  if  a  comet  appeared,  it  came  at  their  call ;  if  the  small-pox  broke  out, 
that  also  was  to  chastise  the  disobedience  of  their  followers.  But  the  mission- 
aries forgot  that  African  sorcerers  wrought  miracles  even  more  wonderful.  In 
energy,  in  scope  of  intellect,  and  in  mechanical  skill,  the  negro  yields  at  once  to 
the  white  man.  But  in  the  realm  of  the  unknown  and  the  mysterious,  where 
imagination  has  full  scope,  he  has  no  rival  ;^  and  so  the  missionaries  only 
brought  themselves  and  their  religion  into  contempt.  So  long  as  they  confined 
themselves  to  the  requirements  of  baptism  and  the  rosary,  they  were  obeyed; 
b)ut  when  they  assailed  polygamy,  they  were  astounded  at  the  opposition  they 
called  forth,  and  then  they  found  the  weakness  of  their  power.  What  could 
they  accomplish  who  left  "  the  Gospel  of  Christ  which  is  the  power  of  God 
imto  salvation"  out  of  the  list  of  their  instrumentalities?  They  then  had 
recourse  to  that  constant  resource  of  Rome,  the  secular  arm  ;  and  from  that 
moment  they  threw  aside  every  other  means  for  advancing  their  work.  The 
severest  laws  were  enacted  against  polygamy,  the  heaviest  penalties  were  visited 
upon  any  who  took  part  in  heathen  rites.  Sorcerers  were  declared  outlaws, 
were  burned  alive,  or  sold  into  slavery.  If  the  chiefs  were  slow  to  execute  the 
laws,  the  missionaries  took  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  and  carried  it  out  with 
unsparing  severity.  Corporal  punishment  was  administered  without  restraint. 
Slight  infractions  of  church  rules  were  punished  by  public  flogging,  sometime  , 
inflicted  by  the  missionaries  themselves,  and  even  mothers  were  stripped  aiul 
flogged  in  public. ' 

'  We  have  an  inkling  of  this  in  tlie  Voodooism  of  our  own  Southern  States. 

-  As  some  may  tind  it  difficult  to  believe  that  any  professed  servants  of  Christ  should  so  far  forget  themselves, 
let  them  read  this  part  of  a  lette.- from  the  celebrated  Francis  Xavier  co  the  king  of  Portugal,  dated  January  20, 
154S ;  "  I  very  earnestly  desire  you  to  take  an  oath,  invoking  most  solemnly  the  name  of  God,  that  if  any  governor 
neglects  to  spread  the  faith  he  shall,  on  returning  to  Portugal,  be  imprisoned  for  a  num.ber  of  years,  and  all  his  prop- 
erty be  sold  and  devoted  to  works  of  charity.     Then,  that  none  may  deem  this  an   idle  threat,  you  must  declare 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  330 

The  countenance  the  missionaries  gave  to  the  slave  trade  —  and  that  in  the 
scene  of  its  most  savage  atrocities,  where  whole  villages  were  surprised,  resist- 
ance put  down  by  the  sword,  and  the  miserable  residue  sold  into  a  foreign 
bondage  from  which  there  was  no  return  — was  doubtless  one  main  cause  of 
their  failure.  They  even  participated  in  it  themselves.  Idolaters  were  given 
up  to  them,  and  by  them  sold  to  the  slave-traders.  After  that,  it  mattered  little 
that  the  price  of  blood  was  given  to  the  poor.  So  many  were  thus  disposed  of 
that  masters  of  slave-ships  could  always  depend  on  the  missionaries  for  aid  in 
making  up  their  cargoes.  Father  Merolla  tells  that  he  presented  a  slave  to  a 
captain  in  return  for  a  flask  of  wine  given  him  for  the  sacrament ;  and  provided 
the  slave  was  baptized,  and  was  not  sold  to  heretics,  they  saw  no  evil  in  the 
traffic.     No  wonder  such  missionary  work  came  to  naught. 

So  long  as  the  power  of  the  king  was  witl>  them,  and  that  was  upheld  by  the 
power  of  Portugal,  they  practiced  and  prospered  ;  but  the  moment  Portugal  felt 
constrained  to  withdraw  her  help,  and  the  power  of  the  king  of  Congo  o-rew 
weak,  the  hatred  of  the  people  against  the  missionaries  broke  forth.  The 
count  of  Sogno  revenged  himself  on  them  for  the  indignities  he  had  been  made 
to  suffer,  and  the  people  abandoned  them  on  journeys  in  the  most  dan^-erous 
places,  or  in  sickness  they  refused  to  help  them.  In  Bamba  six  missionaries 
were  poisoned  at  one  time,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  kill  a  seventh,  who 
came  for  their  property.  Philip  da  Silesia  was  killed  and  eaten.  Father 
Joseph  Maria  da  Sestu  was  poisoned.  Merolla  himself  almost  died  from  the 
same  cause.  So  that  they  seldom  traveled  without  an  antidote  for  poison  • 
and  all  this  after  two  centuries  of  unbroken  prosperity,  as  they  deemed  it. 
Then  they  abandoned  'traveling,  and  ultimately  left  the  country,  and  when  they 
departed  Popery  disappeared  with  them.  How  could  a  building  stand  that 
had  no  foundation,  or  a  tree  grow  that  had  no  root? 

EARLY  MISSIONS   TO  INDIA    AND   CHINA. 

The  intelligent  Christian  who  reads  of  the  Nestorian  monument  discovered 
in  China,^  desires  to  know  more  of  the  missionary  labors  of  that  ancient  church, 
and  several  documents  prepared  by  those  connected  with  the  American  Board, 
though  they  do  not  satisfy,  stimulate  that  desire  exceedingly.  Let  us  bring 
together  some  of  the  facts  they  furnish. 

Mar  Shimon  has  for  his  title  "Patriarch  of  the  East,"  and  the  following 
facts  go  to  show  the  appropriateness  of  the  designation. 

Judea  was  the  original  center  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  the  history  of 
events  occurring  there  were  given  in  detail.  It  was  not  so  with  occurrences  in 
regions  more  remote.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  a  history  of  the  labors  of  one  man  not  belonging  to  the  original  twelve. 

unequivocally  that  you  will  accept  no  excuses;  but  that  the  only  way  to  escape  your  wrath  is  to  make  as  many 
Christians  as  possible.  The  only  reason  why  every  man  in  India  does  not  confess  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  pro- 
fess his  holy  doctrine,  is  the  fact  that  the  governor,  who  neglects  to  make  this  his  care,  receives  no  punishment 
from  your  majesty."  Missionary  Life  and  Labors  of  Francis  Xavier,  taken  from  his  own  correspondence,  by 
Rev.  H.  Venn,  B.  D.,  London,  1S62,  p.  161. 

It  is  not  strange  that  he  solemnly  proposed  to  the  same  king  that  the  conversion  of  India  should  be  taken  out 
of  the  hands  of  missionaries  and  confided  to  the  civil  authorities.     Do.,  p.  137. 

iSee  pp.  172-173, 


340  THE    ELY    VOLUME, 

Other  apostles  also  labored,  but  we  have  little  or  no  account  of  their  labors. 
Yet,  if  Paul,  besides  his  abundant  labors  in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  as  well  as 
Syria,  had  his  mind  fixed  on  a  journey  into  Spain  also,  the  extreme  west  of  the 
ancient  world,  is  it  not  natural  to  suppose  that  other  apostles  in  like  manner 
extended  their  labors  to  the  east  ?  True,  we  have  no  record  of  those  labors, 
but  neither  is  it  said  that  they  did  not  go  forth  in  obedience  to  the  command, 
"Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature  ;  "  a  com- 
mand addressed  more  personally  to  them  than  to  the  subsequent  apostle.  We 
have  a  hint,  however,  of  a  church  at  Babylon,  as  well  as  at  Rome,  and  Corinth 
[I  Peter  v:xiii].  Then  we  know  that,  while  there  were  none  from  Greece  or 
Gaul  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  there  were  Parthians,  and  Medes,  and 
Elamites,  and  the  dwellers  in  Mesopotamia.  The  thoughtful  reader  will  have 
noticed  that  these  are  mentioned  first,  as  though  those  lands  were  the  most 
important,  most  populous,  and  best  known ;  with  whom,  also,  there  was  the 
most  frequent  intercourse.  We  cannot  forget  that  in  this  direction  lay  the 
most  ancient  empires,  more  ancient  than  even  Egypt ;  and  roads  were  then  open 
that  now  have  long  been  closed. 

The  sources  of  information  concerning  the  progress  of  the  kingdom  in  these 
regions  during  early  times  are  indeed  meager  to-day.  There  was  no  press  to 
chronicle  the  labors  and  sufferings  of  missionaries  in  apostolic  times  ;  and  the 
ruthless  hand  of  war  has  often  blotted  out  church  and  home  alike,  and  buried 
all  records  of  church  labor  in  the  bloody  graves  of  them  that  performed  it. 
But  the  progress  of  modern  discovery  is  now  moving  in  this  direction.  There 
is  more  known  to-day  than  was  known  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  old  secular 
ruins  of  Ephesus,  and  Ilium,  of  Babylon,  and  Nineveh,  can  claim  no  monopoly 
of  interest.  The  kingdom  of  Christ  moves  on  under  the  eye  of  its  divine  head, 
and  he  can  bring  to  light  in  his  own  time  the  records  stored  up  in  his  secret 
treasury  concerning  his  church,  as  well  as  those  relating  to  the  ancient  empires 
of  Assyria  and  Parthia.  Moultan  was  the  ancient  Malli,  Herat  was  the  ancient 
Aria  or  Artacoana ;  Samarcand,  then  called  Maracanda,  was  once  a  chief  mart 
of  commerce.  Still  more  important  was  Bactra,  the  predecessor  of  the  modern 
Balkh,  "which,  lying  on  the  Oxus,  at  an  equal  distance  from  China  and  the 
Mediterranean,  and  near  the  gold  region  of  India,  was  the  heart  of  the  Asiatic 
trade." ^  The  ancient  topes'^  in  countries  adjacent  to  Cashmere  and  Cabul, 
enclose  ruins  containing  sometimes  treasures  and  ancient  coins.  Inscriptions 
on  some  of  these  date  from  the  most  ancient  period  of  Persian  history.  Dr. 
Lord  obtained  in  Kunduz,  north  of  Afghanistan,  and  west  of  the  Himalayas, 
two  silver  paterae  of  exquisite  Greek  workmanship  —  genuine  relics  of  Alex- 
ander's kingdom  of  Bactriana,  and  a  Greek  coin  of  King  Eucratides,  the  son 
of  Heliocles  and  Laodice.^  Throughout  this  region  relics  of  almost  every 
ancient  nation  are  sown  profusely  in  the  soil. 

Such  facts  enkindle  hope  in  two  directions.  First,  they  show  how  inter- 
course in  ancient  times  was  maintained  between  western  and  central  Asia ; 
and  second,  if  the  relics  of  the  classic  age  are  thus  brought  to  light  in  those 

'  Chinese  Repository.,  1849,  p.  48S.  -Query  :  Teppes? 

3  Burnes'  yourney  to  Cabul,  p.  72. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY. 


341 


comparatively  inaccessible  regions,  may  we  not  hope  for  similar  souvenirs  of  a 
Christian  antiquity  to  reward  more  thorough  exploration  ? 

Let  any  one  look  at  the  ground  covered  by  that  statement  in  Acts  ii :  9,  and 
he  will  see  reason  for  expecting  rich  discoveries  to  follow  a  better  acquaintance. 
Mesopotamia  lay  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris ;  Elam  was  situated 
northeast  of  the  Persian  Gulf ;  Media  occupied  a  place  between  that  and  the 
Caspian  Sea ;  and  Parthia  lay  to  the  east  of  that  sea,  toward  India  and  China. 
Now,  if  lines  of  connection  between  the  Gospel  of  Christ  and  those  remote 
regions  were  formed  so  early  as  the  day  of  Pentecost,  A.  D,  2,3,  is  there  not 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  movement,  thus  providentially  begun,  went  forward 
to  some  extent,  if  not  part  passu,  with  like  movements  toward  the  west?  Join- 
ing the  caravans  of  commerce,  apostles  may  have  traversed  these  ancient  routes, 
healing  the  sick,  casting  out  devils,  and  preaching  the  Gospel  of  the  kingdom 
in  a  way  fitted  to  make  a  deep  and  wide  impression  throughout  Asia  that  that 
kingdom  had  indeed  been  set  up  on  the  earth.  Ancient  tradition  tells  us  that 
the  fingers  to  whose  touch  Christ  offered  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  the  hands 
which  he  invited  to  explore  his  side,  were  stretched  forth  in  these  lands  to  point 
others  also  to  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world. 

Both  Greek  and  Syrian  writers  affirm  that  the  apostle  Thomas  preached 
the  Gospel  in  Hyrcania,  Margiana,  and  Bactria.  These  countries,  with 
Parthia,  lie  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  south  of  the  river  Oxus  —  called  also 
Jihoon  and  Amoo  Dari  —  and  west  of  the  head-waters  of  the  Indus.  They 
say,  also,  that  the  Gelae,  a  people  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  sea  of 
Aral,  received  the  Gospel  from  a  disciple  of  the  apostles.  Sophronius  says 
that  Andrew,  the  apostle,  preached  in  Scythia,  and  in  Sogdiana,  which  lies 
between  the  Jihoon  and  Jaxartes,  and  is  also  called  Transoxiana.^  Gregory  of 
Nazianzen  says-  that  Thomas  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Indians;^  and 
Neander  also  mentions  a  tradition  which  makes  him  an  apostle  to  the  Parthians. 
But  he  is  very  cautious  about  giving  credit  to  these  witnesses,  saying  in  the 
words  of  Carl  Ritter:'*  "What  European  science  cannot  prove  is  not,  there- 
fore, to  be  rejected  as  untrue,  but  only  to  be  regarded  as  problematical  for  the 
present ;  by  no  means,  however,  is  any  structure  to  be  erected  on  it  as  on  a 
safe  foundation." 

The  Syrian  chronicles  relate  that  "  Thomas,  having  gone  through  Mesopo- 
tamia, Chaldea,  Persia,  and  Parthia,  and  visited  the  churches  in  those  countries, 
went  to  the  utmost  confines  of  the  East ; "  and  in  the  epitome  of  the  Syrian 
canons,  quoted  by  Assemani,  he  is  called  "  the  apostle  of  the  Hindoos  and 
Chinese."^ 

If,  however,  the  apostle  Thomas  ever  was  in  these  regions,  we  should  expect 
to  find  some  trace  of  his  labors.  What  traces  yet  may  be  discovered  we  can- 
not tell ;  but  in  the  year  1806  Rev.  Dr.  Claudius  Buchanan  found  Christians  on 
the  coast  of  Malabar,  having  the  Scriptures  in  the  ancient  Syriac  —  the  language 
spoken  by  our  Lord  —  with  churches,  clergy,  and  a  ritual,  who  claimed  to  have 

iDr.  Anderson,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1838,  p.  291.  ^  Oratio,  p.  25. 

SNeander's  History,  Vol.  I,  p.  82.  * Erd-Kunde  von  Asien,  Bd.  IV,  iste  Abtheilung^,  s.  602 

''Chinese  Repository,  1847,  p.  154. 


342  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

received  bishops  from  the  church  at  Antioch  almost  from  the  time  of  the 
apostles  —  Dr.  Buchanan  says  for  thirteen  hundred  years  previous  to  A.  D. 
1503.  While  the  writer  was  in  Mosul  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Joseph 
Matthew,  a  priest  of  this  body  of  Christians,  who  had  come  to  be  ordained 
bishop  by  the  Jacobite  patriarch  at  Deir  Zafran,  and  who  returned  to  his  people 
as  Mutran  ^  Athanasius.  He  was  a  simple-hearted,  evangelical  Christian,  who 
heartily  cooperated  with  our  mission  in  Mosul,  and  seemed  to  be  devoted  to 
the  spiritual  good  of  his  jDeople. 

And  this  leads  to  the  remark  that  we  mistake  in  supposing  these  Syrian 
Christians  to  be  Nestorians.  True,  the  N'estorians  sent  missionaries  after- 
wards, even  to  China,  and  these  Christians  in  Malabar  use  the  Estrangelo 
character,  which  is  rather  peculiar  to  the  Nestorians ;  but  the  fact  seems  to  be 
that  the  church  in  Malabar  was  established  before  the  division  of  the  ancient 
church  of  Antioch  into  Nestorian  and  Jacobite,  and  so  it  continued  to  go  to 
the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  as  the  Jacobite  patriarch  is  still  called,  for  the  ordina- 
tion of  its  bishops.  Dr.  Anderson  in  his  "  Missions  of  the  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians in  Central  and  Eastern  Asia,"^  already  quoted,  says  ^  that  the  patriarch 
Jaballaha  sent  a  metropolitan  to  Maru  (Merw),  in  Korassan,  in  the  year  420 
A.  D.  This  shows  that  there  were  numerous  Christians  and  churches  already 
in  that  province ;  but  it  also  shows  that  Nestorius  had  nothing  to  do  with  it ; 
for  he  was  not  made  bishop  of  Constantinople  till  A.  D.  428,  nor  deposed  by 
the  council  of  Ephesus  till  431.  All  this  missionary  work  in  the  East  must 
have  been  before  Nestorius  was  known  to  the  original  Syrian  church  that  after- 
wards espoused  his  side  in  the  dispute  with  Cyril. 

In  the  year  334  A.  D.,  Barsabas,  a  Syrian  Christian,  i.  c,  one  belonging  to 
the  church  of  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  fled  into  Korassan  from  the  persecution 
of  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  and  there  became  bishop  of  Maru  (Merw).'' 

But  to  return  to  these  Syrian  Christians.  Dr.  Buchanan  gives  an  exceed- 
ingly interesting  account  of  their  Christian  simplicity  ;  their  churches,  with  bells 
cast  by  themselves  ;  their  women,  so  different  from  the  heathen  around  them ; 
and  their  child-like  attachment  to  the  Word  of  God.  He  also  describes  the 
persecutions  they  endured  at  the  hands  of  the  Papists,  who,  when  they  dis- 
covered them  in  1503,  demanded  their  subjection  to  the  Pope.  "Who  is  the 
Pope  ?  "  was  the  reply ;  "  we  never  heard  of  him.  We  are  of  the  true  faith  — 
whatever  you  may  be  —  for  we  came  from  the  place  where  the  disciples  were 
first  called  Christians,"  The  Inquisition  at  Goa  was  let  loose  on  them.^  Their 
bishop.  Mar  Joseph,  was  sent  prisoner  to  Lisbon.  The  rest  of  the  clergy  were 
accused  of  being  married,  and  observing  only  two  sacraments ;  also  that  they 
neither  invoked  saints,  nor  worshiped  images,  and  had  no  orders  in  the  church, 
save  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon.  These  errors  they  were  required  to  abjure  or 
suffer  suspension  from  the  ministry.     All  their  ecclesiastical  books  were  burned, 

'  Metropolitan.  '^Missionary  Herald,  183S,  pp.  289-298.  ^Do.,  p.  29r. 

*  Assemani  Bib.  Orient.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  426,  quoted  by  Dr.  Anderson,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1S38,  p.  291. 

"This  reminds  the  writer  that  a  manuscript  fasciculus  of  the  record.-  of  the  Inquisition  at  that  place,  that  had 
long  found  a  place  among  the  curiosities  in  the  cabinet  at  the  old  Missionary  House  in  Pemberton  Square,  strangely 
disappeared  one  day,  after  the  visit  of  a  clerical  stranger,  who  was  allowed  access  to  the  room  unattended.  Rome 
does  not  like  to  have  documents  where  they  may  expose  the  falsehood  of  her  denials  of  unpleasant  facts. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  343 

"  in  order,"  said  the  Inquisitors,  "  that  no  pretended  apostolical  monuments 
may  remain." 

The  churches  near  the  coast  were  compelled  to  submit;  but  those  in  the 
interior  took  refuge  with  the  native  princes,  who  improved  the  opportunity  to 
reduce  them  to  poverty,  till  Christians  in  England  rallied  to  their  help  after 
Dr.  Buchanan's  discovery  of  this  persecuted  church. 

Now  the  Syriac  liturgy  of  this  church  in  the  office  for  the  celebration  of  St. 
Thomas,  says  :  "  By  the  blessed  St.  Thomas  the  error  .of  idolatry  vanished  from 
among  the  Hindoos.  By  the  blessed  St.  Thomas  the  Chinese  and  Chushiths  ^ 
were  converted  to  the  truth.  By  the  blessed  St.  Thomas  they  received  the  sac- 
rament of  baptism  and  the  adoption  of  sons.  By  the  blessed  St.  Thomas  they 
believed  and  confessed  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  By  the 
blessed  St.  Thomas  they  kept  the  faith  of  the  one  God,  By  the  blessed  St. 
Thomas  the  illuminations  of  the  life-giving  doctrine  arose  upon  all  the  Hindoos. 
By  the  blessed  St.  Thomas  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  extended  ^nd  opened 
to  the  Chinese."  And  in  an  antiphone  they  say :  "  The  Hindoos,  the  Chinese, 
the  Persians,  and  other  regions,  they  of  Syria,  Armenia,  Greece,  and  Rome, 
offer  memorials  of  celebration  to  the  sacred  name  of  Thomas."^  This  is  cer- 
tainly claiming  for  him  a  great  deal,  and  must  be  interpreted  as  meaning  simply 
that  he  laid  the  foundations  for  such  magnificent  results. 

Antonius  Govea  writes  of  the  traditions  current  among  the  Syrians  of  Mala- 
bar :  "  Thomas,  the  apostle,  say  they,  having  arrived  at  Cranganor,  continued 
some  time  with  the  king  of  Malabar  ;  and  when  he  had  founded  many  churches 
there,  went  to  Culan,  a  city  of  the  same  country,  and  there  brought  over  many 
to  the  faith.  Then  he  went  to  the  country  now  called  Coromandel,  and,  hav- 
ing converted  the  king  of  Meliapore,  and  many  people  to  the  Christian  faith, 
went  thence  to  China,  and  preached  the  Gospel  in  the  city  of  Cambalu,^  and 
there  built  a  church."  "On  his  return,  on  account  of  the  numerous  conver- 
sions of  people  to  the  faith  of  Christ,  two  Brahmans,  moved  with  hatred,  excited 
an  uproar  against  the  apostle,  and  buried  him  under  a  shower  of  stones.  An- 
other Brahman,  perceiving  that  he  was  yet  alive,  thrust  him  through  with  a 
lance."*  They  say  his  body  was  carried  to  Calamina,^  near  Meliapore,  and 
buried  there. 

The  metropolitans  of  these  Syrians  in  Malabar  retain  the  name  of  China  in 
their  titles.  When  the  Portuguese  went  there,  Mar  Yakob  subscribed  himself 
Metropolitan  of  Hindoo  ^  and  China ;  and  so  did  Mar  Yoosuf,  who  died  at 
Rome.  Trigautius  says  that  the  most  ancient  title  of  this  church  is  "  Metro- 
politan of  all  Hindoo  and  China."  ^ 

The  inquiry  remains:  How  much  are  these  statements  and  quotations 
worth  ?  To  determine  this  we  must  follow  back  the  line  of  the  centuries,  and 
see  how  far  back  we  can  trace  this  Syrian  church  in  Malabar. 

1  Ethiopians  ? 

2  Assemani,  Tom.  Ill,  part  ii,  p.  516,  quoted  in  Chinese  Repository,  1847,  p.  156.  See  a  similar  statement  by 
Du  Halde,  do.,  p.  158. 

"  Peking.  4  Chinese  Repository,  p.  157. 

6  Is  this  the  mina,  or  harbor,  of  Gala?  and  the  same  as  Caiicut,  /.  e..  Kali's  Ghat,  or  landing-place,  identical 
with  the  meaning  of  Calcutta,  in  Bengal  ? 

6Hindostan.  ">  Chinese  Repository, -p.  -1^. 


344  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Cosmas,  surnamed  Indicopleustes,  on  account  of  his  travels  in  India,  found 
Christians  at  Taprobane,'  at  Male,  where  the  pepper  grows,-  and  Calliana. 
Neander,  who  quotes  him,^  says  tliis  was  perhaps  Calcutta.  But  the  site  of 
Calcutta,  previous  to  its  foundation  by  the  English,  in  A.  D.  1690,  was  occupied 
by  the  mean  village  of  Govindpour.  It  was  much  more  likely  Calicut,  a  sea- 
port of  this  same  Malabar,  where  those  churches  still  exist.*  Indeed,  one  does 
not  see  how  it  well  can  be  anything  else.  This,  then,  confirms  the  existence  of 
churches  in  Malabar  in  the^  year  585  A.  D.,  and  even  before  that ;  for,  though 
Cosmas  wrote  in  that  year,  he  had  visited  the  country  several  times  in  previous 
vears,  and  only  then  recorded  the  result  of  his  observations ;  and  the  churches 
were  then  numerous  and  well-established,  with  ordained  clergy,  a  state  of  things 
that  in  that  age  could  not  have  grown  up  all  at  once. 

Going  still  further  back,  Theophilus,  a  native  of  Diu,  a  city  on  the  western 
coast  of  India,  north  of  Bombay,  to  quote  the  words  of  Neander,^  "found  here 
still  existing  the  Christianity  which  had  been  already  planted  in  that  region  at  an 
earlier  period y  Now^  Theophilus  had  been  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Constantinople, 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Constantine  the  Great,  who  became  sole 
emperor  in  323  A.  D.  Here,  then,  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  centur}^,  we 
find  churches  still  existing  in  India,  dating  back  from  a  much  earlier  period  ; 
and  if  here,  may  there  not  have  been  also  in  other  places,  according  to  the 
above  extract  from  their  ritual  ?  Though  we  must  make  much  abatement  from 
the  sweeping  generality  of  its  statements. 

The  last  evidence  to  be  adduced  is  a  fact  mentioned  by  Dr.  Buchanan,  in  his 
account  of  SyriaJt  Christians  in  India.  He  speaks  of  "  six  metal  tablets  belong- 
ing to  them,  the  engraving  on  the  largest  being  thirteen  inches  long  by  about 
four  broad.  Four  of  them  are  closely  written  on  both  sides,  making  in  all 
eleven^  pages.  On  the  plate  reputed  to  be  the  oldest  is  writing  engraved  in 
nail-headed  or  triangular-headed  letters,  resembling  the  Persepolitan  or  Bab)-- 
lonish."  Dr.  Buchanan  tells  us  that  copperplate  fac-sifniles  of  these  tablets 
were  deposited  by  him  in  the  library  of  the  university  in  Cambridge,  England. 
When  Neander  wrote,  they  were  slill  undeciphered  ;  but  now  that  cuneiform 
inscriptions  are  made  to  yield  up  their  secrets,  we  may  hope  that  these,  if  not 
already  deciphered,  soon  will  be.'' 

While  we  are  groping  after  knowledge  relating  to  them,  it  is  interesting  to 
see  how  the  Chinese  spoke  of  the  West.  They  seem  to  have  caUed  the  Roman 
empire  Tatsin,  or  the  Great  Tsin  (China).  The  Orientals  spoke  of  China  as 
Tchin  and  Matchin,  or  Tsin  and  Matsin,  just  as  they  call  Tartary  Jagiug  and 
Magiug  (Gog  and  Magog),**  and  the  Chiiiese  counted  the  magnificence  of  Rome 

i  Ceylon.  2  Malabar.  ^  History,  YoX.  l\,  \->.  nj. 

•«  Chiftese  Repository,  1S49,  P-  494-  ^'History,  Vol.  II,  p.  117.  "Ten  ? 

7 A  letter  to  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce,  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  brings  the  answer  that  "the  metal  tablets 
vnentioned  by  Dr.  Buchanan  have  no  bearing  on  the  subject.  They  must  be  some  of  the  metal  tablets  of  which  so 
inany  exist  in  southern  India,  inscribed  in  ancient  forms  of  the  Dravidian  alphabet,  and  varying  in  date  from  A.  D. 
600  to  A.  D.  1300.  For  an  account  of  them  consult  Burnell's  Elements  0/ South  Indian  Palceography,  where  the 
early  Dravidian  alphabets  are  deciphered,  and  the  metal  tablets,  and  palm  leaves  on  which  they  are  inscribed,  are 
translated.  Fac-siiniles  are  also  given  of  some  of  these  plates.  The  inscriptions  generally  relate  to  grants  of  land. 
But  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Christians." 

«  Chinese  Repository,  rS47,  P-  '54. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  345 

a  reflection  of  their  own.  They  supposed  it  to  be  ten  thousand  li  ^  west  of 
Shensi,  and  also  west  of  the  Western  Sea.  The  capital,  the}'  said,  was  a  hun- 
dred li  -  in  circumference.  They  seem  to  have  known  it  in  the  time  of  the 
republic,  for  they  represent  the  king  as  elective ;  and  the  character  used  in 
books  they  describe  as  of  a  strange  form  !  Here  is  a  specimen  of  their  fables : 
"In  the  north  of  Tatsin,  a  species  of  sheep  is  produced  spontaneously  from  the 
earth,  their  navels  being  joined  to  the  soil.  If  anything  is  struck  near  them, 
and  they  are  frightened,  they  instantly  die.  In  the  forests  are  found  birds 
from  whose  saliva  is  formed  jasper-colored  pearls.  Conjurors  lift  their  feet, 
and  pearls  and  gems  drop  from  them."  They  also  give  a  singular  account  of 
the  manner  of  collecting  coral." 

It  is  said  that  trade  was  carried  on  by  sea  between  India  and  Ngansih,  with 
profits  of  a  hundred-fold ;  and  that,  though  the  Romans  desired  to  send  envoys 
to  China,  the  people  of  Ngansih  hindered  them.  But  what  country  that  repre- 
sented is  not  known.  About  the  year  i66  A.  D.,  however,  Antun^  succeeded 
in  sending  an  embassy,  and  another  followed  about  270  A.  D.  Such  facts  are 
interesting,  as  showing  the  difficulties  attending  communication,  and  yet  its 
possibility. 

The  Nestorian^  patriarchs  are  said  to  have  sent  metropolitans  to  China  as 
early  as  the  fifth  century,  which  implies  the  existence  of  bishops  and  churches 
there,  and  that  Christianity  had  been  established  for  some  time.*' 

This  brings  us  again  to  the  celebrated  inscription  of  Singan  fu,  and  here, 
having  already  described  the  monument,  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  history 
there  set  forth.  It  records  that  the  .mission  entered  China  in  the  days  of  the 
Emperor  Talcum.  In  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign,  A.  D.  639,  an  imperial 
edict  was  issued  in  favor  of  Christianity,  a  church  was  built  by  the  emperor, 
and  twenty-one  assistants  given  to  Olopuen.  The  mission  prospered  under  the 
reign  of  Caocum,  his  son,  A.  D.  650-6S4,  when  churches  were  built  in  the  ten 
provinces  of  China.  Persecutions  raged  in  A.  D.  699,  and  also  in  A.  D.  713, 
but  peace  returned  under  Hivencum.  A  second  mission  arrived  in  China 
under  Kieho,  John,  and  Paul,  and  the  emperor  Socum  built  a  number  of 
churches.  Christianity  also  was  favored  by  the  emperor  Taicum,  A.  D.  763- 
780,  and  his  successor,  Kiencum,  or  Tecum,  A.  D.  780-805.''  The  monument 
was  erected  in  the  second  year  of  Kiencum,  the  seventh  day  of  the  month 
of  Autumn,  on  the  Lord's  day,  Himciu  being  bishop  of  the  church  of  China. 
Syrian  names,  arranged  in  eight  classes,  and  other  particulars,  are  given  in  the 
Chinese  Repository? 

Six  metropolitan  electors  were  appointed  for  the  ordination  of  a  patriarch, 
chosen  from  the  six  nearest  dioceses,  viz. :  Elam,  Nesib,  Perath  (Euphrates), 
Assyria,  Beth  Germa  (Garmae),  and  Halach  (Holwan),  who  should  convene  with 
the  patriarch  every  four  years.  But  the  other  metropolitans,  viz.,  of  China, 
Hindia,  Persia,  of  the  Menozites,  of  Sciam  (Siam),  of  the  Raziches,  the  Hariuns 

1  Twenty-eight  hundred  miles.  -Twenty-eight  miles.  ^  Chinese  Repository,  I'&i,'^  p.  4gi. 

*  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus.  o  Syrian  ? 

6  Mosheim,  Historia  Tartarorum  Ecclesiastica,  pp.  S,  9,  quoted  by  Dr.  Anderson,  Missionary  Herald,  1838, 
p.  292. 

'The  reader  will  note  that  the  ending  of  all  these  names  is  the  same.  "  1S47,  pp.  161-163. 


346  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

(Arians  ?),  and  Samarkand,  which  were  far  off,  were  excused  from  attendance, 
and  required  only  to  send  letters  every  six  years,  giving  a  narrative  of  their 
affairs.^ 

A  list  of  the  Nestorian  metropolitan  seats  is  also  given  in  the  same  volume, 
from  Assemani,  as  follows :  Elam,  Nisibin,  Perath  mesin  (harbor  of  the 
Euphrates),  or  Busra,  Adjaben  (Adiabene)  and  Mosul,  Beth  Germa,  or  Beth 
Selucia  and  Carach,  Halavan,  or  Halach,  Persia,  Maru  in  Chorasan,  Hara  in 
Cumboja,  Arabia,  China,  India,  Armenia,  Syria,  Cardo  (Kurdistan  ?),  or  Ador- 
begen  (Aderbijan),  Raju  and  Tarbistan,  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  Dailem, 
Samarkand  and  Mavar  al  nahr,  Cashgar  and  Turkestan,  Balach  (Balkh)  and 
Tocharestan,  Segestan,  Hamadan,  Chantelek,  Tanguth  in  Great  Tartary,  north- 
west from  China,  and  Chasemgar  and  Nuachet. 

The  patriarch  Timotheus,  A.  D.  778,  selected  Subchaljesu  from  among  the 
monks  of  Beth  Aben,  or  Beth  Abe,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Niphates,  north  of 
Diarbekir  —  a  man  skilled  in  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Persian  —  and,  ordaining  him 
bishop,  sent  him  to  the  Dailamites  and  the  Gete,  east  of  the  Caspian ;  and  at 
the  same  time  wrote  to  the  king  of  the  Tartars,  and  others,  exhorting  them  to 
become  Christians.  Subchaljesu  had  great  success  in  his  field,  and  penetrated 
as  far  as  China,  but  was  slain  on  his  way  back  to  Assyria.  Timotheus  without 
delay  ordained  Kardagus  and  Jaballaha,  and  sent  them  in  his  place.^ 

It  is  easy  to  write  or  read  these  statements ;  but  when  we  remember  that 
Peking  is  four  thousand  miles  from  Bagdad,  and  that  a  caravan  spends  six 
months  in  going  from  Samarcand  to  Peking,  and  that  Marco  Polo  was  a  year 
on  the  way  from  Bokhara  there,  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the  difficulties  of  so  long  a 
journey  among  barbarous  and  hostile  tribes,  and  the  courage  involved  in  the 
undertaking.  Missionary  journeys  to-day  are  trifles  alongside  of  those  old 
Nestorian  travels  across  the  continent  of  Asia.'^ 

Two  Arabian  travelers  found  Christians  in  China  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
report  that  at  the  taking  of  Canfu  by  rebels,  in  A.  D.  877,  besides  Chinese,  one 
liundred  and  twenty  thousand  Moslems,  Jews,  Christians,  and  Parsees  were 
slain.* 

Mosheim  says  :  ^  The  Nestorian s  in  the  tenth  century  introduced  Christianity 
into  Tartary,  beyond  Mount  Imans,  and  among  the  powerful  horde  called 

'^Ckitiese  Repository,  1S47,  P-  '63.  -Dr.  Anderson,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1S38,  pp.  292-293. 

^ The  reader  who  desires  a  full  and  thorough  exposition  of  the  traces  of  intercourse  between  China  and  the 
West,  from  the  days  of  Isaiah  (xlix :  12)  to  the  present,  will  find  it  in  the  twenty-first  chapter  of  that  thesaurus  of 
all  that  relates  to  China,  the  Middle  Kingdom  (Vol.  II,  pp.  417-467).  Dr.  Williams  reviews  the  notices  of  it  in 
Horace,  Arrian,  Ptolemy,  Ammianus  Marcellinus;  The  Chinese  Embassy,  A.  D.  61  or  65;  Changkian.s's  Expedi- 
tion to  the  Caspian  Sea,  A.  D.  126;  The  Mission  of  the  Emperor  Antoninus;  The  Arab  Travelers  Wahab  and 
Abuzaid ;  Marco  Polo;  Mission  of  the  Pope  to  the  King  of  the  Tartars,  and  Reply;  Rubruquis;  The  Armenian 
Prince  Hailho;  The  Arab  Ibn  Batuta;  Journal  of  the  Friar  Oderic ;  A  Chinese  Work  relating  to  A.  D.  1506; 
Rafael  Perestrello,  the  first  European  who  sailed  to  China  (1516);  Ferdinand  Andrade  and  brother  (15 17),  and 
many  subsequent  Portuguese  voyagers ;  Magaillans  (1723);  The  Spanish  admiral  Legaspi  (1543),  and  many  more 
Dutch,  French,  Russians,  Austrians,  and  English.  There  is  a  most  interesting  account  of  a  Dutch  pastor,  Hambro- 
cock,  who  became  a  voluntary  martyr  about  the  year  1660.  Sent  by  a  Chinese  leader  to  persuade  a  Dutch  fort  to 
surrender,  he  exhorted  his  countrymen  to  hold  out,  as  the  enemy  v/as  growing  weary  of  the  siege,  and  then  went 
back  to  his  wife  and  children  in  the  hand;;  of  the  enemy,  to  be  butchered,  with  five  hundred  of  his  countrymen,  to 
whom  he  hoped  to  be  of  service  in  their  last  hours  (pp.  440-441). 

<Dr.  Anderson,  in  Missiotiary  Herald,  1S38,  p.  293,  and  Chinese  Repository,  1S49,  p.  495. 

^  Ecclesiastical  History ,  Vol.  II,  pp.  106,  138. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  347 

Karit,  which  bordered  on  the  north  of  China ;  and  in  the  eleventh  century  it  is 
certain  that  metropoUtans,  with  many  inferior  bishops,  were  estabHshed  in 
Cashgar,  Nuacheta,  Turkestan,  Genda,  Tangut,  and  other  places. 

No  mention  is  here  made  of  the  wonderful  stories  of  a  Prester  John,  for  it 
is  to  be  feared  that  there  is  only  too  much  ground  for  the  statement  of  Neander^ 
that  among  the  Mongols  religion  was  a  wholly  subordinate  concern,  and  that 
their  only  article  of  faith  was  the  recognition  of  a  God,  and  of  the  Great  Khan, 
his  son,  whom  he  had  set  over  men  and  required  them  to  obey.  This  vague 
religion  left  the  door  open  for  all  idolatry  and  superstition  ;  and  we  are  not 
surprised  to  find  that  Christian,  Mohammedan,  and  Buddhist  rites  were  all 
tolerated  together  in  a  looser  way  than  Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and  Tauism 
now  coexist  in  China.  It  is  not  much  to  the  credit  of  Nestorians  that  they 
lent  themselves  to  such  a  degradation  of  him  who  is  "God  over  all,  blessed  for- 
ever." 

Brerewood  says  :  "  Many  Nestorians  are  found  in  Parthia,  and  scattered  far 
and  wide  in  the  East,  as  far  north  as  Cathay,  and  as  far  south  as  India.  Marco 
Polo  mentions  no  other  Christian  sect  in  many  parts  of  Tartary,  as  Cassar, 
Samarcand,  Carcham,  Chinchintalas,  Tangut,  Suchir,  Ergimul,  Tenduch, 
Caraim,  and  Mangi.'' " 

If  any  ask  why  then  do  we  find  so  little  trace  of  them  now  ?  the  first  answer 
must  be  that  of  Mosheim :  ^  "  No  one  can  suppose  that  the  religion  they  taught 
was  the  pure  Gospel  of  our  Saviour."  Neander  says :  *  "  They  were  often  greatly 
wanting  in  theological  culture,  Christian  knowledge,  and  substantial  Christian 
character."  He  quotes  William  de  Rubruquis,^  who  calls  them  thoroughly 
ignorant,  repeating  words  which  they  do  not  understand,  corrupt  in  their 
morals,  and  given  to  drunkenness,  some  of  them  even  keeping  several  wives, 
like  the  Tartars.  How  much  of  odium  theologicum  enters  into  this  testi- 
mony we  cannot  tell.  He  describes  them  as  offering  up  prayer  for  the  Khan, 
and  pronouncing  a  blessing  over  his  cups,  and  that,  after  them,  Moslem  and 
Buddhist  priests  did  the  same. 

Dr.  Anderson  says®  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  they  published  the 
pure  Gospel  —  perhaps,  too,  the  means  employed  savored  often  of  the  world. 
Yet  the  comparative  purity  of  the  Nestorian  Church  to-day  may  be  both  an 
effect  and  a  cause  of  its  missionary  activity  in  the  past. 

Such  judgments  may  seem  severe,  but,  though  we  have  not  all  the  informa- 
tion we  would  like  concerning  the  missionary  work  of  the  Nestorians,  straws 
sometimes  show  the  direction  and  force  of  a  current.  When  the  patriarch 
Timotheus  directed  that,  in  order  to  conform  to  the  rule  requiring  three 
bishops  to  assist  in  the  ordination  of  a  fourth,  a  copy  of  the  Gospels  should 
take  the  place  of  the  third,^  he  showed  a  supreme  regard  to  the  command- 
ments of  men,  worthy  of  a  Pharisee  of  the  Pharisees,  and  a  sacrifice  of  com- 
mon sense  to  form,  that  even  the  make-believe  plays  of  children  could  not 
go  beyond.      Is  it  said,  yet  he   honored  the   Gospels  ?      No,   he  dishonored 

'^History,  Vol.  IV,  p.  48.  ^Chinese  Repository,  1847,  p.  165. 

3 Do.,  Vol.  II,  p.  106.  *Do.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  46,  CDo.,  p.  52. 

'^  Missiotiary  Herald,  1838,  p.  296.  ^Neander's  History,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  8q. 


348  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

them  by  making  them  party  to  a  farce,  or  a  fraud,  according  to  the  light  in 
wliich  it  is  viewed. 

So  when  Unkh  Khan  asked  the  metropolitan  of  Maru  how  his  people  should 
fast,  seeing  they  had  no  bread,  but  only  milk  and  flesh,  that  ecclesiastic  had  a 
grand  opportunity  to  show  that  "the  kingdom  of  God  is  not  meat  and  drink, 
but  righteousness,  and  peace,  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost."  Instead  of  that,  he 
referred  the  question  to  the  patriarch,  who  decided  that  they  should  fast  by  liv- 
ing on  milk  alone  !  ^  Could  he  have  paltered  in  that  way  if  he  had  felt  himself, 
or  desired  the  Tartars  to  feel,  the  power  of  the  glorious  Gospel  of  the  blessed 
God  ? 

It  is  some  relief  to  find  Mosheim  saying^  that  the  expositors  of  the  sixth 
century  "  scarcely  deserved  the  name,  a  few  only  excepted,  and  particularly  the 
Nestorians,  who,  like  Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia,  searched  for  the  true  meaning 
of  the  words." 

Another  cause  of  their  disappearance  is  the  merciless  persecution  to  which 
they  were  subjected  by  such  men  as  Mahmoud  of  Persia,  A.  D.  997,  and 
especially  by  the  ferocious  Tamerlane,  who,  in  1370,  began  his  career  of  con- 
quest, and  subdued  more  kingdoms  in  thirty-five  years  than  Rome  did  in  eight 
centuries.  It  is  enough  to  say  of  him  that  he  ravaged  Asia  from  one  end  to 
the  other.  As  a  robber,  he  sent,  at  one  time,  eight  thousand  camels  laden  with 
spoil  from  Damascus.  As  a  destroyer  of  men,  he  built  three  hundred  thousand 
human  heads  into  columns  and  pyramids,  the  ghastly  monuments  of  his  ferocity.* 
When  such  an  angel  of  death  swept  over  the  wide  field  of  their  labors,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  so  little  remains  to  tell  us  what  once  was  there. 

THE  MASSACRE   OF   THE  MOUNTAIN  NESTORIANS. 

The  material  for  this  chapter  of  history  is  furnished  mainly  by  the  mission- 
aries of  the  American  Board,  especially  by  the  heroic  pioneer  in  that  mission, 
Dr.  Asahel  Grant.  Mr.  A.  H.  Layard  visited  their  mountains  in  September, 
1846,  two  years  after  our  missionaries  had  left  the  field,  and  furnishes  some 
facts  not  accessible  elsewhere. 

Te?'ritory.  The  country  occupied  by  the  Mountain  Nestorians  lies  between 
37°  and  38°  north  latitude,  and  43°  and  44°  30'  east  longitude.  This  region 
embraces  the  highest  land  between  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  the  plain  of 
Oroomiah.  The  mountains  of  Jelu  are  from  fourteen  thousand  to  fifteen 
thousand  feet  in  height,  and  others  in  neighboring  districts  do  not  fall  far 
behind  this.  As  for  its  barrenness,  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  overrate  it. 
Dr.  Azariah  Smith,  who  was  a  very  careful  and  accurate  observer,  after  going 
through  the  mountains  in  all  directions,  pronounced  ninety-nine  parts  in  every 
hundred  incapable  of  cultivation.  The  men  in  Jelu  and  Bass  were  in  the  habit 
of  going  down  in  winter  to  more  favored  climes  to  find  employment,  so  as  to 
eke  out  a  subsistence  through  the  year.  The  inhabitants  of  other  districts  did 
the  same,  though  to  a  less  extent.     In  the  valley  of  the  Zab  the  talus  of  loose 

I  Assemani,  Bibl.  Orient.,  Tom.  IV,  p.  483,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1S38,  p.  294. 

^  Eccltsiastical  History,  Vol.  I,  p.  407.       ^Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  Vol.  IV,  p.  284,  Harper's  edition. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY.  349 

Stones  generally  extend  from  the  water  up  to  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  without  a 
particle  of  soil  between  them.  The  few  thorn  bushes  {Astragalus  Tragacanthci)' 
seem  to  come  up  from  a  scanty  soil  hidden  deep  below  the  stony  surface,  and 
the  few  plots  of  ground  that  have  been  rescued,  with  great  labor,  from  the 
stones  around  them,  though  to  sow  them  requires  only  a  capful  of  seed,  are 
sometimes  watered  by  aqueducts  built  up  for  long  distances  from  the  river 
above,  for  nothing  grows  in  all  the  region  without  irrigation.  The  villages  are 
noted  for  their  trees  and  vines,  but  they  seem  to  be  fully  as  much  dependent  on 
a  plentiful  supply  of  water  as  on  any  depth  or  richness  of  the  soil. 

The  People.  Little  was  known  of  them  before  the  arrival  of  our  mission- 
aries, and  their  past  history  is  still  a  blank.  Their  origin  can  only  be  guessed 
at  from  their  language.  They  do  not  appear  to  be  descendants  from  the 
ancient  Assyrians,  for  their  language  is  not  Assyrian,  but  Syriac,  related  to  the 
language  of  Bethuel  and  Laban,  and  to  that  spoken  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of 
our  Lord,  rather  than  to  the  language  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Probably 
they  were  forced  up  from  the  more  fertile  lands  on  the  western  side  of  their 
sterile  domain,  and  overflowed  into  the  more  attractive  regions  on  the  east, 
where  a  part  of  them  are  now  found,  but  when,  or  by  whom,  is  not  yet  known, 
though  future  discoveries  may  increase  our  knowledge  on  these  points.  It 
could  not  have  been  later  than  Tamerlane,  and  may  have  been  much  earlier. 
The  ancient  foundations  at  Kesta,  and  the  ruins  of  the  antique  aqueduct  there, 
may  be  the  work  of  the  ancient  Assyrians.^  So  also  may  be  the  copper  mine 
in  the  vicinity,  spoken  of  by  Mr.  Layard^  as  furnishing  the  material  used  to 
color  the  bricks  and  ornaments  in  the  palaces  of  Nineveh  ;  and  the  copper  bust 
of  a  female,  crowned  with  a  wreath,  found  in  Salaberka  while  Dr.  Grant  was 
there,'^  would  also  seem  to  indicate  an  ancient  population  that  had  some  inter- 
course with  Assyria.  Still,  one  cannot  avoid  the  impression  that  only  the  direst 
necessity  could  have  forced  a  people  from  the  more  inviting  regions  below  up 
to  these  rough  rocks  and  dreary  solitudes. 

Population.  This  has  been  overrated.  Dr.  Grant  put  it  as  high  as  one 
hundred  thousand  ;  but  Dr.  Snaith,  who  was  much  more  accurate  in  his  state- 
ments, gives  the  following  numbers  of  houses  in  several  villages,  which  he 
ascertained  by  actual  count :  The  villages  of  Beravvola,  eighty-nine ;  Chumba, 
twenty;  ten  other  villages  of  that  name,  fifty;  Besusina,  eighteen;  Bemeriga, 
fifteen ;  Bedyalatha,  fourteen ;  Derawa  d'  Walto,  nineteen ;  Matha  d'  Kasra, 
fifty;  Serspidho,  sixty-two;*  Siyadhor,  twelve;  Rawola  d'  Nai,  twelve;  and 
several  smaller  ones.''  Dr.  Grant  estimated  Ashitha  at  three  hundred  ;  ^  Lezan 
at  two  hundred  ;  Salaberka  at  one  hundred  and  sixty ;  all  of  which  were  beyond 
question  much  larger  than  any  counted  by  Dr.  Smith ;  Zawitha  and  Merga  sixty 
each,  and  Minyanish  eighty.  Nestorians  gave  Dr.  Smith  the  number  in  Rumpta 
as    ninety-one;    in    Kalayatha,   thirty-six;    in    Dadush,   thirty;    and    in    Koo, 

'^  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  p.  324.  -Nineveh  and  its  Remains.,  Vol.  I,  p.  igo. 

^Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  p.  1S6 

*  Layard  says  eighty  ;  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  iSS. 

^  J  our  7Lal  of  American  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  II,  p.  68. 

^  Layard  says  two  hundred  fnmilies  returned  there  in  1845;  do.,  Vol.  I,  p.  156. 


35^  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Legippa,  and  Mabua,  as  twenty  each ;  altogether,  fifteen  hundred  and  twenty- 
two  houses  in  forty-three  villages  of  Tiary  alone;  and,  as  there  was  not  less 
than  an  average  of  ten  persons  to  a  house,  there  were  certainl}'-  no  less  than 
fifteen  thousand  inhabitants  in  that  district,  and  may  have  been  many  more. 
Making  out  in  the  same  way  an  estimate  of  the  other  districts,  he  made  the 
entire  Nestorian  population  in  the  mountains  to  be  not  far  from  fifty  thousand.^ 
Mr.  Layard,  in  describing  Tehoma,  gives  Birijai  one  hundred  houses,  Ghissa 
forty,  and  Tehoma  Gawaia  one  hundred  and  sixty  ;  or  a  population  of  about 
three  thousand ;- though  besides  these,  there  are  the  villages  of  Muzrai  and 
Gunduktha,  which  would  have  increased  the  number.  Dr.  Perkins  put  down 
Bileejai,  as  he  spells  it,  at  fifty  houses  ;  Dizza  forty  ;  and  Tekhoma'  Gawaia  one 
hundred  and  fifty.  Muzra  and  Goondikta,  he  says,  resembled  in  appearance 
Tekhoma  Gawaia.  He  estimated  the  entire  population  at  five  thousand."*  Bass 
he  supposed  to  contain  from  two  thousand  five  hundred  to  three  thousand,  of 
whom  fifty  families  were  in  Erinthos,  sixty  in  Shwava,  forty-five  in  Mata,  fifty 
in  Argap,  and  thirty  in  Korhitch.  In  Jelu,  to  Nerek  he  assigns  ten  or  twelve 
families,  to  Zeer  eighty,  to  Oomer  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and  to  Ishtazin  two 
hundred  in  five  villages.^  All  these  estimates  refer  to  their  population  in  1849, 
four  years  after  the  massacre  in  Tehoma. 

Causes  of  the  War.  The  roots  of  the  war  extend  far  into  the  remote  past. 
It  was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  two  such  races  as  the  Kurds  and  Nestorians 
could  live  together  in  peace.  The  former  are  noted  both  for  cruelty  and 
treachery.  As  an  illustration  of  the  former,  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  Moham- 
med Kur  Bey  of  Ravendooz,  who,  when  his  sleep,  in  summer,  on  the  roof  of 
his  castle,  was  disturbed  by  the  cries  of  his  own  infant  daughter,  took  her  by 
the  arm  and  threw  her  into  the  deep  river  that  flowed  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  below.''  And  again  :  when  one  of  his  men  denied  that  he  had  stolen  and 
eaten  a  dish  of  yoghoort,  the  sword  of  the  bey  at  one  stroke  laid  bare  the  stolen 
property,  and  slew  the  offender.''  Capable  of  such  things  among  themselves,  it 
is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  Mountain  Nestorians  would  meet  any  mercy  at 
their  hands.  A  Kurd  in  Jezireh  told  Dr.  Grant  that  one  of  their  chiefs,  return- 
ing from  an  unsuccessful  hunt,  met  a  Christian,  and,  saying  "This  is  my  game," 
raised  his  gun  and  deliberately  shot  him  down.  "How  could  he  act  so?" 
asked  the  doctor.  "O,"  was  the  reply,  "you  know  we  count  it  a  great  sowab 
(merit)  to  kill  a  Christian."  And  in  that  spirit  Mohammed  Kur  Bey  attacked  the 
Mountain  Nestorians  in  1833.  But  their  hour  had  not  then  come  ;  for  a  brave 
and  united  defense  drove  his  hosts  back  with  great  slaughter;  and  it  was  when 
baffled  in  this  attempt  that  he  wreaked  his  vengeance  on  the  unoffending  Yezi- 
dees.^  While  Dr.  Grant  was  with  the  emir  of  Hakkary,  NuruUah  Bey,  in  1842, 
he  sent  half  a  score  of  his  attendants  to  put  to  death  a  local  governor,  then  a 

'  Journal  of  the  A  7iierican  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  1 1,  pp.  67-58 ;  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestoriatts, 
pp.  364-365. 

"^Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  174-175.  *Dr.  Perkins'  spelling. 

*  Missionary  Herald,  1S50,  pp.  90-93.  ''Do.,  pp.  93-95. 

"Dr.  Perkins,  in  Journal  of  Oriental  Society,  Vol.  11,  p.  91. 
"  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Moitntai/i  Nestorians,  p.  222.  'See  p.  308. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  35 1 

prisoner  in  a  distant  castle ;  and  on  tlieir  return  they  boasted  to  the  doctor 
of  the  number  of  robberies  and  murders  they  had  committed.  One  of 
them  had  just  plundered  a  caravan.  They  learn  the  intended  course  of 
travelers,  and  then  waylay  them  ;  and  the  inhabitants  dare  not  warn  their 
intended  victims,  lest  they  suffer  in  their  stead.  Ismael  Pasha,  former  Kurd- 
ish ruler  of  Amadia,  was  also  at  that  time  with  the  emir,  arranging  to  ravage 
the  villages  belonging  to  Mosul,  through  the  banditti  of  Zeiner  Bey.  The 
attempt  that  Mohammed  Kur  Bey  had  failed  to  carry  out,  Nurullah  Bey  now 
proposed  to  accomplish,  by  the  help  of  Badir  Khan  Bey,  and  the  cooperation  of 
the  pasha  of  Erzrum,  with  whom  he  was  then  corresponding  on  that  subject. 
The  emir,  whose  power  would  have  diminished  if  the  Nestorians  had  grown 
strong,  was  specially  irritated  by  the  attempt  of  Mar  Shimon  to  assume  a  meas- 
ure of  political  power  that  had  not  previously  belonged  to  the  patriarch,  and 
this  occasioned  such  a  bitter  animosity  between  them  that  Mar  Shimon,  finding 
the  pleasant  home  of  his  predecessors,  in  Kochannes,  too  much  exposed  to  his 
enemies,  removed  to  Diss,  where  he  could  be  better  protected  by  his  warlike 
clans.  Here  Dr.  Grant  found  him  on  his  first  visit  in  1839  >  ^""^^  here  the  emir 
burned  his  residence  in  1841,  with  the  loss  of  everything  he  could  net  carry 
away  in  a  hasty  flight  by  night. ^ 

But  this  did  not  satisfy  him.  Mar  Shimon  was  still  surrounded  by  his  war- 
like mountaineers,  while  he  was  fettered  by  the  faction  of  Suleiman  Bey,  the 
son  of  his  predecessor,  and  a  friend  of  Mar  Shimon.  Then  the  patriarch  had 
abolished  the  ancient  custom  in  Ashitha,  and  elsewhere,  of  making  an  annual 
present  to  the  emir,  and  the  latter  never  forgot  it.  He  had  gone  to  the  extent 
of  his  ability  alone,  for  his  resources  did  not  admit  of  raising  and  maintaining 
so  large  an  army  as  was  necessary  to  subdue  the  Nestorians;  and  so  he  turned 
for  help  to  an  ambitious  neighbor,  v/ho  had  gradually  extended  his  dominions 
on  every  side,  till  he  had  become  the  most  powerful  chief  in  Kurdistan.  A 
special  grievance  at  this  time  favored  his  appeal.  The  Nestorians,  in  one  of 
their  forays,  had  killed  two  Buhtan  Kurds,  and  their  chief  in  turn  killed  four 
Nestorians ;  they  retaliated  by  killing  eight  Kurds,  and  just  at  this  juncture 
Nurullah  Bey  applied  for  his  help. 

Badir  Khan  Bey,  the  chief  of  Buhtan,  to  whom  he  applied,  was  nominally 
subordinate  to  the  Turkish  government,  but  he  harbored  the  rebel  Ismael 
Pasha,  and  built  forts  with  one  hand  while  he  paid  tribute  with  the  other.^ 
When  summoned  before  the  pasha  of  Mosul,  his  military  appointment  was  his 
excuse  for  remaining  with  his  army ;  and  as  long  as  he  paid  tribute,  the  Porte 
did  not  care  about  engaging  in  a  costly  war.  In  devotion  to  Islam  he  was 
hardly  second  to  his  dervishes  and  mooUahs,  who  constantly  inveighed  against 
the  infidel  Nestorians,  and  declared  their  destruction  such  a  work  of  charity  as 
would  be  rewarded  in  paradise.  "  Kill  all  the  men  who  will  not  receive  the 
Koran  ;  raise  up  a  race  of  Moslems  from  their  women  ;  and  train  up  the  chil- 
dren in  the  faith  of  Mohammed  —  on  whom  be  peace,"  was  their  constant  coun- 
sel. He  oppressed  the  Nestorians  in  Buhtan  without  mercy,  torturing  some  to 
death  in  the  effort  to  exact  more  money  than  they  possessed,  and  fancying  the 

^Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  p.  237.  ^Dq.,  p.  334. 


352  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

mules  and  other  property  of  others,  who  dared  withhold  nothing  which  he  sig- 
nified a  desire  to  receive.^  As  early  as  1841  he  united  with  the  emir  in  the 
attack  on  Diss  already  mentioned,  and  from  that  blow  the  Nestorians  never 
recovered ;  indeed,  by  weakening  their  courage  and  dividing  their  councils,  it 
did  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  massacre.  From  that  time  the  emir  had 
claimed  their  whole  country  as  his  own. 

The  Turks  also  shared  in  the  desire  to  subdue  a  body  of  Christians,  who, 
within  the  borders  of  their  empire,  had  for  centuries  resisted  the  Moslem 
demand  for  tribute,  and  defied  their  swords ;  but  how  could  they  reach  them, 
defended  alike  by  their  mountain  fastnesses  and  the  unsubdued  Kurds  around 
them.  At  length  Reshid  Pasha  so  far  subdued  the  Kurds  that  the  pasha  of 
Mosul,  in  1839,  marched  to  Amadia  with  ultimate  reference  to  the  Nestorians. 
Mr,  Ainsworth  writes,  under  date  of  June  10  :  ■  "  This  day  he  pitched  his  tents 
within  a  mile  of  the  town,  and  greatly  did  his  officers  rejoice  as  they  spoke  of 
the  immediate  and  certain  subjection  of  the  Chaldean  mountaineers."  Page 
253,  he  says  the  Hakkary  chief  "had  thus  been  led  to  barter  his  independence 
for  a  recognition  of  his  power  by  Hafiz  Pasha  of  Erzrum,  and  had  returned, 
backed  by  the  influence  of  Turkey,  at  once  to  control  his  own  restless  tribes, 
and  also  to  extinguish  the  power  of  the  patriarch,  of  which  he  had  always  been 
extremely  jealous."^  And  Dr.  Grant  says:*  "On  my  return  to  Julamerk,  in 
1840,  Nurullah  Bey  had  gone  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  pasha  of  Erzrum,  to 
secure  the  subjugation  of  the  independent  Nestorians  who  lived  within  the 
bounds  of  that  pashalic ;  on  my  way  to  Constantinople  I  met  this  chief  at 
Van,  with  the  new  waly,  who  had  been  sent  with  immediate  reference  to  that 

^Do.,  p.  329.  ^  Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  Vol.  II,  p.  203. 

2  In  this  connection  Mr.  Ainsworth  intimates  that  the  new  ties  of  friendship  between  Mar  Shimon  and  the 
English  and  Americans  had  led  to  his  being  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  and  expresses  regret  that  his 
mission  should  have  hastened  that  catastrophe;  but  adds,  it  is  very  remarkable  that  no  mission  was  spoken  of  by  the 
Americans  among  these  mountaineers  till  after  his  arrival  in  Constantinople  (p.  254).  In  reply  to  all  this,  it  should 
first  be  stated  that  Mar  Shimon,  so  far  from  being  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  himself  fled  to  Mosul  from 
the  Kurds,  and  took  refuge  in  the  British  consulate,  and  not  with  the  Turks  at  all.  The  idea  that  friendship  with 
Americans,  at  least,  who  always  and  everywhere  professed  to  both  KQrds  and  Nestorians  that  they  had  no  political 
aims,  and  could  promise  no  political  help,  occasioned  the  war,  may  be  regarded  as  equally  truthful  with  the  patriarch's 
betrayal  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  .As  for  the  alleged  fact  that  no  mission  was  spoken  of  till  after  he  entered 
Turkey,  in  1839,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  Messrs.  Smith  and  D wight  were  instructed  in  1S30  to  "direct  their  attention 
to  the  Nestorian  and  Chaldean  Christians  of  Kurdistan  {Researches  in  Armenia,  etc..  Vol.  II,  p.  175),  and  were  only 
hindered  from  going  to  Mar  Shimon  by  the  united  assurance  of  the  Ejiglish  then  at  Tabriz,  that  the  region  was 
"  entirely  inaccessible."  Then  Dr.  Perkins  was  instructed  in  1833  "  to  go  to  Julamerk  as  soon  as  may  be,  lest 
interested  and /lerverse  men  should  prejudice  Mar  Skimon  against  hiiny  He  was  told  that  his  residence  was 
only  for  the  present  to  be  in  Persia.  These  words  in  italics  are  very  expressive  in  connection  with  the  following 
extract )  from  Mr.  Ainsworth  (Vol.  II,  p.  249) :  "  We  informed  the  patriarch  that  there  were  among  us  many  zeal- 
ous Christians,  who  seemed  to  read  the  Bible  rather  to  invent  new  doctrines  and  rebel  against  the  church  than  to 
give  them  increase  of  wisdom  and  holiness,  and  have  preferred  following  such  doctrines  rather  than  the  bishops 
who  are  appointed  to  teach  the  nations  —  that  these  persons  have  seceded  from  the  Church  of  England,  and  have 
corrupted  the  doctrines  of  Christianity —  but  as  we  do  not  think  these  corruptions  so  bad  as  to  destroy  the  Christian 
faith,  we  do  not  call  them  heresies."  And  (p.  251):  "  Mr.  Rassam  informed  them  that  if  one  of  these  ministers 
(Congregationalists)  joined  the  Church  of  England  he  must  be  ordained  (again),  as  the  church  considered  them 
without  apostolic  ordination."  And  Dr.  Grant  was  with  difficulty  held  back  from  trying  to  enter  the  mountains, 
almost  from  his  first  entry  into  Persia,  in  1S35;  from  that  day  forward  the  idea  of  penetrating  the  mountains  was 
never  absent  from  his  thoughts.  For  three  years  he  laid  seige  to  them,  watching  for  the  first  available  chance 
of  entering  their  unknown  interior.  July  i,  1836,  he  wrote  to  the  committee  at  Bo.ston,  urging  the  impor- 
tance of  entering  at  the  first  practicable  moment;  and  again  November  16.  Indeed,  he  was  constantly  making 
inquiries  of  Kurds,  Persians,  and  Europeans,  as  to  the  possibility  of  carrying  out  his  plans.  (See  Dr.  Grant  and 
the  Mountain  Nestorians,  pp.  87-105.) 

*Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  p.  373. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY. 


353 


end,  of  which,  indeed,  he  made  no  secret."  And  so  Dr.  Grant  wrote  in  his 
IVestorians,  or  the  Lost  Tribes:^  "They  were,  perhaps,  never  in  greater  danger 
than  now  of  being  subdued  by  the  Moslem  powers,  who  have  pushed  their 
conquests  to  the  very  borders  of  their  mountains,  and  into  these  I  have  good 
reason  to  beUeve  they  intend  to  penetrate."  On  his  return  to  Turkey,  in  1841, 
he  found  these  plans  delayed  by  the  removal  of  Hafiz  Pasha  from  Erzrum,  and 
the  death  of  the  waly  of  Van  ;  but  the  plan  was  not  abandoned,  and  the  emir 
had  gone  to  secure  assistance  from  Badir  Khan  Bey,  who  was  the  most  efficient 
agent  in  their  subjugation.  Late  in  the  autumn  of  1841,  the  pasha  of  Mosul 
sent  an  army  against  them,  which,  however,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  season, 
effected  nothing.  The  Nestorians  then  took  their  revenge  in  ravaging  his  vil- 
lages in  Berwer,  and  he  consoled  himself  in  forming  more  efficient  plans  for 
the  spring  campaign.  These  again  were  frustrated  by  the  loss  of  Amadia,  in  a 
revolt  of  the  Kurds,  while  the  pasha  of  Erzrum  was  taken  up  with  the  threat- 
ened war  with  Persia. 

The  writer  has  been  the  more  careful  to  state  these  facts,  because  they  so 
completely  disprove  the  charge  that  the  massacre  was  occasioned  by  the  build- 
ing Dr.  Grant  erected  in  Ashitha,  in  1842-1843,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
mission.  It  has  been  said  that  it  was  on  "an  isolated  hill,"  whereas  it  was 
only  on  a  projecting  spur  from  the  range  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  just 
high  enough  to  command  good  air,  and  be  free  from  the  malaria  of  the  lower 
valley.  It  has  been  said  that  "proportions  more  modest  might  have  been 
chosen  ;  "  but  the  rooms  being  all  on  the  surface,  that  is,  only  one  story  high, 
and  including  a  chapel  and  school-room  as  well  as  accommodations  for  three 
families,  could  not  very  well  have  been  smaller ;  and  when  Zeiner  Bey  after- 
wards transformed  it  into  a  fort,  in  place  of  the  low  rooms  built  of  round  stones 
from  the  surface  and  plastered  with  mud,  he  erected  a  structure  of  substantial 
stone  and  lime,  two  stories  high,  with  round  towers  at  the  corners.  In  this  the 
writer  speaks  intelligently,  for  he  is  the  only  living  Frank  who  has  seen  both 
the  original  structure  and  its  subsequent  transformation.  And  in  thus  rectify- 
ing the  unintentional  misrepresentation  of  a  distinguished  author  and  anti- 
quarian, he  is  very  sure  that  no  one  will  rejoice  more  than  Mr.  Layard  to  see 
the  memory  of  the  good  man,  of  whom  he  spoke  so  kindly,  vindicated,  notwith- 
standing this  misunderstanding  of  his  plans  and  arrangements.^ 

It  only  remains  to  perform  the  sad  duty  of  stating  what  agency  the  Nesto- 
rians themselves  had  in  bringing  about  the  massacre.  What  their  character 
originally  was  there  is  at  present  no  means  of  knowing.  It  may  be  that  origi- 
nal gentleness  and  forbearance  were  transformed  by  centuries  of  wrong  into 
the  fierceness  that  characterized  them  before  the  massacre.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  few  tribes  were  more  fierce  than  they.  The  writer 
does  not  remember  to  have  heard  one  of  the  common  people  speak  in  gentle 
tones.  The  harsh  gutturals  of  the  Syriac  lost  nothing  of  harshness  in  their 
mode  of  utterance.      In  speaking,  they  seemed  to  be  trying  to  drown  the  roar 

'P-  32^• 

2  See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1 56-1 57 ;  and  also  his  letter  in  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nes- 
torians, pp.  403-404. 

23 


354  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

of  the  torrent  or  storm,  and  their  conduct  corresponded.      The  mountain  fen- 
nel is  cut  as  food  for  their  herds  and  flocks,  and  though  the  quantity  is  very 
small,  its  harvesting  was  generally  a  time  of  fierce  contention,  involving  some- 
times whole  villages  in  war ;  not  like  the  quarrels  of  the  Arabs,  an  angry  war 
of  words,  but  the  dagger  in  the  girdle  was  ever  ready  to  do  the  bidding  of  the 
excited  temper.     One  killed  his  relative  in  a  quarrel,  and  compromised  by 
agreeing  to  pay  the  price  of  blood.     Yet,  though  liable  to  be  slain,  according  to 
their  lex  talionis,  at  any  moment,  he  would  not  sell  a  thing  under  its  full  value 
to  secure  his  safety.      Even  during  the  short  time  the  writer  was  in  the  moun- 
tains, Dr.  Grant  not  only  had  to  interfere  to  prevent  bloodshed  in  sight  of  our 
own  door,  but  a  man  was  brought  to  him  horribly  mangled,  who,  to  revenge 
some  trespass  on  his  grounds,  had  attacked  a  whole  Kurdish  village  single- 
handed,  and,  as  the  villagers  thought,  had  been  killed  by  their  daggers  ;  but  his 
friends  brought  him  a  day's  journey  over  the  mountain,  to  the  doctor,  and,  to 
their  surprise,  he  recovered  under  his  skillful  treatment.     The  summary  venge- 
ance that  is  sure  to  follow  murder,  often  holds  them  back  from  its  commission, 
but  not  always,  as   Dr.  Grant  shows  by  frequent  instances;^  and  when  the 
writer  left  Ashitha,  in  1843,  two  hours  down  the  valley,  in  Berwer,  he  found 
the  charred  ruins  of  a  village  burned  by  the  very  men  who  were  then  trembling 
lest  a  like  fate  should  befall  their  own.     When  Dr.  Grant  went  to  see  Heiyo, 
who  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  worst  man  in  Tiary,  and  whom  he  visited 
only  in  the  hope  of  conciliating  him  for  the  sake  of  the  patriarch,  with  whom  he 
was  at  variance,  and  of  the  mission  families  who  were  coming  to  live  within  his 
reach,  he  was  invited  to  call  again.     On  the  second  visit  Heiyo  received  him  in 
a  very  surly  way ;  then,  drawing  his  dagger  from  its  sheath  and  running  his  fin- 
gers along  the  edge,  hinted  how  easily  he  could  kill  and  rob  him,  while  his  cut- 
throat followers  boasted  of  their  deeds  of  blood.     But  his  courageous  visitor, 
no  way  disconcerted,  replied  :  "  I  am  your  guest,  and  you  can  do  with  me  as 
you  please ;  but  I  feel  deeply  concerned  for  you  and  for  your  people,  who  are 
drawing  down  the  wrath  of  God  on  themselves  for  their  sins  and  animosities,' 
and  provoking  him  to  deliver  them  to  their  enemies."     Heiyo  pointed  with  a 
sneer  to  the  rocks  around  him.     Nevertheless,  he  felt  the  appeal,  and  became 
reconciled  to  the  patriarch,  with  whom  he  had  long  been  at  variance.     It  is  no 
wonder  that  his  name  was  a  terror-  to  all  the  region  around,  and  not  only  a 
terror  but  an  object  of  intensest  hatred,  which  only  needed  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity to  flame  out  in  vengeance  ;  and  that  opportunity  came  at  length,  when 
the  emir  on  the  east,  and  Badir  Khan  Bey  on  the  west,  combinecl  with  the 
Turks  on  the  north  and  south,  for  the  destruction  of  his  people. 

The  same  fierceness  that  dealt  out  such  destruction  to  surrounding  Kurds, 
broke  out  in  bitterness  toward  one  another.  Heiyo  was  only  one  out  of  sev- 
eral, all  of  whom  agreed  in  nothing  but  in  the  indulgence  of  unrestrained  self- 
will,  trampling  all  else  under  foot  in  order  to  gratify  their  hate.  The  prevalence 
of  this  spirit  rendered  cooperation  impossible.  Each  sought  the  indulgence  of 
his  own  passion,  regardless  of  the  interests  of  the  rest,  and  so  they  furnished 
another  illustration  of  the  old  adage,  "  United  we  stand,  divided  we  fall." 

>  Dr.  Grant  attd  the  Mountain  Nestor ians,  p.  139. 
2See  Missionary  Herald,  1850,  p.  Sg;   1S51,  p.  56. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  355 

Dr.  Grant  saw  the  danger,  and  did  his  utmost  to  avert  it.  Heiyo  was  by  no 
means  the  only  root  of  bitterness.  Tliere  were  more  besides ;  and  as  fast  as 
the  good  missionary  succeeded  in  inducing  one  to  do  right,  another  fell  back 
into  his  evil  ways.  At  the  same  time  he  earnestly  entreated  the  patriarch  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  emir ;  but  this  involved  too  much  self-abnegation,  and 
Mar  Shimon  summoned  his  warriors  to  the  field,  only  to  find  that  they  had 
learned  to  disobey  him.  Even  his  anathema  fell  powerless,  because  it  fell 
on  almost  all  alike.  So  the  patriarch,  with  his  handful  of  followers,  could 
only  sting  and  madden  the  enemy,  without  doing  any  serious  injury.  The 
burning  of  the  bridge  at  Julamerk,  and  a  foray  from  Diss,  especially  provoked 
their  vengeance.  Still,  though  the  devoted  missionary  saw  the  inevitable  end 
to  which  all  things  were  tending,  he  could  not  bear  to  abandon  the  field.  To 
do  that  would  rob  life  of  its  sweetness,  for  his  life  was  identified  with  theirs. 

While  he  was  finishing  the  house  for  the  occupancy  of  the  missionaries 
whom  his  associate  had  gone  to  bring  in,  Badir  Khan  Bey  sent  a  band  to  rob 
the  flocks  of  the  malek  of  Chumba.  It  was  a  real  Kurdish  chappow.  Several 
lonely  shepherds  in  the  distant  pastures,  men,  women,  and  children,  were  slain, 
and  four  or  five  thousand  sheep  driven  away.  It  was  in  revenge  for  the  malek's 
steadfast  support  of  the  patriarch,  and  who  could  punish  the  bey  of  Buhtan  ? 
That  same  night  another  band  attacked  the  village  of  Halmon,  and  killing 
twelve  men  and  seven  women,  carried  off  the  last  of  their  flocks. 

Mar  Shimon  now  dismissed  his  followers,  and  sat  alone  in  Ashitha,  nursing 
his  wrath  against  the  emir,  as  the  real  aggressor,  and  against  his  own  people, 
for  their  failure  to  support  him.  He  then  turned  to  the  pasha  of  Mosul  for 
help.  But  that  official  was  linked  in  with  the  Kurds,  and  only  played  with  his 
victim,  till  the  patriarch  was  roused  to  reply,  "we  are  not  foxes  that  skulk,  but 
lions  that  fight." 

We  woke  up  one  morning  in  Ashitha,  surprised  to  find  five  armed  Kurds 
seated  in  the  room  before  our  beds,  sent  by  the  bey  of  Buhtan  to  invite  the 
doctor  to  make  a  professional  call — perhaps,  also,  to  spy  out  the  land  in 
Tiary.  Dr.  Grant,  hoping  to  be  the  means  of  good  to  the  Nestorians,  if  not  to 
their  enemy,  promised  to  go ;  and  in  the  month  of  June  fulfilled  his  promise. 
Fearlessly  he  went  alone  into  the  lion's  den;  and  was  there  an  eye-witness  of 
the  preparations  for  the  invasion,  and  heard  with  his  own  ears  the  ferocious 
exhortations  of  the  moollahs,  and  the  unconcealed  hatred  and  fanaticism  of 
the  Kurds,  who  counted  themselves  chosen  of  God  to  exterminate  the  infidels. 
He  found  it  of  no  use  to  try  to  avert  the  storm,  though  both  the  emir  and  the 
bey  assured  him  of  safety  not  only  for  himself  and  all  who  might  take  refuge 
in  his  house,  but  solemnly  engaged  that  the  whole  valley,  as  far  as  Lezan, 
should  be  spared  for  his  sake,  if  they  would  submit  to  pay  tribute  —  a  promise 
which,  however  doubted  by  Mar  Shimon,  was  sacredly  observed  to  the  letter. 

Dr.  Grant  returned  in  safety,  to  the  surprise  of  the  Nestorians,  but  not  to 
find  his  counsels  to  mutual  cooperation  any  more  effectual  than  before.  Malek 
Eerkho  now  sent  for  his  medical  services  at  Galia  Salaberka,  and  though  the 
patriarch  warned  him  how  easily  the  malek  could  secure  the  favor  of  the  Kurds 
by  his  murder,  he  went,  hoping  to  be  the  means  of  promoting  peace  between  the 


356  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

malek  and  the  patriarch.  His  disinterested  kindness  and  fearlessness  won  the 
heart  of  the  malek,  as  it  had  won  the  hearts  of  Heiyo  and  the  Kurdish  chiefs ; 
but  he  did  not  succeed  in  healing  the  divisions  of  the  people.  Every  man 
seemed  the  enemy  of  every  other.  The  malek  told  him  that  if  the  Kurds  did 
not  destroy  Ashitha  he  would  do  it  himself.  Many  opposed  Mar  Shimon 
because  he  had  assumed  a  political  power  unknown  to  his  predecessors,  and  he 
in  turn  was  angry  because  they  did  nothing  for  the  common  safety. 

Even  while  the  courageous  missionary  was  ministering  to  this  new  patient, 
the  carnage  began  in  Diss,  and  the  fugitives  who  fled,  each  alone,  from  the 
scene  of  blood,  brought  every  one  his  story  of  massacre.  The  leading  men  of 
the  tribe  were  assassinated  at  a  council  to  which  they  had  been  invited  to  dis- 
cuss terms  of  peace  ;  then  the  people,  left  without  leaders,  were  butchered  with- 
out distinction  of  age  or  sex,  to  the  number  of  eight  hundred.  The  mother  of 
the  patriarch,  who  had  shown  motherly  kindness  to  the  visitor  from  the  new 
world,  was  cut  down,  and  as  her  murderers  threw  the  mangled  body  into  the 
Zab,  it  was  with  the  bitter  taunt,  "Go,  carry  the  news  to  your  accursed  son." 
Her  son  Zadok,  who  had  often  been  Dr.  Grant's  companion  in  his  journeys,  and 
his  bright  boy,  the  heir-apparent  of  the  patriarchate,  were  also  among  the  slain. 
Three  brothers  and  an  only  sister  were  dragged  into  captivity  —  the  latter  was 
afterwards  redeemed  by  Dr.  Grant  —  and  out  of  forty  belonging  to  the  family 
of  the  malek  only  one  lived  to  tell  the  tale  of  slaughter.  The  library  of  the 
patriarchate  was  destroyed,  and  the  district  laid  waste.  Only  a  small  band 
held  a  mountain  fastness  against  the  foe. 

No  one  in  all  the  mountains  suffered  more  keenly  from  the  blow  than  Dr. 
Grant.  He  rose  from  a  sleepless  bed  to  hear  that  the  main  army  from  Buhtan 
was  advancing  from  the  northwest,  to  form  a  junction  with  those  who  had  done 
their  work  so  thoroughly  in  Diss.  Southeast  and  south  were  other  bands  of 
hostile  Kurds  in  league  with  both ;  while  a  Turkish  host  approached  from 
the  southwest.  As  long  as  he  could  help  the  people  whom  he  loved,  he  had 
known  neither  fear  nor  regard  for  his  own  comfort ;  and  had  he  known  that  he 
would  never  again  look  on  those  scenes  of  his  heroic  toil,  he  could  not  have 
staid  longer  or  turned  away  more  reluctantly.  Much  as  he  heard  and  suffered 
afterward,  in  news  of  yet  greater  carnage  and  in  meeting  with  the  remnants  of 
former  families  of  friends,  he  has  since  told  the  writer  that  nothing  equaled  the 
agony  of  that  hour.  It  seemed  as  though  his  heart  and  hopes  were  crushed 
together,  and  he  knew  the  meaning  of  that  expression,  "The  bitterness  of 
death  is  past."  He  left  by  the  same  road  that  he  first  entered  the  mountains, 
spent  the  last  night  with  the  same  aged  bishop  of  Duree  who  had  welcomed 
him  in  1839,  and,  rising  at  midnight,  he  kept  a  mountain  ridge  between  him 
and  the  Turkish  army,  and  reached  Mosul  in  safety  July  15,  1843.  God  would 
not  suffer  a  hair  of  his  head  to  be  harmed,  who  had  not  counted  his  life  dear 
to  him  for  the  sake  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  lest  those  who  came  after  should 
be  deterred  from  like  devotion. 

It  was  not  so  with  the  people  for  whom  he  had  suffered  so  much.  No 
sooner  were  the  captives  from  Diss  sent  to  Buhtan,  than  the  Kurds  under 
Badir  Khan  Bey  and  Khan  Mahmud  pushed  on  from  the  district  of  Maidan, 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  357 

and  did  not  meet  with  the  sHghtest  resistance  on  the  way.  As  they  passed 
through  a  defile,  where  three  hundred  men  could  have  hemmed  in  the  whole 
army  and  slaughtered  them  at  leisure,  Ismael  Pasha  remonstrated  against 
venturing  into  such  a  trap ;  but  the  gate  was  left  wide  open,  for  the  Nesto- 
rians  had  no  leader  ;  they  who  should  have  planned  together  planned  against 
each  other.  The  invaders  advanced  without  hindrance  to  Chumba,  where  a 
handful  of  brave  men  fought  against  overwhelming  odds  till  most  of  them  were 
slain.  The  malek,  on  whom  the  patriarch  chiefly  relied,  was  among  the-first  to 
fall.  Mr.  Layard  thus  describes  his  death  :  ^  "  After  performing  prodigies  of 
valor  in  the  defence  of  the  pass,  he  was  carried  to  a  secluded  cavern,  with  his 
thigh  broken  by  a  musket  ball ;  and  a  woman,  to  save  her  own  life,  betrayed 
his  refuge.  He  was  dragged  with  savage  exultation  before  Badir  Khan  Bey, 
and  fell  down,  of  course.  'Why  does  the  infidel  sit  in  my  presence.^'  cried 
the  ferocious  chief,  who  knew  the  cause  ;  'and  what  dog  is  this  that  has  dared 
to  shed  the  blood  of  true  believers  ? '  '  O  Mir,'  was  the  reply  of  Malek 
Ismael,  partly  raising  himself,  '  this  arm  has  slain  nearly  twenty  Kurds,  and 
had  God  spared  me,  as  many  more  had  fallen  by  it.'  Making  a  sign  in 
silence  to  his  men  to  bring  the  victim,  he  walked  to  the  Zab,  and  made  them 
hold  him  over  the  river  while  they  severed  his  head  from  his  body  and  cast 
them  both  into  the  stream."  His  wife,  with  many  others,  was  taken  captive, 
while  a  few  escaped  across  the  Zab,  and  destroyed  the  bridge  behind  them. 
His  sister,  who  stood  with  her  brother,  slew  four  men  before  she  herself  fell 
mortally  wounded;  and  when  Mr.  Layard  visited  the  place,  in  1846,  its  fields 
were  desolate,  its  groves  cut  down,  and  there  was  not  a  roof  standing  under 
which  he  could  pass  the  night. 

The  Kurds  now  passed  down  the  western  bank  of  the  Zab,  and  destroyed 
the  venerated  church  of  Mar  Sawa,  as  far  as  they  could  with  gunpowder.  This 
now  became  the  headquarters,  whence  troops  went  out  to  destroy  the  surround- 
ing villages.  The  people  of  each,  panic-stricken,  seemed  to  wait  passively  like 
prisoners  on  a  scaffold,  till  it  came  their  turn  to  pass  under  the  hands  of  the 
executioner.     They  seemed  alike  incapable  of  flight  or  of  resistance. 

One  detachment  went  up  to  Serspidho,  and  most  of  the  men  fled  to  a  lofty 
rock  for  safety,  leaving  their  wives  and  children  to  a  horrid  butchery.  Out  of 
seven  men  in  our  room  here  two  years  later,  we  found  that  six  lost  their  wives 
that  day.  The  Kurds  then  surrounded  the  rock,  and  out  of  two  hundred  only 
thirty  escaped  alive.  In  a  small  castle  to  the  south  of  the  village,  forty  more 
bravely  stemmed  the  tide  till  only  four  remained.  The  village  was  leveled ; 
out  of  twenty  deacons  only  five  survived,  and  one  priest  became  the  sole  rep- 
resentative of  three.  Mr.  Layard  says  that  out  of  eighty  houses  only  thirty 
remained,  which  involves  a  loss  of  five  hundred  out  of  a  population  of  eight 
hundred. 

This  is  only  one  of  many  similar  scenes  in  all  the  region.  The  delightful 
valley  of  Mar  Sawa  was  left  utterly  desolate ;  the  houses  and  mills  demolished, 
the  trees  cut  down,  and  horses  were  stabled  in  the  ancient  church,  which  they 
found  it  impossible  to  destroy.  It  still  stands,  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  moun- 
tains. 

'  Nirzeveh  a?td  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  p.  187. 


558  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

Before  this,  a  mountaineer  barely  lived  on  a  small  piece  of  arable  land,  with 
a  few  sheep  and  goats.  Now,  even  the  trees  were  chopped  into  lengths  that 
made  them  worthless  for  the  construction  of  new  dwellings ;  and  in  such  a 
region  one  knew  not  whether  to  pity  more  the  living  or  the  dead,  especially 
during  the  severity  of  winter. 

The  village  of  Ashitha  was  the  natural  entrance  into  the  mountains  from 
Buhtan  ;  but  while  the  rest  of  Tiary  was  laid  waste,  this  was  spared,  according 
to  the  promise  made  to  Dr.  Grant.  Badir  Khan  Bey  even  restored  to  him 
some  articles  of  personal  property  which  he  found  among  the  plunder ;  and 
Mar  Shimon  attributed  the  safety  of  that  valley  to  the  missionary  whose  good- 
ness had  compelled  the  admiration  even  of  the  Kurds.  It  was,  however,  occu- 
pied and  laid  under  tribute.  Zeiner  Bey  took  possession  of  the  mission  house, 
and  at  once  went  to  work  to  transform  it  into  a  fort.  Lime  was  substituted 
for  mud,  the  windows,  and  all  the  doors  but  one  vv'ere  built  up,  which  was  made 
strong  enough  to  resist  attack.  The  walls  were  raised  a  story  higher,  and  the 
towers  at  the  corners  commanded  the  entrance,  and  also  every  portion  of  the 
walls.  No  one  would  have  recognized  in  it  the  modest  structure  whose  place 
it  occupied.  Zeiner  Bey  and  his  Kurds  were  not  easily  endured  by  the  fierce 
men  of  Tiary,  all  unused  as  they  were  to  subjection,  and  in  October  they  made 
an  attack  on  the  castle,  under  two  leaders,  one  of  whom,  Shemasha^  Hinno, 
from  Lezan,  had  sided  with  Badir  Khan  Bey  before  the  invasion,  and  the  other. 
Kasha  ^  Jindo,  from  Salaberka,  had  taken  the  part  of  the  emir.  As  the  besieged 
were  taken  by  surprise,  they  were  soon  without  food  or  water,  and  must  have 
surrendered,  had  not  the  deacon  been  allured  inside  under  promise  of  receiv- 
ing the  property  there  stored  up,  on  condition  the  garrison  might  leave  unmo- 
lested ;  but  no  sooner  had  he  been  hoisted  up  to  the  roof  than  Zeiner  Bey 
demanded  food  and  water  or  his  life.  The  poltroon  at  once  acceded  to  the 
demand,  and  his  men  were  infatuated  enough  to  obey  his  orders.  Relief  was 
also  speedily  sent  by  Badir  Khan  Bey,  and  the  Nestorians  were  routed  with 
great  slaughter.  The  deacon  was  impaled  in  the  castle,  and  the  priest  was  put 
to  death  in  Julamerk  ;  and  now  the  Kurds  took  their  revenge  on  the  village 
which  had  joined  in  the  attack,  and  the  story  of  their  cruelties  will  never  perish 
from  the  traditions  of  Kurdistan.  Zeiner  Bey  plundered  all  there  was  to  plun- 
der, slew  such  as  resisted,  and  tortured  all  whom  he  suspected  of  concealing 
food  or  treasure.  Many  a  poor  family  lost  the  store  of  millet  or  barley  laid 
up  for  the  winter.  In  1844  we  saw  men  who  had  lost  the  use  of  their  arms  by 
the  twisting  of  the  cords  that  bound  them  behind  their  backs.  One  man  had 
lost  the  use  of  a  leg  by  similar  cruelties.  The  breasts  of  some  were  burned 
with  hot  irons,  and  others  were  suspended  by  hooks  inserted  in  their  flesh. 
These  things  were  horrid  enough,  but  others  cannot  be  told.  The  Kurds  now 
swept  down  the  valley  to  the  Zab.  Out  of  three  hundred  houses  in  Ashitha 
only  four  were  left  unburned.  Zawitha  alone  was  spared.  The  people  of 
Minyanish  and  Lezan,  even  the  women  and  children,  climbed  to  an  almost 
inaccessible  recess  in  the  cliff,  and  the  Kurds,  not  daring  to  follow,  cut  off 
their  supplies.     After  starving  for  three  days,  they  offered  to  surrender.     Zeiner 

'Deacon.  ^prjest. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY.  359 

Bey  swore  on  the  Koran  to  spare  their  lives  if  they  gave  up  their  arms;  no 
sooner  was  this  done  than  the  slaughter  began,  till,  tired  of  the  task,  and 
knee-deep  in  blood  and  slippery  bodies,  the  Kurds  forced  out  the  rest  to  fall 
a  mangled  mass  on  the  rocks  below^  Out  of  at  least  one  thousand,  hardly  one 
—  one  report  says  only  one  —  escaped.  The  foray  into  Berawola  prevented 
our  visiting  the  place  in  1S44,  but  Mr.  Layard  thus  describes  it  in  1846  : 

"  We  toiled  more  than  an  hour  up  almost  perpendicular  detritus^  crowned  a 
thousand  feet  above  by  a  wall  of  lofty  rocks.  Sometimes  we  clung  to  small 
shrubs,  W'hose  roots  scarcely  reached  down  to  the  scanty  soil ;  at  others  we 
crawled  on  hands  and  knees,  crossing  gullies,  or  carried  down  by  the  stones  we 
had  set  in  motion.  We  soon  saw  traces  of  the  slaughter.  At  first,  a  solitary 
skull  rolled  down  with  the  stones ;  then  heaps  of  blanched  bones  ;  farther  on, 
fragments  of  rotting  garments.  As  we  advanced  the  remains  became  more 
frequent.  Skeletons,  almost  entire,  were  still  entangled  in  the  dwarf  shrubs. 
Near  the  foot  of  the  cliff  the  surface  became  covered  with  bones,  mingled  with 
long  plaited  braids  of  hair,  shreds  of  discolored  linen,  and  well-worn  shoes. 
There  were  skulls  of  all  ages,  from  the  infant  to  the  toothless  old  man.  We 
could  not  avoid  treading  on  them,  and  hesitated.  '  This  is  nothing,'  cried  the 
guide.  '  Follow  me ;  these  are  only  those  who  were  thrown  from  above.'  He 
sprang  on  a  ledge  running  along  the  precipice  above  us,  and  clambered  along  its 
face,  with  the  Zab  scarcely  visible  far  below.  I  followed  till  the  ledge  was 
scarcely  wider  than  my  hand,  and  when  it  disappeared  for  three  or  four  feet 
together,  I  was  compelled  to  return,  on  account  of  lameness,  after  catching  a 
glimpse  of  an  open  platform,  or  recess,  covered  with  human  remains."  ^ 

This  was  the  last  great  slaughter  during  the  life  of  Dr.  Grant,  though  mur- 
ders and  robberies  on  a  small  scale  never  ceased.  Less  than  a  year  before 
our  visit  in  1844,  the  men  under  Zeiner  Bey  amused  themselves  by  throwing  up 
infants  and  catching  them  as  they  fell  on  the  point  of  their  daggers ;  and  the 
lives  of  the  people  were  in  constant  danger  from  those  who  deemed  it  merito- 
rious to  shed  Christian  blood.  The  day  before  we  arrived  at  Ashitha,  in  August, 
1844,  one  man  was  killed  in  Lezan.  A  few  days  after,  another  was  killed  and 
a  third  wounded.  Fifty  sheep  were  taken  from  Matha  d'  Kasra ;  and  two  days 
before  we  left  the  mountains,  three  hundred  men  were  sent  by  the  emir  to  take 
one  hundred  and  fifty  sheep  from  Berawola  —  the  only  flock  of  any  size  left  in 
Tiary ;  and  when  we  entered  the  village,  women  were  wailing  for  the  dead. 
The  Kurds  had  attacked  them  in  the  night,  killed  the  shepherd,  and  were  driv- 
ing oft  their  booty,  when  the  villagers  assailed  them  and  killed  three,  losing  two 
of  their  own  number.  The  bodies  of  the  three  invaders  lay  stark  and  stiff 
on  the  hillside.  The  rest  fled,  carrying  off  their  wounded.  The  villages  of 
Berawola  were  deserted.  In  one  house  the  cradle  was  left,  and  a  dog  howled 
at  us  as  we  passed.  The  wind  swept  moaning  by  as  we  descended  near  dusk 
from  the  bleak  ridge  of  the  mountain.  In  a  lower  village,  a  sick  priest,  unable 
to  flee  with  the  rest,  had  been  killed.  Everywhere  men  were  fleeing,  but  knew 
not  where  to  flee.  After  nine  o'clock  our  way  led  through  families  sleeping  in 
the  path,  and  from  the  bottom  of  the  glen,  in  the  moonlight,  we  could  see 
files  of  men  creeping  along  the  ledges  above  us  till  we  stopped  at  midnight. 

1  Nitieveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  164,  165. 


360  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

And  yet  Berawola  suffered  less  than  other  villages  during  the  invasion,  though 
fifty  prisoners  were  butchered  here,  and  a  rude  monument  now  marks  the  spot. 

x\s  the  men  of  Tehoma  sided  with  the  emir,  and  even  joined  with  him  in  his 
attack  on  Tiary,  they  were  spared  for  a  time;  and  when  Mr.  Layard  passed 
through  that  district,  in  September,  1846,  he  found  the  people  sitting  under 
their  own  vine  and  fig  tree,  but  with  much  to  molest  and  make  them  afraid,  for 
even  then  Badir  Khan  Bey  was  on  the  march.  The  women  were  burying  their 
ornaments,  the  priests  hiding  the  manuscripts  and  holy  vessels  of  their  churches, 
and  shortly  after  Mr.  Layard's  return  to  Mosul  he  heard  that  a  feeble  resist- 
ance was  followed  by  an  indiscriminate  massacre.  The  bey  had  sworn  that 
there  should  be  no  more  interference  from  Christian  powers,  or  ransoming  of 
captives,  and  so  the  women  were  brought  before  him  and  murdered  in  cold 
blood.  Nearly  half  the  population,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Layard,  would  be 
about  fifteen  hundred  souls,  fell  victims  to  his  fury  ;^  among  them  one  of  the 
maleks,  and  Kasha  ^  Bodaca.  Three  hundred  women  and  children,  who  were 
fleeing  over  the  desolate  mountain  pass  into  Bass,  were  overtaken  and  killed 
in  that  savage  solitude.  The  houses  and  gardens  were  destroyed,  and  the 
churches  pulled  down.  Even  when  the  fugitives  ventured  to  return,  they  were 
attacked  by  the  emir,  and  many  died  under  the  tortures  inflicted  to  compel 
them  to  reveal  their  buried  treasures,  though  in  many  cases  they  had  none  to 
reveal.  Mr.  Layard  thought  that  from  four  villages  alone,  seven  hundred  and 
seventy  perished.  Mr.  Cochran  estimated  the  population  in  1850  at  nearly  five 
thousand,  as  Dr.  Perkins  had  done  in  1849.'^ 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  whole  number  that  perished  in  the  mountains. 
When  we  passed  through,  in  1844,  there  were  only  four  houses  standing  in 
Ashitha,  and  not  one  hundred  in  all  Tiary.  Outside  Ashitha  the  ruins  were  as 
six  to  one,  and  in  Diss  even  more  than  that.  The  total  losses,  up  to  1844,  Dr. 
Smith  estimated  at  ten  thousand,  and  the  massacre  in  Tehoma  must  be  added 
to  that. 

The  high  alpine  district  of  Bass,  having  been  long  tributary  to  Nurilllah 
Be}^,  did  not  share  in  the  desolation  of  the  rest.  Its  five  villages  remained 
unharmed.  The  six  villages  of  Tall  were  tributary  to  the  same  chief,  who 
had  also  some  authority  over  the  fifteen  villages  of  Jelu ;  one  of  them,  Alson, 
containing  one  hundred  houses ;  *  Zeer  fifty  or  sixty  ;  °  and  in  Mar  Zeiya,  Yonan, 
iind  Khamis,  two  Nestorians  from  Oroomiah  preached  to  a  congregation  of 
two  thousand,  though  these  were  assembled  from  all  the  region  at  an  annual 
festival." 

The  fact  that  the  severity  of  the  blow  fell  on  only  a  part  of  the  Mountain 
Nestorians  only  shows  how  much  more  terrible  the  stroke  was  where  it  fell. 

7^//E  EXPULSION   OF   THE   CHEROKEES. 

The  history  of  combined  Turkish  and  Kurdish  oppression,  as  recorded  by 
our  missionaries,  is  full  of  sadness  ;  but  it  rouses  the  indignation  of  every  good 
man  to  read  the  missionary  record  of  American  oppression  on  our  own  terri- 

'  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  Vol.  I,  pp.  174-175.  ^  Priest. 

3  Missionary  Herald,  1S51,  p.  58.  ■•  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  p.  241. 

•i Missionary  Herald,  1S51,  p.  93.  ''Do.,  1851,  p.  93. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  36 1 

tory.  For  Turks  and  Kurds  only  acted  out  the  teachings  of  the  Koran,  which 
they  receive  as  the  word  of  God  ;  but  Americans  have  contradicted  every  pre- 
cept of  the  Gospel  in  their  treatment  of  our  Indian  tribes.  We  do  not  forget 
that  there  are  honorable  exceptions.  Nor  is  the  fact  lost  sight  of  that  manj'  of 
the  most  flagrant  wrongs  done  to  the  Indian  have  been  perpetrated  in  the  face 
of  the  energetic  protests  of  good  men,  who  did  their  utmost  to  resist,  though 
they  could  not  prevent  them.  The  whole  story  is  too  long  for  recital  in  this 
volume,  though  the  American  Board  has  been  called  to  witness  most  of  what 
has  taken  place  during  the  present  century.  Indeed,  the  crimes  have  not  yet 
all  become  things  of  the  past,  as  the  wrongs  endured  by  the  Poncas  at  this 
moment  testify ;  but  the  expulsion  of  the  Cherokees  is  selected  as  a  specimen 
of  all  these  wrongs,  both  because  it  is  so  marked,  and  because  both  the  mis- 
sionaries and  officers  of  the  American  Board  had  so  much  to  do  with  efforts  to 
avert  it.^ 

The  country  of  the  Cherokees  included  the  southeastern  section  of  the  State 
of  Tennessee,  the  northern  portions  of  Alabama  and  Georgia,  the  northwestern 
part  of  South  Carolina,  and  the  western  extremity  of  North  Carolina.  This 
country  was  theirs  from  time  immemorial.  Neither  history  nor  tradition  go 
back  to  a  period  when  it  was  not  theirs.  From  the  first  settlement  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  their  vicinity,  their  title  to  these  lands  was  acknowledged  ;  and  whenever 
a  part  was  sold,  boundaries  were  established  between  it  and  that  which  they 
retained,  and  in  the  settlement  of  these  boundaries  they  always  had  a  voice. 
In  the  year  1785  the  treaty  of  Hopewell  was  made  with  them,  by  the  then  coiv 
federated  States.  In  this  a  definite  boundary  was  established,  leaving  them 
under  their  own  government,  and  implicitly  reserving  to  them  every  right  not 
expressly  surrendered.  Then,  when  the  federal  constitution  was  adopted,  this 
treaty  became  the  supreme  law  of  the  land.  In  1791  the  United  States  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  them,  expressly  and  solemnly  guaranteeing  to  them  all  of 
their  lands  not  then  ceded  to  the  United  States.  Thirteen  treaties  were  made 
between  the  same  parties  from  that  date  till  the  year  18 19.  In  them  this  guar- 
anty was  always  implied.  It  was  expressly  repeated  in  the  one  for  1798,  and 
declared  to  be  forever.  In  these  treaties  they  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  the  United  States,  granted  the  free  navigation  of  their  rivers,  and 
the  opening  of  certain  specified  roads  through  their  territory,  ceded  large  tracts 
of  land,  and  engaged  not  to  form  compacts  with  separate  States,  or  with  indi- 
viduals ;  and  the  United  States,  on  their  part,  gave  a  perpetual  guaranty  of  all 
lands  not  ceded,  covenants  of  perpetual  peace  and  good  neighborhood,  various 
annuities,  and  help  in  the  work  of  their  civilization.  The  laws  of  the  United 
States  were  conformed  to  these  treaties.  White  intruders  into  their  territories 
were  subjected  to  severe  penalties.  They  were  even  repeatedly  expelled  by 
our  armies.  And  the  intercourse  laws  described  their  territory  as  not  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States.  Indeed,  it  was  universally  understood  that 
the  only  way  to  acquire  possession  of  any  of  their  lands  was  through  treaties 
between  them  and  our  republic.      These  were  ratified  with  the  same  solemnity 

1  The  following  statements  are  based  on  Dr.  J.  Tracy's  History  of  tlie  A.  B.  C.  F.  71/.,  and  The  Life  of 
jferemiah  Evarts,  by  Rev.  E.  C.  Tracy;  and  many  of  them  are  in  the  language  of  Mr.  Evarts. 


362  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

as  treaties  with  European  powers.  The  great  principles  to  be  observed  in 
negotiating  with  the  Indians  received  the  sanction  of  the  senate  before  being 
incorporated  in  them,  and  among  these  was  an  inviolable  guaranty  to  their 
lands,  and  in  selling  them  the  free  consent  of  the  Indians  to  terms  fairly  pro- 
posed and  fully  understood.  Of  course,  whatever  was  thus  deliberately  and 
solemnly  made  binding  on  the  United  States  was  also  binding  on  every  State 
that  belonged  to  the  union.  Moreover,  the  whole  power  of  the  United  States 
was  pledged  for  their  defense,  even  against  those  who  had  never  consented  to 
these  treaties  and  laws. 

Up  to  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  Georgia  had  made  numerous  treaties 
with  the  Indians ;  but  no  one  of  them  ever  intimated  the  right  to  dispossess  them 
beyond  the  boundary  of  their  territory.  Of  course,  when  Georgia  entered  the 
union  as  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  in  1788,  she  admitted  the  treaty  of 
Hopewell  to  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  and  engaged  to  observe  all  future 
treaties  as  equally  authoritative.  Nor  that  only,  but  the  compact  between 
Georgia  and  the  United  States,  in  1802,  which  her  legislature  declared  to  be 
binding  on  all  her  citizens  forever,  debars  her  from  extinguishing  an  Indian 
title,  except  as  a  consequence  of  treaties  negotiated  by  the  United  States  with 
the  Indians.  And  it  is  on  record  that,  up  to  1826,  she  repeatedly  urged  the 
general  government  to  purchase  Indian  lands  for  her  by  treaty.  Nor  did  she 
intimate  any  possibility  of  acquiring  them  in  any  other  way.  It  was  thus  that 
she  acquired  fifteen  million  of  acres  from  the  Creeks  and  Cherokees,  and  they 
are  described  in  her  statute-books  as  acquired  for  her  by  the  United  States 
through  treaties  with  these  nations  ;  and  her  governors  up  to  1825  issued  their 
proclamations  declaring  these  treaties  to  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land.  Is 
it  said  these  are  not  /?ona  Ji(/e  tvezties  ?  They  have  all  the  attributes  of  treaties. 
The  word  has  always  been  applied  to  them,  and  the  treaty-making  power  alone 
can  decide  what  is  or  is  not  a  treaty,  and  having  decided  that  a  certain  com- 
pact is  a  treaty,  there  is  no  power  known  to  the  constitution  that  can  declare 
that  it  is  not  so.  The  treaties  with  the  Cherokees  were  negotiated  under  the 
first  five  presidents  of  the  United  States,  and  ratified  by  every  senate  for  thirty 
years.  Appropriations  to  cany  them  out  were  also  made  by  every  house  of 
representatives.  By  them,  at  a  critical  period  of  our  national  history,  we  were 
saved  from  a  protracted  Indian  war,  and  our  frontiers  protected  from  the  hor- 
rors of  Indian  invasion.  Also  by  them  we  acquired  large  tracts  of  valuable 
land,  which  now  sustain  a  population  of  hundreds  of  thousands ;  while  the 
Cherokees  retained  but  a  small  part  of  their  original  domain,  and  that  the  least 
valuable. 

To  violate  such  engagements,  then,  while  the  Cherokees  were  living  in  amity 
with  us,  and  giving  no  ground  of  complaint,  was  a  frightful  compound  of  perfidy 
and  wrong  ;  a  breach  of  plighted  faith  unparalleled  in  history,  and  yet  precisely 
this  was  the  course  pursued  by  the  State  of  Georgia. 

The  increase  of  the  white  population  near  the  Cherokee  border  led  to  efforts 
to  acquire  more  Indian  lands ;  at  the  same  time  the  rapid  civilization  of  the 
Cherokees  led  to  the  apprehension  that  it  would  soon  be  impossible  to  pur- 
chase any  more  ;  hence,  from   1820  to  1827,  efforts  were  constantly  made  to 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY.  363 

obtain  all  the  remaining  Indian  lands  within  the  State.  The  lands  of  the 
Creek  Indians  were  secured  by  a  process  of  fraud,  bribery,  and  unmanly  threats, 
that  reflected  no  honor  on  its  authors.  But  the  Cherokees  positively  refused 
to  sell  another  foot  of  land,  and  in  December,  1827,  the  legislature  of  Georgia 
resorted  to  a  new  mode  of  warfare.  They  proclaimed  that  the  Cherokees  had 
no  title  to  their  territory ;  that  they  were  mere  tenants  at  will  ;  and  that  Geor- 
gia might  take  possession  whenever  she  pleased.  A  long  report,  embodying 
such  assumptions,  was  adopted  by  both  branches  of  the  legislature,  and 
the  governor  did  not  scruple  to  approve  and  communicate  it  officially  to  the 
president  of  the  United  States.  No  material  action  was  taken  during  the  last 
year  of  Mr.  Adams'  administration,  but  on  the  i8th  of  April,  1829,  the  secre- 
tary of  war  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Cherokee  deputation,  announcing  that  all 
Indians  within  the  boundaries  of  a  State  were  subject  to  that  State,  and  the 
president  had  no  power  to  protect  them.  This  announcement,  so  contradictory 
to  all  previous  history,  and  to  the  treaties  in  their  hands  bearing  the  seal  of 
the  United  States,  fell  on  the  Cherokees  like  a  thunderbolt.  They  appealed  to 
congress  for  protection  from  the  outrage;  for  in  December,  1828,  the  legisla- 
ture of  Georgia  had  passed  an  act  to  extend  the  laws  of  Georgia  over  the 
Cherokees  residing  within  its  limits,  to  take  effect  from  June  i,  1830.  No 
such  course  had  been  pursued  in  the  country  before ;  nor  had  any  State,  up 
to  this  moment,  claimed  the  right  of  driving  peaceable  Indians  from  their 
possessions  in  order  to  divide  them  among  its  own  people.  But  even  that  does 
not  measure  the  depth  of  the  infamy  to  which  Georgia  descended. 

The  report  of  the  joint  committee  of  the  legislature,  approved  by  the  senate 
December  27,  1827,  affirms  that  European  nations  "asserted  successfully  the 
right  of  occupying  such  parts  "  of  America  "  as  each  discovered,  and  thereby 
established  their  supreme  command  over  it."  To  use  its  own  language:  "It 
maybe  contended  that  in  these  claims  is  more  oi  force  th:in  justice ;  but  they 
have  been  admitted  by  the  whole  civilized  world,  and  it  is  unquestionably  true 
that,  under  such  circumstances, y2?rr^  becomes  rights 

Again  :  "  It  may  be  contended  that  by  the  compact  of  1802  a  consideration 
was  to  be  paid  by  the  United  States  to  the  Indians  for  their  relinquishment  of 
this  title,  and  therefore  it  was  entitled  to  respect,  and  could  not  be  taken  from 
them  unless  by  their  consent ;  but  we  are  of  a  different  opinion." 

Again:  "  Before  the  compact  of  1802  Georgia  could  rightfully  have  taken 
those  lands,  either  by  iiegotiation  or  hy  force,  and  had  determined  in  one  of  the 
two  ways  to  do  so  ;  and  by  this  contract  she  made  it  the  duty  of  the  United 
States  to  meet  the  cost  of  obtaining  them,  provided  it  could  be  done  by  nego- 
tiation ;  but,  in  case  force  was  needed,  by  making  no  provision  for  that,  Georgia 
is  left  at  full  liberty  to  prosecute  her  rights  according  to  her  own  discretion, 
as  though  no  such  contract  had  been  made." 

Again  :  The  committee  asserted  "that  the  right  of  soil  and  sovereignty  was 
perfect  in  Great  Britain  ;  that  the  possession  of  the  Indians  was  permissive  ; 
that  their  title  was  temporary  ;  that  they  were  mere  tenants  at  will ;  and  that  it 
might  be  determined  at  any  moment,  either  by  negotiation  or  by  force." 

These  are  their  own  words,  stripped  in  a  few  places  of  superfluous  verbiage, 
and  the  italics  are  their  own. 


364  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Jeremiah  Evarts,  Esq.,  then  secretary  of  the  American  Board,  and  father  of 
our  late  secretary  of  state,  says  of  these  extracts  :  "  It  is  hard  to  tell  which  is 
most  remarkable,  their  reasoning  or  their  morality."'  One  specimen  of  their 
logic  is,  that  as  the  compact  of  1802  does  not  bind  the  United  States  to  use 
force  against  the  Indians,  therefore,  Georgia  has  the  right  to  use  it  whenever 
she  pleases.  Another  is,  that  as  the  Cherokees  were  to  receive  a  consideration 
for  their  lands,  therefore  they  must  have  a  title  that  should  command  respect, 
and  therefore  the  committee  comes  to  the  opposite  conclusion. 

The  morality  of  the  document  appears  in  the  broad  position  that  discovery 
gave  absolute  title  to  Europeans,  making  the  title  of  the  real  owners  no  title  at 
all ;  and  that  as  all  Europeans  agree  in  the  principle  that  the  discoverer  may 
terminate  the  occupation  of  the  owners  at  any  moment,  by  force  or  otherwise, 
therefore /one  becotnes  right.  It  is  to  be  inferred,  then,  that  Cortes  and  Pizarro 
did  perfectly  right  to  seize  on  the  possessions  which  the  king  of  Spain  thus 
held  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  though  to  do  this  involved  the  unpleasant  necessity 
of  murdering  the  original  inhabitants. 

Mr.  Evarts  goes  on  to  say:  The  committee  are  entirely  mistaken  when 
they  say  that  "every  foot  of  land  in  the  United  States  is  held  "  by  such  a  title. 
On  the  contrary,  there  is  not  within  the  bounds  of  the  United  States,  as  fixed 
by  the  peace  of  1783,  a  single  foot  of  land  held  as  against  the  original  inhabit- 
ants, by  the  title- of  discovery  alone.  The  largest  part  of  it  has  been  purchased 
of  them,  and  only  a  small  part  has  been  conquered.  But  even  in  this  last 
case,  war  has  not  been  waged  merely  to  enforce  the  title  of  discovery.  The 
politicians  of  Georgia  are  challenged  to  produce  a  single  instance  in  our  Anglo- 
American  colonies  where  an  English  king,  or  colonial  governor,  or  any  legisla- 
ture whatsoever,  previous  to  1825,  took  forcible  possession  of  an  Indian 
country  by  the  right  of  discovery,  without  regard  to  what  our  supreme  court 
calls  "  the  just  and  legal  claim  "  of  the  natives  to  retain  their  lands.  The  exclu- 
sive right  of  extinguishijig  the  Indiafi  title  is  something  totally  different  from  the 
right  of  discovery.  But  even  if  all  the  governments  of  Europe  had  for  three 
centuries  held  this  doctrine  of  Georgia,  no  defense  could  make  it  otherwise 
than  atrocious  and  detestable.  Not  all  the  power  and  sophistry  on  earth  could 
make  it  entitled  to  the  least  respect.  What  is  this  doctrine  so  necessary  to 
Georgia?  It  is  that  an  English  vessel  sailing  along  the  American  coast  gives 
the  king  of  England  an  absolute  title  not  to  the  coast  only,  but  to  the  whole 
interior,  so  that  he  may  commission  any  of  his  subjects  to  destroy  the  original 
inhabitants  and  take  forcible  possession.  Eor  more  than  two  hundred  years 
the  powers  of  Europe  legalized  the  slave  trade,  and  the  judicial  tribunals  of 
all  countries  sustained  it ;  but  did  that  make  it  right  ?  It  is  now  piracy,  and 
to  be  connected  with  it  is  infamy;  and  in  its  intrinsic  nature  it  never  was 
otherwise. 

Is  it  said  that  this  puts  the  case  too  strongly.'  Read  the  law  approved 
December  20,  1S28,  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  Georgia  over  the  Cherokees. 

Section  nine  reads  thus  :  "That  no  Indian,  or  descendant  of  Indians,  resid- 

iThe  remarks  which  follow  are  so  much  condensed  from  the  original  argument  that  it  would  hardly  be  fair  to- 
Mr.  Evarts  to  use  quotation  marks. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY.  365- 

ing  within  the  Creek  or  Cherokee  nations  of  Indians,  shall  be  deemed  a  com- 
petent witness,  or  a  party  to  any  suit  in  any  court  created  by  the  constitution 
or  laws  of  this  State,  to  which  a  white  man  may  be  a  party." 

Under  this  law,  a  white  man  might  rob  or  murder  a  Cherokee,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  whole  nation,  and  yet  the  offense  could  not  be  proved ;  and  the 
abuses  and  vexations  growing  out  of  such  a  law  would  render  Indian  life  intol- 
erable. The  plan  of  Georgia,  as  expounded  by  her  senate,  was  to  seize  five 
sixths  of  the  Cherokee  land,  and  distribute  it  among  her  citizens.  If  an  Indian 
remained,  he  had  no  rights ;  his  own  land  was  a  boon  that  might  be  taken  from 
him  at  any  moment.  His  neighbors  were  not  orderly  citizens,  but  the  idle, 
drunken,  and  quarrelsome,  who  hated  Indians,  and  seized  every  opportunity  to 
abuse  them.  If  his  cattle  were  driven  away  before  his  eyes ;  if  his  fences  were 
thrown  down,  and  his  crops  destroyed  ;  if  his  children  were  beaten,  or  his  wife  out- 
raged, he  could  not  even  seek  the  protection  of  law.  He  could  neither  be  party 
nor  witness.  Even  the  slaves  had  friends  in  their  masters,  but  he  had  none. 
He  was  a  friendless  outcast  in  his  own  home,  and  that  through  no  fault  of  his. 
He  was  a  vagabond  on  the  land  he  had  subdued  from  the  forest ;  an  outlaw 
in  his  own  house  which  he  had  builded  ;  an  alien  in  his  native  land,  made  so  by 
men  whom  he  had  welcomed  with  hospitality  and  treated  with  kindness. 

Who  were  these  thus  abused  ?  Nude  Hottentots  skulking  through  the  forests  ^ 
runaway  slaves  ?  malefactors  whose  hands  are  reeking  with  blood  ?  Even  if 
Hottentots,  they  should  be  treated  kindly.  If  ruffians,  they  should  be  tried 
before  the  courts  in  a  regular  way.  The  innocent  should  not  suffer  with  the 
guilty,  nor  even  the  guilty  be  punished  without  a  trial.  But  these  were  neither 
savages  nor  criminals.  Their  only  crime  was  that  they  owned  lands  which 
their  neighbors  coveted.  They  were  peaceful  farmers ;  better  clothed  and 
housed,  through  their  own  exertions,  than  many  of  the  peasantry  of  Europe. 
They  were  men  who  had  held  diplomatic  relations  with  our  country  from  the 
first ;  who  had  not  broken  the  peace  by  an  act  of  hostility  for  forty  years  ;  who 
had  done  nothing  to  forfeit  the  guaranties  assured  to  them  in  treaties  over  and 
over  again  ;  men  who,  in  raising  themselves  up,  under  missionary  instruction,  to 
a  high  state  of  civilization,  had  a  right  to  the  aid  and  sympathy  of  all  the  good ; 
who  had  a  regularly  organized  government  of  their  own,  with  legislative, 
judicial,  and  executive  departments ;  a  majority  of  whom  could  read  their  own 
language,  and  many  of  them  ours  in  addition ;  whose  public  documents  need 
not  shun  comparison  with  those  emanating  from  our  own  highest  functionaries  ; 
above  all  —  "fellow-citizens  with  the  saints,  and  of  the  household  of  God," 
through  the  labors  of  American  missionaries.  These  were  the  men  whom 
the  State  of  Georgia  treated  as  worse  than  felons.  These  were  the  men  not 
even  allowed  to  live  under  law,  but  made  outlaws  in  the  land  of  their  fathers. 

And  who  were  they  who  inflicted  this  wrong.?  Was  it  an  Asiatic  despotism, 
sinking  under  the  crimes  of  the  past  and  the  corruption  of  the  present  ?  No. 
It  was  a  government  that  sprung  into  being  declaring  that  "  all  men  are  created 
equal.  That  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  witli  certain  inalienable  rights, 
and  that   among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness." 

These  burning  words  were  only  a  few  of  those  penned  by  Mr.  Evarts,  in  his 


366  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

eloquent  appeals  to  government,  and  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Ke 
wrote  memorials  to  congress.  He  published  essays  in  leading  periodicals. 
He  issued  them  in  pamphlet  form.  He  aided  the  Cherokees  to  give  utterance 
to  their  deep  sense  of  cruel  wrong.  He  edited  a  volume  of  speeches  on  the 
subject  in  congress  by  such  men  as  Theodore  Frelinghuysen,  Edward  Everett, 
and  others.  There  was  nothing  in  his  power  that  he  did  not  do,  and  do 
well ;  but  it  was  all  in  vain.  President  Jackson  took  ground  against  the 
Indians,  and  his  followers  made  it  a  party  measure.  They  could  neither  hear 
truth  or  do  justice,  they  could  only  sustain  the  party ;  so  the  government  of 
the  United  States  sided  with  Georgia,  and  shared  in  the  guilt  of  her  inexcus- 
able oppression.  May  26,  1829,  the  house  passed  the  Indian  bill,  by  a  strict 
party  vote,  and  two  hours  later  the  senate  concurred  in  the  amendments,  and 
the  bill  was  ready  for  the  signature  of  President  Jackson. 

The  toils  and  anxieties  of  Mr.  Evarts,  in  connection  with  the  effort  to  pre- 
vent this  public  injustice,  doubtless  hastened  his  death  ;  but  after  that  the  great 
wrong  still  went  on. 

And  here  let  us  go  back  a  little,  that  our  understanding  of  the  case  may  be 
more  intelligent.  Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  compact  of  the  United  States 
with  Georgia,  in  1802,  and  the  reader  may  have  queried  how  the  general  gov- 
ernment could  form  a  compact  with  a  State  already  a  part  of  itself.  It  was 
in  this  way :  The  State  of  Georgia  had  claimed  all  the  territory  between  its 
own  western  border  and  the  Mississippi,  and,  after  selling  large  portions  of  it 
to  individuals,  had  repealed  the  law  under  which  the  sales  were  made,  destroyed 
the  public  records  relating  to  it,  and  declared  all  the  titles  it  had  given,  and 
for  which  it  had  been  paid,  null  and  void.  We  do  not  stop  to  comment  on  the 
morality  of  this,  though  the  State  that  could  thus  defraud  its  own  citizens  and 
others  could  not  be  expected  to  deal  justly  with  the  Indians  within  its  borders. 
The  defrauded  whites,  however,  had  a  standing  in  the  courts  ;  and  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  decided,  as  in  duty  bound,  that  Georgia  could  not, 
by  the  trick  of  repealing  her  own  law,  deprive  men  of  lands  which  they  had 
legally  bought  and  paid  for.  To  procure  means  to  meet  the  claims  made  by 
this  decision,  Georgia  ceded  to  the  United  States  her  title  to  that  territory,  and 
the  United  States  agreed  to  pay  one  and  a  quarter  millions  of  dollars  from  the 
first  net  proceeds  of  its  sale,  and  also  to  extinguish,  for  the  use  of  Georgia,  as 
soon  as  it  could  be  done  peaceably  and  on  reasonable  terms,  the  Indian  title  to 
all  lands  within  that  State.  This  was  the  famous  compact  of  1802 ;  and  in  ful- 
fillment of  it  the  United  States  bought  the  more  valuable  lands  of  the  Cherokees, 
leaving  the  rest  in  their  possession.  Meanwhile,  from  a  tribe  of  hunters,  they 
had  become  a  nation  of  farmers,  and  refused  to  sell  any  more  land ;  they  even 
enacted  a  law  to  put  to  death  any  chief  who  should  attempt  it,  and  we  shall  see 
hereafter  how  this  law  was  carried  out  to  the  letter.  The  population  of  the 
State  at  this  time  was  only  seven  to  the  square  mile  ;  yet  money  could  be  made 
by  trading  in  these  lands,  and  it  was  proposed  to  take  possession  of  them,  and 
distribute  them  in  small  lots  among  her  citizens  by  lottery,  thus  appealing  to 
the  avarice  of  every  voter,  though  one  wonders  that  their  sense  of  justice  could 
allow  avarice  to  reveal  itself  so  shamelessly.     The  politicians  favored  the  meas- 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  367 

ure  in  order  to  secure  election,  and  the  State  charged  the  general  govern- 
ment with  bad  faith  in  not  having  removed  the  Indians.  The  reelection  ol: 
Mr.  Adams  was  opposed  on  the  ground  that  he  had  not  done  this,  and  General 
Jackson  gave  the  measure  his  decided  support.  Then  the  State  law  of  Decem- 
ber 20,  1828,  was  passed,  to  extend  jurisdiction  over  the  Cherokees  after 
June  I,  1830,  in  the  manner  alread}'  stated.  Against  this  the  Cherokees 
remonstrated  to  the  president,  but  he  replied  that  he  could  not  interfere. 
Encouraged  by  this,  Alabama  and  Mississippi  enacted  similar  laws,  with  the 
avowed  object  of  making  the  condition  of  the  Indians  so  intolerable  that  they 
would  be  compelled  to  leave. 

At  this  time  the  American  Board  "  Resolved,  that  from  the  peculiar  relation 
in  which  these  unoffending  and  defenceless  Indians  stand  to  this  Board,  we 
feel  it  to  be  our  indispensable  duty,  at  this  crisis  of  their  destiny,  to  express  our 
sympathy  in  their  distressed  condition,  and  also  our  deep  sense  of  the  solemnity 
of  the  obligations  which  treaties,  superadded  to  the  claims  of  natural  justice, 
have  imposed  on  the  government  of  our  country  in  their  behalf ;  and  we  ear- 
nestly implore  the  blessing  of  Almighty  God  to  enlighten,  and  to  guide,  the 
deliberations  of  the  constituted  authorities  of  our  country,  so  as  to  secure  the 
just  rights  of  the  Indians,  and  preserve  the  faith  and  honor  of  the  government." 
The  prudential  committee  also  memorialized  congress  on  the  effect  such  pro- 
ceedings would  have  on  the  religious  improvement  of  the  Indians. 

But  the  people  of  Georgia  were  determined  to  have  the  land,  and  to  secure 
this  they  first  sought  to  get  rid  of  the  missionaries  who  stood  in  the  way.  So 
they  enacted  a  law  that  "all  white  men  residing  on  the  Cherokee  lands  in 
Georgia,  after  the  first  day  of  March  next  ensuing,  without  taking  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  State,  and  obtaining  a  license  from  the  governor,  should  be 
considered  guilty  of  a  high  misdemeanor ;  and  on  conviction  be  imprisoned  in 
the  penitentiary  at  hard  labor  for  not  less  than  four  years."  Copies  of  this  law 
were  sent  to  all  the  missionaries  in  January,  but  they  went  on  with  their  labors 
as  usual.  In  March,  a  colonel  of  the  Georgia  Guard,  with  twenty-five  men, 
without  warrant  from  any  court,  took  Mr.  Isaac  Proctor,  Rev.  S.  A.  Worcester, 
and  Rev,  John  Thompson,  prisoners,  and  removed  them  to  Camp  Gilmer. 
The  two  last  were  taken  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  before  the  superior  court, 
where  able  counsel  moved  for  their  release  on  the  ground  that  the  law  was 
unconstitutional.  Judge  Clayton,  however,  overruled  the  motion,  but  released 
them  on  the  ground  that  Mr.  Worcester  was  postmaster,  and  all  of  them  were 
expending  United  States  funds  for  the  civilization  of  the  Indians.  Dr.  Elizur 
Butler  was  also  arrested  in  May,  but  released  on  his  promise  to  appear  at  the 
camp. 

The  governor  now  wrote  to  the  secretary  of  war  to  know  whether  the  gov- 
ernment considered  the  missionaries  its  agents ;  and  though  he  did  not  receive 
a  direct  reply,  he  wrote  to  the  missionaries  that  sufficient  evidence  had  been 
obtained  to  decide  that  they  were  not  the  agents  of  government,  and  required 
them  to  leave  the  country  "with  as  little  delay  as  possible,"  under  penalty  of 
another  arrest  3  but  they  replied  that  they  could  not  in  conscience  obey  the 
mandate. 


-568  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Tune  2  2,  Col.  Nelson,  with  a  detachment  of  the  Guard,  came  to  the  house 
of  Mr.  Thompson,  and  claimed  house,  land,  and  crops,  as  the  property  of 
Georgia.  Mr.  Thompson  replied,  in  writing,  that  they  could  not  occupy  it  with 
his  consent.  He  was  at  once  arrested,  and  driven  fifty  miles  through  forests 
and  swamps,  to  Camp  Gilmer.  Though  sick,  and  in  pain,  he  was  not  allowed 
to  ride  his  own  horse,  but  compelled  to  walk  till  he  broke  down,  and  a  part  of 
the  time  he  was  chained.  After  he  had  been  a  few  minutes  in  jail,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Guard  summoned  him  to  his  presence,  reproved  him,  denounced 
the  missionaries,  and  then  dismissed  him,  assigning  no  reason  either  for  his 
arrest  or  dismission,  nor  making  any  provision  for  his  return. 

Julv  7  Mr.  Worcester  was  again  arrested,  taken  by  military  force  ten 
miles,  to  a  place  where  a  Methodist  missionary  and  a  Cherokee  were  also 
under  guard,  and  from  thence  he  was  made  to  walk  twenty-two  miles.  Another 
Methodist  minister,  whom  they  met,  was  arrested  and  made  to  walk  with  the 
rest,  while  the  sergeant  in  charge  reviled  ministers  and  missionaries  in  the 
most  profane  and  scurrilous  language.  Then  at  night  the  prisoners  were 
chained  together  in  pairs,  by  the  ankles.  They  were  now  joined  by  Dr. 
Butler,  who  was  brought  there  in  fetters,  one  end  of  the  chain  fastened  round 
the  neck  of  a  horse  and  the  other  round  his  own.  Going  at  night  through  the 
forest  in  this  condition  he  was  liable  to  fall  and  be  strangled  by  his  bonds. 
That  night  he  was  chained  by  the  ankle  to  his  bedstead,  and  next  day  walked 
and  rode  alternately  thirty-five  miles  with  the  same  kind  of  fastening  to  the 
horse  as  before.  Two  more  days  of  journeying  in  this  style  ended  in  the  jail  at 
Camp  Gilmer.  This  had  neither  chair,  bench,  or  table,  and  no  one  was  allowed 
to  converse  with  them,  or  to  receive  any  writing  from  them  till  it  had  been 
inspected  by  Col.  Nelson.  After  eleven  days  they  were  released  on  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  though  while  they  were  before  the  court  Commander  Sanford 
received  a  letter  from  the  governor,  directing  him  to  re-arrest  them  should  they 
be  discharged.  In  August  the  infant  daughter  of  Mr.  Worcester  died,  and 
when  he  went  to  visit  his  family  he  was  decoyed  to  the  door  by  one  of  the 
Guard  in  disguise,  and  re-arrested ;  but  Col.  Nelson,  on  learning  the  circum- 
stances, could  not  for  very  shame  detain  him. 

In  September  they  were  tried  for  residing  in  the  country  of  the  Cherokees 
without  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Georgia.  The  jury  brought  in  a  ver- 
dict of  guilty,  and  Judge  Clayton  sentenced  them  to  hard  labor  in  the  peniten- 
tiary for  four  years.  On  their  arrival  at  Milledgeville,  Governor  Gilmer  directed 
the  inspectors  of  the  penitentiary  to  try  each  of  them  to  see  if  they  would 
accept  a  pardon  and  promise  to  leave  the  State.  This  showed  that  the  object 
of  the  governor  was  simply  to  get  them  out  of  the  way,  so  that  the  Cherokees 
mio-ht  be  oppressed  without  interference  from  the  missionaries.  But  they  made 
up  their  minds  they  would  neither  accept  pardon  when  innocent  of  crime,  nor 
would  they  leave  the  few  sheep  in  the  wilderness  to  the  wolves ;  and  so  they 
entered  the  prison,  though  some  of  their  fellow-convicts  gave  the  required 
promise  and  were  at  once  released.  But  it  was  not  in  the  power  of  the  governor 
to  make  them  regarded  as  felons.  Even  the  prison  keepers,  though  obliged 
to  obey  their  superiors,  treated  them  with  kindness  and  respect,  and  their  fel- 


CONTRIBUTIONS   TO    HISTORY.  369 

low-prisoners  did  the  same.  When  any  unpleasant  work  was  to  be  done,  some 
of  the  rest  begged  the  privilege  of  doing  it  in  their  stead.  Still,  they  performed 
their  full  share  of  labor,  and  refused  every  indulgence  that  would  distinguish 
them  invidiously  from  the  other  prisoners.  Some  of  these,  indeed,  through 
the  labors  of  the  missionaries,  gave  evidence  of  having  become  true  disciples 
of  the  Lord  Jesus.  Many  of  the  Cherokees  wrote  to  the  missionaries,  sent 
them  money,  and  contributed  to  their  comfort  in  every  possible  way.  Ecclesi- 
astical bodies  passed  resolutions  approving  their  course,  and  "  prayer  was  made 
without  ceasing  of  the  Church  unto  God  for  them." 

As  the  mission  had  been  established  with  the  express  sanction  and  coopera- 
tion of  the  president  of  the  United  States,  the  prudential  committee  addressed 
a  memorial  to  the  executive,  narrating  these  unlawful  deeds,  asking  protection 
for  the  missionaries  and  mission  property,  and  requesting  that  the  attorney-gen- 
eral be  directed  to  commence  a  suit  in  the  supreme  court  against  the  offenders. 
The  president  replied  to  this,  as  he  had  done  to  the  Cherokees,  that  as  Georgia 
had  extended  her  laws  over  the  Cherokee  country,  the  laws  of  congress  became 
inoperative,  and  he  had  no  authority. 

The  case  was  brought  by  a  writ  of  error  before  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  and  argued  by  William  Wirt  and  John  Sargent.  Chief  Justice  Marshall 
decided  in  favor  of  the  missionaries,  declaring  the  laws  of  Georgia,  extending  her 
jurisdiction  over  the  Cherokee  country,  repugnant  to  the  constitution,  treaties, 
and  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  therefore  null  and  void.  The  mandate  of 
the  court  was  issued,  reversing  the  judgment  of  the  superior  court  of  Georgia, 
and  ordering  that  all  proceedings  on  the  indictment  against  the  missionaries 
"do  forever  surcease."  Friends  in  that  court  moved  that  this  mandate  of  the 
supreme  court  be  received  and  recorded,  and  the  prisoners  discharged ;  but  the 
court  refused,  and  to  prevent  a  record  of  the  refusal  being  carried  up  to  the 
supreme  court,  refused  even  to  allow  its  decision  to  be  recorded.  But  the  affi- 
davit of  Mr.  Chester,  certified  by  the  judge,  was  sworn  before  him  and  sent. 
The  governor  also,  to  whom  Mr.  Chester  applied  by  letter  to  discharge  the 
prisoners,  refused  to  answer  in  writing.  To  such  pitiful  shifts  were  the  leaders 
in  this  crime  reduced  in  carrying  out  their  purpose.  A  law  of  Georgia  now 
forbade  the  continuance  of  the  Cherokee  government.  An  armed  force  pre- 
vented the  meeting  of  the  national  council,  and  the  land  was  divided  into  one- 
hundred-and-forty-acre  lots,  to  be  distributed  by  lottery.  White  men  crowded 
into  the  country  to  take  possession  of  unoccupied  lots,  even  before  the  lottery 
was  drawn.  Whiskey  was  brought  in  with  them.  Many  of  the  disheartened 
Indians  fell  before  the  temptation,  and  some  five  hundred  emigrated  to  the 
West. 

About  this  time  the  doctrine  of  the  right  of  a  State  to  "nullify"  a  law  of  the 
United  States  within  its  limits  prevailed  in  South  Carolina.  A  legislative  con- 
vention in  that  State  forbade  the  revenue  laws  of  the  United  States  to  be 
enforced,  and  threatened  that  the  State  would  withdraw  from  the  union  if  the  gen- 
eral government  should  attempt  to  enforce  them  ;  and  the  State  made  prepara- 
tions to  sustain  this  movement  by  force  of  arms.  If  now  the  missionaries  pressed 
their  suit,  it  was  feared  that  Georgia  would  join  the  "nuUifiers,"  and  that  Ala- 

24 


■370  ^  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

bam  a  and  Mississippi  would  do  the  same.  As  things  were,  should  the  presi- 
dent sustain  the  supreme  court,  all  those  States  would  unite  in  opposition. 
Should  he,  on  the  other  hand,  allow  Georgia  to  carry  her  point,  that  would 
strengthen  South  Carolina.  So,  to  prevent  the  missionaries  pressing  their  suit, 
the  governor  sent  men  to  intimate  to  them  that  if  they  would  withdraw  it  they 
would  be  discharged  unconditionally.  Another  agent  of  the  governor  gave  the 
same  assurance  "unofficially"  to  Mr.  Wirt. 

It  was  certain  that  even  if  President  Jackson  released  the  missionaries  he 
would  not  protect  the  Cherokees.      So,  to  save  their  country  from  the  prospect 
of  a  civil  war,  the  missionaries  concluded,  after  consulting  with  their  friends, 
not  to  press  their  suit,  and  in  their  letter  to  the  governor  informing  him  of  the 
fact,  they  added  :  "  We  beg  leave  respectfully  to  state  to  your  excellency  that 
we  have  not  been  led  to  this  by  any  change  of  views,  or  by  any  doubt  of  the 
justice  of  our  cause,  or  of  our  perfect  right  to  a  legal  discharge  in  accordance 
with  the  decision  of  the  supreme  court ;  but  by  the  apprehension  that  to  go 
further,  under  existing  circumstances,  might  be  attended  with  consequences 
injurious  to  our  beloved  country."     This  the  governor  deemed  disrespectful  to 
the  State  authorities,  and  wished  them  to  disclaim  any  disrespectful  intention  ! 
They  consented  also  to  that,  and  were  accordingly  released  ;  though  without 
any  written  discharge,  but  by  a  proclamation,  stating  that  they  had  appealed  to 
the  magnanimity  of  the  State,  and  been  set  at  liberty  —  after  having  been  in 
prison  for  the  crime  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  Cherokees  without  a  permit 
from  the  governor  of  Georgia,  from  September  22,  183  i,  till  January  14,  1833  ! 
Though  foiled  in  their  attempt  to  drive  away  the  missionaries,  the  authori- 
ties of  Georgia  continued  the  work  of  driving  away  the  Cherokees.      Partly  by 
force  and  partly  b^^  fraud,  Dr.  Butler  was  driven  from  Haweis,  and  the  mission 
premises  at  New  Echota  were  seized  by  the  State,  for  a  claimant  under  the 
lottery.     In  1835,  many  of  the  Cherokees,  wearied  out  by  the  oppression  of 
Georgia,  removed  into  those  parts  of  their  territory  that  lay  in  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee,  and  a  small  party  in  the  nation,  under  the  lead  of  the  Ridge 
family  and  Elias  Boudinot,  were  in  favor  of  ceding  their  lands  and  going  West; 
but  the  great  body  of  the  nation  stood  firm  in  their  determination  to  remain. 
In  1837,  so  many  Georgians  crowded  in  around  Carmel  that  that  station  had  to 
be  given  up,  and  also  the  station  at  Creek  Path,  for  the  same  reason,  though  the 
people  clung  to  Brainerd,  or  Chickamauga,  the  oldest  of  the  stations,  and  could 
not  be  driven  from  it  by  any  means.      In  1838,  the  United  States  chose  to  call 
the  agreement  they  had  made  with  the  Ridge  party,  in  1835,  a  treaty  with  the 
nation,  though  it  was  distinctly  repudiated  by  them  at  the  time,  despite  all  the 
efforts  of  Rev.  J.  F.  Schermerhorn  to  induce  them  to  adopt  it.     Their  delega- 
tion at  Washington  protested  against  it,  but  in  vain.     It  was  the  old  story;  "in 
the  hand  of  their  oppressors  there  was  power,"  and  the  weak  were  driven  to  the 
wall.     They  had  always  declared  that  they  would  never  leave  their  country 
under  that  pretence  of  a  treaty,  except  by  the  use  of  force,  and  during  the  early 
part  of  1838  some  thousands  of  United  States  troops  were  sent  into  their  coun- 
try.    Even  then  they  continued  their  preparations  for  the  summer  crops ;  but 
in  the  spring  Gen.  Winficld   Scott  was  sent  to  expel  them,  and  it  is  due  to 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    HISTORY. 


37^ 


him  to  state  that  probably  it  could  not  have  been  done  more  gently ;  still  it 
was  force,  inexorable,  irresistible  force.  More  than  four  thousand  of  their  adult 
males  —  there  were  about  sixteen  thousand  of  the  nation,  men,  women,  and 
children  —  had  signed  petitions  pleading  with  congress  that  the  solemn  engage- 
ments entered  into  by  their  fathers  and  ours  might  be  kept.  For  months  their 
delegation  waited  at  the  doors  of  the  capital,  and  the  people  at  home  had 
hoped  against  hope  that  still  this  great  nation  would  do  them  justice ;  but  by 
the  end  of  June  the  whole  nation  was  gathered  into  camps,  and  the  journey  of 
more  than  six  hundred  miles,  occupying  four  or  five  months,  began.  When 
emigrants  leave  their  native  land  the  young  and  enterprising  go,  the  aged  and 
infirm  remain  behind.  Here  all  ages  and  all  conditions  were  compelled  to  go. 
Even  those  already  in  their  last  sickness  were  driven  from  their  comfortable 
homes  to  the  exposures  of  the  journey.  Emigration  in  the  most  favorable  cir- 
cumstances is  attended  with  much  loss  of  life.  Is  it  strange,  then,  that  in  this 
enforced  departure  of  a  nation  from  homes  to  which  they  were  strongly 
attached,  four  thousand  out  of  sixteen  thousand  sank  under  their  priva- 
tions. Their  sufferings  were  greatly  aggravated  by  the  conduct  of  Georgians, 
who  rushed  into  the  vacant  places,  seized  property  as  soon  as  the  Indians  were 
arrested,  and  sold  it  to  each  other  for  a  mere  song,  before  the  eyes  of  its  lawful 
owner.  The  rich  were  thus  reduced  to  poverty,  and  families  deprived  of  many 
needed  comforts  during  their  long  journey  through  the  wilderness. 

If  greater  light  increases  guilt,  the  decisions  of  the  great  day  may  not  in 
all  things  endorse  the  popular  estimate  of  the  comparative  guilt  of  the 
slaughter  of  ten  thousand  Nestorians  by  fanatical  Kurds,  and  the  wrongs 
inflicted  by  a  Christian  people  that  destroyed  four  thousand  Cherokees 
—  one  fourth  of  the  population  on  whom  those  wrongs  were  inflicted.  Even 
after  the  whole  nation  were  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory,  the  sense 
of  injury  was  so  deep  that  unknown  hands  slew  the  chiefs  of  the  small  party 
with  whom  the  so-called  treaty  was  formed,  under  cover  of  the  law  already 
referred  to ;  nor  could  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  United  States  detect  the  guilty 
perpetrators.  The  punishment  of  the  greater  wrong  of  the  United  States,  in 
their  dealings  with  the  Cherokees,  is  reserved  for  Him  whose  words  are: 
"Vengeance  is  mine,  I  will  repay,  saith  the  Lord."  And  there  is  no  respect 
of  persons  with  Him.  Had  Thomas  Jefferson  lived  to  see  this  new  triumph 
of  might  over  right,  he  had  found  additional  cause  for  saying,  "I  tremble  for 
my  country  when  I  remember  that  God  is  just." 


XVII. 
EDUCATION. 


In  the  lands  where  the}'  labor,  our  missionaries  seldom  find  schools.  Gen- 
erally there  are  none.  In  some  places,  where  the  spirit  of  trade  leads  men  to 
qualify  themselves  to  make  commerce  more  remunerative,  there  are  a  few ;  but, 
even  then,  the  masses  prefer  the  pleasure  of  the  moment  to  mental  cultivation. 
And  though  some  master  spirits  see  the  need  of  education  in  order  to  human 
well-being,  and  urge  it  forward  on  that  ground,  the  schools  that  prosper  under 
their  zealous  administration  collapse  when  the  propelling  power  is  gone,  and 
the  people  are  left  to  themselves. 

In  Papal  lands,  a  class,  zealous  for  its  own  prerogatives,  urges  education 
in  its  own  interest  on  an  unwilling  people,  who  sometimes  are  all  the  more 
unwilling  when  they  see  how  it  favors  a  class  at  the  expense  of  the  masses. 

In  our  own  land  zeal  for  the  public  good,  and  dread  of  falling  under  the 
power  of  bad  men,  maintain  popular  interest  in  our  public  schools. 

The  truest,  and  therefore  the  most  efficient  and  abiding  interest  in  educa- 
tion, is  that  which,  appreciating  the  value  of  the  Gospel,  and  desiring  to  perpet- 
uate its  benefits,  consecrates  the  college  Christo  et  Ecciesicz,  to  raise  up  men 
qualified  to  grasp  its  truths,  and  set  them  forth  with  power.  Not  that  the 
power  lies  wholly  in  better  knowledge  of  the  truth,  but  in  better  knowledge  of 
the  truth  viewed  as  the  divine  instrument  through  which  the  spirit  works  in 
human  hearts;  and  this  interest,  enlarged  to  take  in  the\ast  extent  of  the  king- 
dom of  our  Lord,  is  the  foundation  on  which  missionary  education  rises  in  its 
fair  proportions. 

Then,  when  heathen  peoples  feel  the  quickening  power  of  the  Gospel,  over 
and  above  the  new  secular  life  that  demands  better  clothing,  better  homes,  and 
a  higher  plane  of  earthly  comfort,  is  the  love  of  Christ  prompting  not  only  to 
make  provision  for  their  own  future  edification,  but  for  the  extension  of  the 
same  blessings  to  their  neighbors,  and  the  perpetuation  of  them  to  their  children 
after  them. 

This  is  the  foundation  on  which  Protestant  missionary  schools  are  built  up, 
and  this  is  the  divine  power  working  in  men's  hearts  to  maintain  them  in  the 
future. 

(372) 


EDUCATION.  373 

Let  us  view  this  principle  in  its  worl<ings  among  different  races,  and  in  lands 
far  apart. 

A  territory  bounded  by  the  British  dominions  on  the  north,  the  Mississippi 
on  the  east,  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  on  the  south,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains 
on  the  west,  needed  a  higher  institution  of  learning.  In  1870  the  Santee 
Agency,  on  the  Missouri  River,  in  northeastern  Nebraska,  was  selected  as  the 
location,  and  the  summer  saw  two  goodly  buildings  erected  there,  one  for  the 
school  and  chapel,  and  the  other  the  mission-house.  A  dozen  young  men 
applied  for  admission,  and  the  old  log  church  was  floored  and  turned  into  a 
dormitory,  convenient  for  ten  or  twelve,  though  sometimes  filled  with  double 
these  numbers.  This  was  the  first  young  men's  hall.  In  1877  a  new  hall  was 
begun  and  partly  finished.  In  the  winter  of  1877-1878  it  held  twenty-five,  and 
two  young  men  with  their  wives  occupied  the  old  hall.  In  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1879,  it  had  twenty  young  men,  besides  a  normal  class  of  three. 
Pupils  have  come  from  five  different  tribes,  and  the  school  is  unequaled  by  any 
other  in  all  the  region.  The  Presbyterian  mission  sends  its  advanced  pupils 
here.  Already  some  of  the  former  pupils  are  pastors,  teachers,  or  govern- 
ment clerks,  while  others  are  at  the  head  of  intelligent  and  Christian  homes. 
Though  belonging  to  a  dependent  and  helpless  race,  they  have  developed  a 
good  degree  of  self-reliance.  A  number  of  the  pupils  have  earned  their  cloth- 
ing by  trapping.  One,  fourteen  years  of  age,  wore  the  price  of  three  hundred 
muskrats  to  school ;  another  walked  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles,  and  a  third 
rode  twice  that  distance,  to  enjoy  its  privileges.  All  work  for  the  clothing 
they  receive,  and  young  braves,  not  long  before  strutting  about  in  paint  and 
feathers,  put  on  aprons  and  do  their  share  in  domestic  work. 

In  1872,  the  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  began  its  Dakota  Home.  It  was 
occupied  near  the  end  of  1873.  The  first  class  of  six  young  misses,  finding  it 
was  not  a  hotel,  where  they  could  have  a  good  time,  donned  their  blankets  and 
left.  We  little  know  how  much  we  are  indebted  for  our  habits  of  order  and 
industry  to  the  discipline  of  Christian  homes.  Success,  however,  crowned  the 
plan  of  taking  them  at  an  earlier  age.  The  Home  was  enlarged  in  1877,  by  a 
laundry.  Twenty-six  pupils  fill  the  Home,  but  it  had  thirty-two  in  1877-1878, 
and  twenty-nine  in  1879-1880.  Except  the  youngest,  the  girls  do  all  their  own 
cooking,  sewing,  and  washing,  and  do  it  well.  Once  they  were  allowed  to  clean 
the  school-house,  so  as  to  have  something  to  give  for  missions.  Those  who 
could  not  scrub  carried  water  for  those  who  did,  and  all  enjoyed  it  much. 

The  Dakota  language  is  used  in  the  school.  The  studies  pursued  are  arith- 
metic, algebra,  reading  in  Dakota  and  English,  geography,  geometry,  grammar, 
the  Bible,  United  States  history,  and  music,  both  vocal  and  instrumental. 

The  whole  plan  involves  something  of  the  academy,  normal  school,  and  theo- 
logical seminary.^  Besides  the  boarders  in  the  Young  Men's  Hall  and  Dakota 
Home,  others  live  at  their  own  homes.  In  1877,  there  were  forty  of  these. 
Two  advanced  pupils  were  sent  that  year,  one  to  Ripon  College,  and  the  other 
to  Beloit.     In  1879,  three  were  sent  to  Beloit  to  complete  their  education. 

The  teachers  who  began  the  work  were  Rev.  J.  P.  Williamson  and  Miss  Julia 

'^Missionary  Herald,  1878,  pp.  214-217. 


374  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

A.  Lafromboise.  She  died  a  year  after  the  school  began,  but  her  work  did 
not  die.  Other  natives  have  done  good  service  —  Mr.  Eli  Abraham,  Rev.  J. 
Eastman,  Mr.  John  Rouillard,  and  Miss  E.  Aungie.  The  Home  was  opened 
under  the  charge  of  Mrs.  L.  P.  Ingham,  and  Miss  M.  L.  Haines.  The  teachers 
now  are  Rev.  A.  L.  Riggs,  principal,  who  has  been  connected  with  it  from  the 
first.  Miss  Martha  A,  Shepard,  Miss  Martha  M.  Paddock,  Miss  Susan  Webb, 
and  Mr.  Eli  Abraham.  The  Hall  is  in  charge  of  Miss  Anna  Skea,  as  matron, 
and  Mr.  Arthur  Ward,  as  steward.  Miss  Lucy  M.  Dodge  was  teacher  till 
September,  1878,  and  aid  has  been  rendered  in  the  theological  department  by 
Rev.  S.  R.  Riggs,  LL.D.,  and  Rev.  J.  P.  Williamson. 

This  brief  account  of  education  in  only  one  of  our  Indian  missions,  shows 
that  the  education  of  Indian  youth  at  Hampton,  Virginia,^  and  elsewhere,  is  by 
no  means  the  novelty  that  some  suppose;  and  their  education  —  if  we  would 
qualify  them  for  usefulness  among  their  own  people  —  is  always  most  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  in  the  place  where  they  are  to  labor;  for  then  they  are 
neither  lifted  out  of  sympathy  with  those  whom  they  are  to  benefit,  nor  regarded 
with  suspicion  as  introducing  strange  customs  from  abroad. 

SYRIA  !V    PROTESTANT  COLLEGE. 

The  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut  is  an  institution  important  enough 
to  claim  especial  notice.  Beiriit,  a  city  of  more  than  eighty  thousand  inhabi- 
tants—  thirty  thousand  of  them  Orthodox  Greeks,  twenty  thousand  Moslems, 
fifteen  thousand  Maronites,  five  thousand  Papal  Greeks,  and  five  thousand 
Jews  —  occupies  a  central  position  among  the  Arabic-speaking  races.  This 
language  is  the  vernacular  from  Morocco  to  Assyria,  also  of  many  tribes  in  Cen- 
tral and  Western  Africa.  It  is  the  sacred  tongue  of  Turkey,  Persia,  Tartar\', 
and  large  portions  of  India,  or  of  Mohammedans  the  world  over.  In  1863  the 
college  was  incorporated  in  the  State  of  New  York,  where  most  of  its  funds  are 
held.  The  preparatory  department  was  commenced  in  1865,  and  the  college 
proper  in  the  autumn  of  1866.  A  medical  class  was  formed  in  1867,  and  grad- 
uated in  1870.  The  first  collegiate  class  graduated  in  187 1.  The  present 
buildings  were  erected  in  1872-1873.  These  are:  (i)  The  main  building,  or 
literary  department,  containing  dormitories,  cabinets,  lecture-rooms,  library, 
and  chapel ;  (2)  the  medical  hall,  containing  lecture-rooms,  medical  library, 
dissecting-rooms,  and  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  laboratories;  (3)  the  Lee 
Observatory ;  and  (4)  a  refectory,  with  dining-hall  and  rooms  for  servants. 
The  college  is  conducted  on  stricdy  evangelical  principles,  but  is  open  to  all 
who  comply  with  its  regulations.  While  there  is  no  interference  with  the 
religious  preferences  of  any,  and  Greeks,  Papists,  Moslems,  Druses,  Copts,  and 
Armenians  are  all  represented  among  the  students,  each  is  made  acquainted 
with  the  distinctive  teachings  of  the  Gospel.  All  boarders  are  required  to 
attend  daily  morning  and  evening  prayers,  also  Sabbath  services  in  the  college 
chapel.  And  the  Bible  forms  one  of  the  text-books  through  the  week  in  all 
the  classes.     A  voluntary  weekly  prayer-meeting  is  carried  on  by  the  students. 

The  appliances  for  instruction  are  constantly  becoming  more  complete. 

1  Missionary  Herald,  1S79,  pp.  247-249. 


EDUCATION.  375 

The  observatory,  built  in  part  by  Henry  Lee,  Esq.,  of  Manchester,  England, 
has  a  refracting  telescope  with  object  glass  of  five  and  a  half  inches  aper- 
ture, made  by  Alvin  Clark,  of  Boston ;  a  ten  and  a  quarter  inch  reflecting 
Newtonian  equatorial,  with  micrometers,  automatic  spectroscope,  star  spectro- 
scope, solar  eye-piece,  and  achromatic  eye-pieces  ranging  from  sixty  to  eigh.t 
hundred ;  a  meridian  circle,  by  Ertel  &  Sons,  Munich,  reading  to  seconds  of  arc ; 
a  siderial  clock,  by  Cooke  &  Sons,  York,  and  a  transit  instrument  in  the  prime 
vertical.  It  has  a  complete  set  of  meteorological  instruments,  viz.,  barometers, 
thermometers,  hygrometer,  rain  gauges,  and  anemometer. 

The  apparatus  for  experiments  in  physics  is  good,  and  well  arranged  in  a 
large  room  of  the  main  building.  The  chemical  apparatus,  for  general  study 
and  for  the  practical  study  of  analytical  chemistry,  is  in  the  medical  building. 

The  geological  collection  is  in  a  large  room  of  the  main  building,  and  con- 
sists of  a  conchological  collection,  containing  one  thousand  specimens,  named 
and  classified  ;  a  mineralogical  collection  of  fifteen  hundred  specimens,  also 
named  and  classified;  a  series  of  igneous  and  aqueous  rocks,  selected  f-or  prac- 
tical study ;  fifteen  hundred  specimens  of  fossils  and  rocks,  illustrating  all  the 
geological  formations ;  the  fossils  of  Syria,  named  and  classified,  containing  the 
fine  series  that  established  the  existence  of  the  Jurassic  formation  there;  a 
superb  collection  of  fossil  fish  from  Lebanon,  containing  exceptionally  fine 
specimens  of  all  the  species  described  by  Blainville,  Agassiz,  Egerton,  Pictet, 
Humbert,  and  Fraas.  Some  are  specimens  of  species  not  yet  described,  and  a 
few  have  not  before  been  found  in  a  fossil  state. 

The  botanical  cabinet  contains  a  series  of  large  models  of  flowers  and  fruits, 
and  of  their  organs  of  inflorescence  and  fructification,  for  use  in  the  class 
room.  The  herbarium  contains  ten  thousand  species,  mounted  on  sheets,  and 
is  particularly  rich  in  Oriental  species. 

The  zoological  cabinet  contains /a//^r  viache  models,  illustrating  the  organs 
of  digestion,  circulation,  respiration,  and  innervation  of  the  various  orders  of 
the  animal  kingdom  ;  also  a  number  of  skeletons  and  stuffed  birds  and  animals,, 
with  a  few  specimens  in  alcohol. 

The  surgical  cabinet  contains  many  pathological  specimens,  illustrating  frac- 
ture, dislocation,  and  other  things  requiring  surgical  treatment,  and  also  appa- 
ratus for  the  same,  with  wax  models  illustrating  various  diseases. 

The  cabinet  of  materia  medica  illustrates  the  European  pharmacopoeias  by 
specimens  labeled  in  Latin  and  Arabic. 

The  anatomical,  pathological,  and  obstetrical  cabinets  contain  natural  and 
artificial  preparations,  and  wax  models  illustrating  diseases  of  the  eye  and  skin, 
two  manikins,  and  other  helps  to  study. 

The  nucleus  of  a  library  of  surgery,  obstetrics,  materia  medica,  botany,  and 
natural  history,  has  been  formed  in  connection  with  these  cabinets.  There  is 
also  a  good  microscope,  with  physiological  and  anatomical  slides.  The  library 
contains  a  Syriac  codex  of  the  ninth  century,  the  Gospels  being  of  the  Philox- 
enian  version,  and  the  remainder  the  Peshito.  Besides  a  classified  collection 
of  ancient  coins,  is  a  collection  of  ancient  pottery,  glassware,  lamps,  idols,  sar- 
cophagi, etc.,  illustrating  the  ancient  history  of  Syria  and  adjacent  regions. 


376  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  antiquities  from  Cyprus  were  presented  by  Gen.  Di  Ces- 
nola.  The  Hbrary  contains  about  eighteen  hundred  volumes  in  the  languages  of 
Europe,  mostly  English,  and  also  five  hundred  in  Arabic. 

The  members  of  the  faculty  are  as  follows : 

Rev.  Daniel  Bliss,  D.D.,  President,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  Natural 
Theology,  and  Biblical  Literature. 

Rev.  D.  S.  Dodge,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages. 

Rev.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  M.D.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Medicine,  and  Director  of  Observatory. 

Rev.  John  Wortabet,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

George  E.  Post,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Professor  of  Surgery  and  Botany. 

Edwin  R.  Lewis,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Geology. 

Harvey  Porter,  B.A.,  Professor  of  Metaphysics,  Logic,  and  History. 

Richard  W.  Brigstocke,  M.R.C.S.,  Lecturer  on  Obstetrics  and  Medical  Juris- 
prudence. 

William  Thomson  Van  Dyck,  M.D.,  Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica,  Hygiene, 
and  Zoology. 

William  F.  Stoutenburgh,  B.A.,  Instructor  in  English  in  Collegiate  Depart- 
ment. 

Yakub  Sarruf,  Instructor  in  Arabic  and  Natural  Philosophy. 

Faris  Nimr,  B.A.,  Instructor  in  Astronomy,  and  Assistant  in  the  Observa- 
tory, 

Ibrahim  Kefruny,  B.A.,  Instructor  in  Mathematics. 

Sheikh  Khattar  ed  Dahdah,  Tutor  in  French. 

Frederic  J.  Bliss,  B.A.,  Principal  of  the  Preparatory  Department. 

Jurjius  Kefruny,  B.A.,  Assistant  in  the  Preparatory  Department. 

The  language  of  the  institution  is  English,  but  those  who  speak  Arabic  are 
taught  that  language  thoroughly. 

Boys  are  received  in  the  preparatory  department  at  ten  years  of  age,  in  the 
college  at  fourteen,  and  in  the  medical  college  at  seventeen ;  and  none  can 
graduate  there  under  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Testimonials  of  good  moral 
character  are  required  of  all  candidates. 

In  the  preparatory  department  Arabic  and  English  reading  and  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  and  the  elements  of  grammar  are  taught ;  and  also 
French. 

The  studies  of  the  first  year  at  college  are  the  higher  Arabic  grammar,  pros- 
ody, rhetoric  and  logic,  algebra,  geometry,  English  or  French,  and  musical 
notation. 

Of  the  second  j'ear,  trigonometry,  plain  and  spherical  mensuration,  naviga- 
tion and  surveying,  Arabic  history,  English  or  French  prose  writers,  and  com- 
position ;  also  physics. 

Of  the  third  year,  chemistry,  natural  philosophy,  European  history,  English 
and  French  poetry,  composition,  lectures  on  zoology,  and  botany ;  also  Latin. 

Of  the  fourth  year,  mental  and  moral  science,  astronomy,  geology,  political 
economy,  international  maritime  and  commercial  law,  modern  history  of  Europe 
and  America,  philosophy  of  history,  English  logic  and  rhetoric;  also  Latin. 


EDUCATION.  377 

Through  the  whole  course  are  weekly  exercises  in  Arabic  and  English  com- 
position and  declamation ;  also  a  weekly  drill  in  vocal  music. 

Candidates  for  admission  into  the  medical  college  are  examined  in  arithme- 
tic, algebra,  geography,  natural  philosophy,  and  English.     The  studies  are  : 

First  year,  chemistry  and  chemical  analysis,  systematic  and  practical  anat- 
omy, botany  and  zo51ogy  alternate  years. 

Second  year,  anatomy  and  physiology,  materia  mcdica  and  therapeutics, 
zoology  or  hygiene,  and  practical  pharmacy. 

Third  year,  surger3%  pathology,  practical  pharmacy,  art  of  prescribing  medi- 
cine, obstetrics,  and  diseases  of  women  and  children,  or  medical  jurisprudence 
alternate  years. 

Fourth  year,  surgery,  pathology,  medical  jurisprudence,  or  obstetrics  and 
diseases  of  women  and  children  alternate  years,  and  reviews. 

Students  who  have  studied  two  years  with  an  educated  physician  may  go 
through  the  course  in  three  years.  All  are  required  to  attend  the  lectures  and 
hospital  practice  regularly  during  the  course,  study  the  text-books,  and  take 
full  notes  of  lectures. 

In  the  pharmaceutical  department,  the  first  year  is  given  to  chemistry  and 
chemical  analysis,  Latin,  botany  or  zoology  (alternate  years),  and  practical 
pharmacy ;  and  the  second  year  to  chemical  analysis,  materia  mcdica  and  ther- 
apeutics, English,  botany  or  zoology  (alternate  years)  and  practical  pharmacy. 

Examinations  are  of  two  kinds:  oral  and  written.  At  the  close  of  each 
term  there  are  oral  and  written  examinations  on  the  studies  of  the  term,  and 
also  at  the  close  of  the  year  on  all  its  studies.  Marks  for  each  student's  reci- 
tations in  all  the  studies  are  kept  in  registers.  The  maximum  is  ten,  and  if 
one  does  not  average  over  five  for  all  the  studies  of  any  year,  or  falls  below  five 
in  two  studies,  he  must  go  over  the  studies  of  the  year  a  second  time. 

Those  who  finish  the  collegiate  course  satisfactorily  receive  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts.  Those  who  complete  a  branch  of  medical  study  satisfactorily 
receive  a  certificate  to  that  effect.  A  failure  here  involves  the  review  of  the 
study.  Failure  in  two  studies  of  one  year  involves  the  going  over  all  the  studies 
of  that  year  again. 

At  the  close  of  the  four  years'  medical  course,  those  who  have  been  approved 
in  all  the  studies,  and  presented  an  original  medical  thesis  of  not  less  than 
fifteen  pages,  are  admitted  to  a  final  examination  in  all  the  studies  of  the 
course  ;  and  success  here  entitles  to  a  certificate  which  gives  them  the  right  by 
vizerial  order  to  appear  before  the  imperial  medical  school  at  Constantinople, 
to  be  examined  for  the  degree  of  medicine  and  surgery ;  and  those  who  have 
studied  successfully  two  years  in  the  pharmaceutical  department  are,  in  like 
manner,  entitled  to  appear  before  the  same  imperial  medical  school  for  the 
degree  of  pharmaceutist. 

An  alumni  association  was  formed  at  the  graduation  of  the  tenth  class,  in 
1879,  which  holds  a  meeting  Tuesday  evening  preceding  commencement,  when 
two  orations  are  delivered.  The  first  president  was  Dr.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck, 
and  the  orators  for  1880  were  Amin  Abu  Khatir,  B.A,  (1873),  M.D.  (1877),  and 
Yakub  Mallat,  B.A.  (1874),  M.D.  (1878).     The   annual  dinner  of  the   alumni 


378  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

follows  the  graduating  exercises  on  commencement  day.  The  president  for 
1880-188 1  is  Dr.  John  Wortabet,  and  the  orators  Mr.  Naum  Mughubghub, 
B.A.  (1870),  and  Mr.  Naum  B.  Nahoul  (1875). 

Tuition  in  the  preparatory  and  collegiate  departments  is  five  Turkish  liras, 
or  twenty-two  dollars.  In  the  medical  school  it  is  ten  liras,  or  forty-four  dol- 
lars, but  to  graduates  of  the  college  only  five  liras.  Board  is  of  two  prices, 
according  to  quality  ;  one  twenty-five  liras  per  annum,  and  the  other  only  twelve 
liras. 

There  lies  before  the  writer  a  neat  Arabic  pamphlet  of  thirty-seven  pages, 
the  college  calendar  for  1878-1879,  from  which  part  of  the  preceding  facts 
have  been  taken.  Some  of  them  have  been  altered  to  conform  to  the  catalogue 
of  1880-188 1.  The  first  page  of  the  cover  shows  the  seal  of  the  college,  bear- 
ing on  its  face  a  goodly  cedar  of  Lebanon,  and  under  it  the  name,  El  Medresseh 
El  Kulleeyeh,  Es  Sooreeyeh,  El  Injeeleeyeh ;  i.  e.,  the  University,  the  Syrian, 
the  Evangelical.  On  the  second  page  of  the  cover  is  a  view  of  the  main  build- 
ing, four  stories  high,  of  stone,  with  round  arches  over  the  windows,  a  stone 
cloister  in  front  of  the  first  and  second  stories,  and  a  square  clock-tower  in  one 
corner.  One  end,  not  quite  so  high  as  the  rest,  and  at  right  angles  to  it,  is 
only  two  stories  high,  the  upper  one  being  very  lofty,  and  containing  the  chapel 
of  the  college.  The  fourth  page  of  the  cover  gives  a  similar  view  of  the  medi- 
cal school,  also  of  stone  and  two  stories  high,  except  the  middle,  which  is  three, 
as  the  reader  may  here  see  for  himself. 

The  preface  describes  the  healthiness  of  its  site,  overlooking  the  sea  on  one 
side,  and  the  gardens  of  Beirut  on  the  other ;  and,  after  describing  the  buildings 
and  apparatus,  concludes  that  the  facilities  for  acquiring  knowledge  are  now 
made  so  accessible  to  the  youth  of  the  surrounding  countries  that  there  is  noth- 
ing to  hinder  them  from  obtaining  here  all  the  education  they  desire. 

The  schedule  of  studies  in  the  preparatory,  college,  and  medical  depart- 
ments, is  given  for  every  day  in  the  week  during  the  three  terms  of  each  year, 
and  the  hours  when  each  lecture  or  recitation  takes  place ;  and  the  student  is 
duly  warned  of  what  the  monitor  will  do  in  case  of  his  absence  from  any  pre- 
scribed duty.  The  written  examination  at  the  close  of  each  year  is  described 
so  minutely  that  no  unlucky  wight  can  plead  ignorance  of  either  what  was  to 
be  done,  or  how  it  should  be  done.  The  literary  societies  are  described,  both 
in  the  college  and  the  medical  school.  One  is  conducted  in  English  and  the 
other  in  Arabic. 

The  catalogue  for  1880-188 1,  printed  at  Beirut,  in  English,  8vo,  pp.  52, 
oives  the  names  and  present  residence  and  occupation  of  all  the  graduates,  as 
well  as  the  present  members  of  the  college  in  all  its  departments.  Their  num- 
bers are  as  follows : 

1S70     1871     1872     1873     1874     1875     1876     1877     1S78     1879     1880  Total. 

College  proper  58676455854  63 

Medical  College  6854266552  49 

Pharmaceutical  College  2         i         o         i         2         o  6 

Makin'T  the  total  number  of  graduates  one  hundred  and  eighteen.     They  are 


c 
o 
> 
r 

o 

o 
r 

o 
w 

w 


EDUCATION.  379 

scattered  throughout  Syria  and  Egypt.  The  larger  number  of  them  are  physi- 
cians ;  but  some  of  them  are  lawyers,  some  teachers  in  the  college  itself  and  in 
high  schools,  a  few  are  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  two  are  consuls,  and  two  mer- 
chants. 

There  are  now  (1881)  forty-nine  students  in  the  medical  department,  eight 
of  them  in  a  preparatory  class,  twenty-nine  in  the  collegiate,  and  twenty-one  in 
the  preparatory — one  hundred  and  twenty-one  in  all  —  mostly  from  Syria,  but 
a  few  from  Egypt,  five  from  Cyprus,  and  one  each  from  Constantinople,  Corfu, 
and  Bagdad. 

In  the  "  Hospital  of  the  Order  of  Knights  of  St,  John,"  founded  by  the 
Johanniter  order  of  knights  in  Germany,  five  deaconesses  from  Kaiserswerth 
have  the  care  of  nursing  the  patients,  but  the  whole  is  under  the  medical  and 
surgical  care  of  the  faculty  of  the  medical  school.  Its  stately  structure  in  the 
city  can  accommodate  sixty-three  charity  patients,  besides  rooms  for  sick  travel- 
ers and  others.  A  small  building  has  been  erected,  with  waiting-hall,  operat- 
ing-rooms, and  well  furnished  pharmacy,  and  this  is  used  for  the  clinique,  which 
is  open  to  the  medical  students,  who  have  here  unusually  favorable  opportuni- 
ties to  become  acquainted  with  diseases  and  their  treatment.  Here  are  per- 
formed a  great  variety  of  surgical  operations,  such  as  reduction  of  dislocations 
and  fractures,  lithotomy,  removal  of  tumors  of  various  kinds,  of  cataract,  oper- 
ations for  hernia,  and  many  more.  A  pharmacy  is  attached  to  the  clinique. 
In  1877  the  hospital  had  five  hundred  and  fifty  indoor  patients,  and  ten  thou- 
sand five  hundred  in  the  daily  clinique.  In  1879  it  had  five  hundred  and  sixty- 
four  indoor  and  twelve  thousand  four  hundred  and  eight  outside  patients  ;  and 
in  1880  six  hundred,  and  thirteen  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two, 
respectively. 

The  Ancient  and  Honorable  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  in  Prussia, 
having  found  that  their  hospital  in  Beirut,  to  use  their  own  words,  "  did  more 
work  and  cost  less  than  any  under  their  care  " — the  professors  serving  the  hos- 
pital gratuitously,  in  token  of  their  satisfaction  gave  to  Dr.  Van  Dyck  the  deco- 
ration of  the  Order  of  the  Golden  Crown,  instituted  by  the  Emperor  William 
in  186 1,  to  Dr.  Post  the  Grand  Cross  of  Saxony,  and  to  Dr.  Wortabet  that  of 
Mecklenburg ;  and  added  two  large  wings  to  the  hospital.^ 

The  Hon.  E.  F.  Noyes,  our  ambassador  to  France,  in  a  despatch  to  Hon. 
W.  M.  Evarts,  secretary  of  state,  after  mentioning  other  missionary  work  in  the 
Orient,  says :  "  But  perhaps  the  most  important  and  successful  of  the  educa- 
tional institutions  established  by  Americans  in  the  East,  is  the  college  of  Beinit, 
in  Syria.  Since  it  was  established,  the  Jesuits,  the  Greeks,  Papal  Greeks,  and 
Maronites  have  opened  high  schools  in  that  city,  so  that  there  are  now  in 
Beirut  fifty-six  schools,  with  six  thousand  scholars,  all  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
impulse  given  to  education  by  American  missionaries." 

The  plates  of  the  college  referred  to  (p.  378)  were  sent  by  post  from  Beirut 
January  19,  1881.  As  they  have  not  arrived,  duplicates  have  been  sent  for,, 
and  it  is  hoped  will  reach  Boston  in  time  for  publication,  if  not  in  the  first 
issues  of  this  volume,  at  least  in  subsequent  ones. 

•  Foreign  Missionary,  iSSo,  p.  523  ;  Catalogue,  18S0-18S1. 


380  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

ROBERT  COLLEGE. 

An  old  Puritan  has  said,  "  He  who  observes  Providence  will  never  lack  a 
Providence  to  observe."  This  was  preeminently  true  in  the  origin  of  Robert 
College,  on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  a  review  of  its  history  will  show 
how  intimately  it  is  connected  with  the  missionary  work  out  of  M'hich  it  grew. 
Our  missionary  schools  created  a  demand  for  schools  of  a  yet  higher  grade. 
There  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  our  missions  to  Turkey  when  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  discontinue  the  training  school  at  Bebec,  and  establish  it  at  some 
point  in  the  interior,  where  it  could  be  carried  on  more  economically,  and  the 
students  would  not  be  so  much  exposed  to  the  evil  influence  of  European  infi- 
delity. Dr.  Hamlin,  not  quite  satisfied  with  the  proposed  change,  was  con- 
templating a  withdrawal  from  the  work.  At  the  same  time,  some  belonging  to 
the  mission  families  in  Constantinople,  had  been  exceedingly  desirous  of  see- 
ing a  Christian  college  established  in  that  city,  so  that  young  men  would  not 
need  to  go  to  Europe  or  America  to  obtain  a  liberal  education ;  but  how  was 
such  an  undertaking  to  be  accomplished  ?  Here  was  a  man  wonderfully  fitted 
by  Providence  to  lay  the  foundations  of  such  an  institution,  but  who  would  sup- 
ply the  requisite  funds?  Just  at  this  crisis  the  providence  of  God  led  the  late 
Christopher  R.  Robert,  of  New  York,  to  visit  Constantinople.  But  he  did 
not  know  Dr.  Hamlin,  nor  had  he  any  thought  of  establishing  a  college.  One 
day,  strolling  along  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  the  appearance  of  a  boat-load 
of  bread,  such  as  he  was  used  to  at  home,  attracted  his  attention,  and  its  grate- 
ful aroma  led  him  to  inquire  where  it  was  made.  Out  of  this  insignificant 
event  grew  his  acquaintance  with  the  Yankee  baker,  who  was  now  free  to 
engage  in  laying  the  foundations  of  that  college  which  God  had  brought  Mr. 
Robert  there  to  establish.  But  for  Mr.  Robert,  Dr.  Hamlin  could  not  have 
secured  the  means.  And  but  for  the  ready  tact  of  Dr.  Hamlin,  in  dealing  with 
Turks,  and  his  indomitable  pluck  and  Yankee  grit,  all  the  money  of  Mr.  Robert 
could  never  have  built  the  college.  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  all  the  steps 
of  the  undertaking,  the  hindrance  caused  by  our  war  at  home,  or  the  obstacles 
thrown  in  its  way  by  Turkish  marplots,  or  the  skill  and  patience  by  which  Dr. 
Hamlin  triumphed  over  these  last.  It  is  enough  to  say  that,  thirteen  )^ears 
after  his  first  interview  with  Mr.  Robert,  our  minister,  Hon.  E.  Joy  Morris, 
laid  the  corner-stone  (July  4,  1869)  on  the  spot  which  Turkish  chicanery  and 
stubbornness  had  forbidden  its  American  purchasers  to  use  for  seven  j^ears. 
Its  site  is  "unsurpassed  for  varied  charms  and  magnificence  of  scenery,"  and 
overlooks  the  towers  of  the  fortress  erected  by  Mehmet  II,  in  1452-1453,  pre- 
paratory to  his  taking  of  Constantinople.  The  building  is  one  hundred  and 
thirteen  feet  by  one  hundred  and  three,  and  built  of  the  same  kind  of  stone 
used  to  construct  the  fortress.  It  is  fire-proof,  constructed  with  great  solidity, 
and  one  of  the  most  prominent  objects  in  the  landscape,  to  those  sailing  on 
the  beautiful.  Bosphorus.  It  was  occupied  by  the  college  May  15,  1871.  An 
additional  building  was  erected  in  1873,  and  another  is  now  needed  for  a 
chapel,  laboratory,  library,  and  museums. 

The  location  of  the  college  is  in  one  of  the  most  important  centers  of  influ- 


EDUCATION.  381 

•ence  in  the  world,  especially  now,  when  the  East  is  waking  to  a  new  life,  and 
preparing  for  new  destinies.  In  the  advance  of  modern  infidelity,  even  the 
Oriental  churches  recognize  its  value  as  a  bulwark  against  it.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  force  it  to  give  up  religious  instruction,  and  confine  itself  to  secu- 
lar work,  but  it  failed.  Religious  teaching  there  is  neither  sectarian  nor  polem- 
ical. It  is  based  on  the  Bible,  and  on  perfect  freedom  of  conscience ;  but  its 
teachers  would  have  given  up  the  college  sooner  than  the  religious  instruction 
which  they  felt  to  be  essential  to  their  highest  success.  The  value  of  this  moral 
training  is  now  seen  by  all  classes,  and  even  Moslems  send  their  sons  to  be 
under  its  influence. 

Not  long  since,  a  Moslem  pasha  wished  his  son  to  enter  the  college.  Dr. 
Washburn  honestly  told  him  that,  if  he  did,  he  would  learn  something  of  the 
Gospel,  and  attend  Christian  worship.  "No  matter,"  was  the  reply,  "I  wish 
him  to  attend,  for  I  notice  that  students  there  are  taught  to  regard  the  truth." 

The  college  represents  in  Turkey  an  education  whose  object  is  development, 
and  not  repression.  A  distinguished  Bohemian  professor  and  historian  affirms 
that  its  graduates  are  better  fitted  for  practical  life  than  those  educated  in 
France  or  Germany.  It  has  cost  more  than  $300,000.  Its  property  consists 
of  buildings  and  real  estate,  $150,000;  library  and  apparatus,  $15,000;  funds 
invested  in  the  United  States,  $25,000  —  with  no  debt,  an  income  of  about 
$30,000  annually  from  its  students,  and  needing  an  income  of  $10,000  more  to 
€quip  it  fully  for  its  work.  With  that  there  is  nothing  to  hinder  its  students 
increasing  to  five  hundred,  and  even  more  than  that. 

The  catalogue  for  1878-1879  gives  the  number  of  graduates  from  1868  to 
1878  as  seventy-six,  though  the  total  number  of  different  students  in  attend- 
ance during  that  time  had  been  nine  hundred  and  twelve.  The  average  time 
of  their  attendance  was  two  years.  The  college  commenced  with  four  students 
in  September,  1863,  and  had  two  hundred  and  sixteen  in  1873.  The  number 
in  1878  was  one  hundred  and  fitfty-one,  of  whom  eleven  were  seniors,  nine 
juniors,  nineteen  sophomores,  and  thirty-six  in  the  two  freshman  classes.  In 
the  preparatory  department,  seventy-six.  The  next  year,  in  spite  of  the  terri- 
ble condition  of  the  country,  it  closed  with  two  hundred  and  nineteen. 

In  the  preparatory  department  the  students,  in  addition  to  the  native  Greek 
or  Turkish,  Armenian  or  Bulgarian,  learn  the  English,  French,  and  German 
languages,  arithmetic,  and  geography.  To  enter  the  second  freshman  class 
they  must  be  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  of  a  good  moral  character.  There, 
besides  the  languages  already  mentioned,  they  study  algebra,  geometry  (four 
books),  and  zoology.  In  the  first  freshman  class  geometry  is  completed  ;  also 
university  algebra  and  trigonometry,  physics,  ancient  history,  Latin  grammar 
and  reader,  the  Persian  and  Ancient  Armenian  languages ;  Slavic  also  may  take 
the  place  of  Greek. 

In  the  sophomore  class,  Shakespeare,  surveying  and  navigation,  physiology, 
organic  and  inorganic  chemistry,  analytical  geometry,  and  conic  sections,  mod- 
ern history,  Caesar  and  Virgil,  constitute  the  studies.  Arabic  is  also  added  to 
the  list  of  languages. 

In  the  junior  year  they  study  rhetoric,  logic,  and  English  literature,  civil 
engineering,  analytical  chemistr}',  mineralogy,  botany,  physical  geography,  polit- 


382  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

ical  economy,  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  besides  preparing  original  ora- 
tions. 

In  the  senior  year,  geology,  astronomy,  psychology,  ethics,  history  of  philos- 
ophy, history  of  civilization,  the  philosophy  of  history,  commercial  and  interna- 
tional law,  finish  the  course.  During  the  whole  of  it  the  students  hear  lectures 
in  English  and  French  on  literary,  scientific  and  historical  themes.  English  is 
the  language  used  in  instruction.  No  one  who  fails  to  pass  the  written  exami- 
nation at  the  end  of  the  sophomore  year  can  go  on  with  the  class,  and  a  like 
failure  at  the  close  of  the  senior  year  forfeits  a  diploma.  In  addition  to  these 
are  oral  examinations  at  the  close  of  each  of  the  three  terms  every  year. 

The  library  contains  over  six  thousand  volumes,  and  is  steadily  increasing.  It 
is  opened  twice  every  week.  There  is  a  large  apparatus  for  the  study  of  chem- 
istry, physics,  and  anatomy,  and  a  chemical  laboratory.  In  addition  to  a  well 
assorted  cabinet  of  geology  and  mineralogy,  is  a  complete  collection  of  the  min- 
erals and  fossils  of  the  vicinity.  The  cabinet  of  seven  hundred  specimens  of  the 
birds  of  Turkey  has  attracted  the  attention  of  scientists  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

The  annual  cost  of  board  and  tuition  is  forty-four  Turkish  liras  ($200)  ;  tuition 
alone,  ten  liras.  Twenty -five  students  have  been  aided  each  year  to  the  amount 
of  $100  each,  and  prizes  are  given  each  year.      Thirty  were  won  in  187 7-1878. 

The  students  are  composed  of  Armenians,  Bulgarians,  English,  Greeks, 
Austrians,  Americans,  Slavonians,  French,  Jews,  Turks,  and  Persians. 

The  Armenians,  who,  more  than  other  races,  appreciate  European  civilization, 
number  two  millions.  The  Bulgarians,  who  are  "  the  coming  race  "  in  south- 
eastern Europe,  number  live  millions,  and  the  Greeks,  sometimes  called  the 
Yankees  of  the  East,  two  millions  —  a  constituency  of  twenty-five  millions  in  all. 

The  board  of  instruction  consists  of : 

George  Washburn,  D.D.,  President,  and  Professor  of  Psychology,  Ethics, 
and  Political  Economy. 

Albert  L.  Long,  D.D.,  Vice-President,  and  Professor  of  Natural  Science. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Latin  and  History. 

Hagopos  Djedjizian,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Armenian  Language  and  Literature. 

Stephan  Panaretoff,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Slavic  and  Bulgarian  Language  and 
Literature. 

Athanasios  Doros,  Instructor  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Greek. 

Kaloost  Efifendi  Tirakian,  Instructor  in  Turkish,  Arabic,  and  Persian. 

Felix  Margot,  Instructor  in  French  Language  and  Literature. 

H.  George  Meyer,  Instructor  in  German  Language  and  Literature. 

Charles  S.  Nash,  Instructor  in  Rhetoric,  Logic,  and  English  Literature. 

Lansing  L.  Porter,  A.M.,  Instructor  in  Mathematics  and  Elocution. 

Edmund  M.  Vittum,  Instructor  in  Mathematics. 

Gennaro  Marquesi,  Instructor  in  Italian  and  Drawing. 

Abraham  Hagopian,  Instructor  in  Preparatory  Department. 

Stepan  Sourenian,  Instructor  in  Music. 

Samuel  P.  Lockhart,  Assistant  Librarian. 

Of  the  graduates,  three  are  clergymen,  and  one  is  studying  theology ;  eleven 
are  teachers ;  fourteen  belong  to  the  civil  list,  and  one  is  studying  law ;  two 
belong  to  the  English  civil  service  ;  seven  to  the  army ;  sixteen  are  merchants  ; 


EDUCATION. 


583 


four  are  in  banks  ;  eight  are  studying  medicine  ;  and  two  are  editors  —  show- 
ing that  they  occupy  positions  of  influence  and  usefulness. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  when  the  autonomy  of  Bulgaria  was  established, 
and  men  of  intelligence  were  needed  for  positions  of  influence,  a  class  from 
this  institution  stepped  forward,  and  now  occupy  leading  positions  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  that  country. 

The  Marquis  of  Bath,  in  his  recent  work,  Observations  on  Bulgarian  Affairs, 
says  :  "  If  the  nation  rises  again  to  spiritual  life,  its  recovery  will  be  owing  in 
no  small  degree  to  the  devoted  company  of  American  missionaries,  who  seek 
to  promote  the  welfare  of  an  oppressed  people,  regardless  of  the  political  influ- 
ence of  their  own  country,  or  of  the  interests  of  any  particular  sect.  They 
have  aroused  the  jealousy  of  no  political  party.  In  the  darkest  times  of  Turk- 
ish rule  they  succored  the  oppressed.  No  religious  test  has  been  imposed  in 
their  schools,  and  there  is  hardly  a  town  in  Bulgaria  where  persons  do  not  owe 
to  them  the  advantages  of  a  superior  education.  The  result  of  their  teaching 
has  permeated  all  Bulgarian  society,  and  is  not  the  least  important  of  the 
causes  that  have  rendered  the  people  capable  of  wisely  using  the  freedom  so 
suddenly  conferred  upon  them." 

As  illustrating  the  spirit  of  the  college,  and  its  channels  of  thought,  we  here 
insert  the  programme  of  the  closing  exercises  of  its  seventeenth  collegiate  year, 
July  14  and  15,  1880,  copied  from  the  printed  programme  used  on  the  occa- 
sion, only  the  Oriental  titles  of  the  orations  are  translated  into  English : 


■Wednesday,  July  14,  3  P.   M.,  Prize   Declama- 
tions. 

Second  Freshman  Class. —  "  Abolition  of 
the  Slave  Trade '"  (William  Pitt),  Panayoti 
Doros.  "  Sorrow  for  the  Dead  "  (Washing- 
ton Irving),  Boris  P.  Kissimoff. 

First  Freshman  Class. —  "The  Revenge" 
(Tennyson),  J.  Baker.  "  The  War  in  Ameri- 
ca" (Lord  Chatham),  Michael  G.  Christides. 
"  Spartacus  to  the  Roman  Envoys,"  Leon 
Nersessian. 

Sophomore  Class. — "  Spartacus  to  the 
Gladiators  "  (Kellogg),  Hagope  G.  Arabyan. 
"  Death-Bed  of  a  Traitor"  (Leppard),  Arshag 
S.  Manoukian.  "The  Two  Conquests  of 
Constantinople  "  (Alden  P.  W^hite),  Demetrius 
P.  Markoff. 

Junior  Class. —  "  Emmet's  Vindication," 
Vasil  Karayovoff.  "  Lafayette  "  (Sprague), 
Stephan  B.  Petroff. 

Prize  Debate  between  Freshman  and  Soph- 
omore Classes,  8  p.  M.  Question:  "Are  fre- 
quent elections  an  advantage  to  a  State  ? " 
Affirmative,  Sophomores  —  Ardashess  S. 
Muggerian,  Arshag  S.  Manoukian,  Ivancho 
T.  Belopitoff,  Haroutiun  M.  Sebian.  Nega- 
tive, Freshmen  —  Gani  Gr.  Jabaroff,  C.  H. 
Dimitroff,  Othon  M.  Jilajian,  Michael  G. 
Christides. 


Thursday,  July  15,  10.30  A.  M.,  Closing   Exer- 
cises. 

Orations  by  the  Graduating  Class  : 

"  The  Pleasures   of   Difficulty,"  Yanko  G. 
Penoff,  Tatar  Bazardjik  E.  R. 

"  Religion   and   Nationality,"     Hovhannes 
T.  Gulbenkian,  Caesarea. 

"The  Italian   Revolution  in   184S,"     Ivan 
B.  Milcoff,  Plovdiv.  E.  R. 

"  Bulgaria  in  the  time   of  Tzar   Simeon," 
Yordan  II.  Petroff,  Kotel.  E.  R. 

"The    Principle    of    Nationality,"   George 
Peneff,  Tatar  Bazardjik  E.  R. 

"  Le  Tiers  Etat,"  Haroutiun  N.  Mosditch- 
ian,  Caesarea. 

"  Excelsior  1  "  M.  Nevdon  Boyajian,  Con- 
stantinople. 

Presentation  of  Diplomas. 

Award  of  Prizes. 

Addresses. 

Prayer. 

Doxology. 

The  exercises  were  varied  by  music. 

The  names  ending  in  ian  are  Armenian,  in 
^or  (f^Bulgarian,  and  in  ides  Greek. 


384  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 


ARMENIA    COLLEGE. 

The  missionary  in  the  interior  finds  that  he  cannot  send  his  young  men  to 
the  capital  for  education,  lest  they  acquire  tastes  and  ideas  of  things  that  unfit 
them  for  either  happiness  or  usefulness  at  home.  So  they  must  be  educated  in 
the  field  where  they  are  to  labor.  For  this  reason  the  training  school  at  Tocat 
was  established  in  1855,  under  Dr.  H.  J.  Van  Lennep;  after  the  burning  of 
the  mission  jDremises  there,  it  was  transferred  to  Harpoot,  in  1859,  with  Rev. 
O.  P.  Allen  as  principal,  and  Revs.  H.  N.  Barnum  and  C.  H.  Wheeler  as  asso- 
ciates. The  course  of  study  embraced  four  years;  four  and  a  half  months  of 
each  year  being  devoted  by  the  students  to  evangelistic  work  in  the  regions 
beyond.  Any  one  eighteen  years  of  age,  of  good  Christian  character,  and 
desirous  to  learn  to  preach  the  Gospel,  if  he  had  a  common  school  education, 
was  admitted  on  trial  for  one  year.  If,  at  the  close  of  that,  his  developments 
did  not  encourage  further  outlay,  he  was  sent  back  to  his  original  calling.  So, 
also,  at  the  close  of  the  second  year,  others  were  dismissed  as  fitted  for  teach- 
ers, but  not  for  preachers  of  the  Word.  In  the  course  of  study  the  Bible  was 
the  main  text-book.  Besides  that,  they  attended  to  Armenian  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, and  a  brief  course  in  mathematics,  astronomy,  chemistry,  natural,  men- 
tal, and  moral  science,  and  church  history.  The' third  year  was  devoted  to 
systematic  theology,  and  the  fourth  to  the  preparation  of  sermons,  some  of 
which  were  required  to  be  written,  that  they  might  not,  as  phrased  by  one  of 
themselves,  "give  hot  water  for  soup,"  and  part  unwritten,  that  they  might  not 
be  mere  book-worms,  but  live  laborers  among  their  people.  So  there  was  great 
care  in  the  original  selection  of  the  men,  that  only  the  most  promising  might 
be  received.  Then  equal  care  was  taken  that  their  pecuniary  wants  should  not 
exceed  the  ability  of  their  people  to  supply ;  and  their  education,  from  first  to 
last,  was  most  thoroughly  Christian.  The  total  number  of  pupils  up  to  1867 
was  ninety-six,  including  nine  speaking  Arabic,  from  Mardin,  and  six  speaking 
Kurdish,  from  Kurdistan.  Eighteen  graduated  in  1863,  seven  in  1865,  and 
eleven  in  1867.  The  building  then  in  use  had  a  chapel  in  the  first  story,  and 
four  recitation  and  four  lodging-rooms  in  the  first  and  second. 

This  training  school,  or  theological  seminary,  has  now  become  one  of  the 
departments  of  Armenia  College,  which  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  1878;  and 
is  visibly  represented  by  a  new  building,  which  forms  a  very  prominent  feature  in 
the  landscape.  The  opposite  page  gives  a  view  of  the  premises  previous  to  its 
erection. 

The  college  consists  of  four  departments  :  First,  a  normal  and  preparatory 
department,  the  number  of  students  in  1879  being  eighty-three.  Second, 
a  college  department,  divided  into  four  classes.  In  these  there  were,  in 
1879,  ten  seniors,  eight  juniors,  thirteen  sophomores,  and  eight  freshmen, 
who,  judging  from  their  names,  were  all  Armenians.  The  same  nation 
seems  to  furnish  almost  all  the  native  teachers  of  the  college,  who  are  as 
follows : 

Rev.  C.  M.  Shimavonian,  Professor  of  Mental  and  Moral  Science,  Rhetoric 
and  Lo2:ic. 


EDUCATION.  385 

M.  A.  Melcon/  Professor  ot  Armenian  Classics,  Greek  and  English. 

H.  Enfiajian,  Tutor  in  Mathematics,  Physiology,  and  Armenian  History. 

Hoja  Reschid  Effendi,  Instructor  in  the  Turkish  Language  and  Literature. 

Besides  these,  three  Armenian  young  ladies  teach  in  the  female  department. 

The  course  of  study  in  the  preparatory  department  includes  the  common 
branches,  Armenian  history,  algebra,  vocal  music,  book-keeping,  English  and 
Turkish.  In  the  college  proper  the  studies  are  the  Armenian  classics,  general 
history,  geometry,  trigonometry,  astronomy,  physiology,  chemistry,  natural,  men- 
tal, and  moral  science,  logic,  rhetoric,  Turkish,  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and  inter- 
national law.  Attention  is  also  given  to  drawing,  painting,  and  music,  both 
vocal  and  instrumental.  The  Bible  is  a  daily  text-book  in  all  departments. 
A  third  department  will  be  described  under  the  head  of  the  female  seminary ; 
and  the  fourth  is  the  theological  seminary. 

Rev.  G.  C.  Reynolds,  M.D.,  of  Van,  thus  describes  his  impressions  of  the 
college :  "  I  found  a  collection  of  most  promising  young  men,  whose  gentle- 
manly bearing  and  correct  deportment  would  do  credit  to  a  first-class  American 
college.  It  was  pleasant  to  see  a  school  in  the  Orient  moving  like  clock-work, 
and  that  so  largely  under  native  teachers,  and  it  gave  me  a  new  idea  of  the 
capabilities  of  Oriental  character  under  proper  influences.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Wheeler  are  doing  a  great  work  in  bringing  the  institution  into  such  fine  work- 
ing order.  Its  fame  attracts  even  Turks  from  long  distances  to  examine  it. 
A  Turk,  an  Armenian,  and  a  Protestant,  came  from  Geghi  for  that  purpose 
while  I  was  there."  ^ 

Lieutenant-General  Baker,  known  also  as  Baker  Pasha,  when  on  a  tour 
through  Asiatic  Turkey,  with  a  commission  from  the  sultan  to  inquire  into  the 
condition  of  the  people  and  suggest  some  feasible  plan  of  reform,  visited  Har- 
poot,  and  inquired  particularly  into  the  educational  work  there;  and  besides  per- 
sonal expression  of  cordial  approval  and  sympathy  with  it,  wrote  the  following 
note  to  Mr.  Barnum  before  leaving  : 

"  Dear  Mr.  Barnum  —  I  cannot  leave  Harpoot  without  sending  you  a 
small  offering  in  aid  of  your  admirable  institution,  and  I  enclose  a  check  on 
Messrs.  Hanson  &  Co.  for  ten  liras  ($44.00).  Reform  in  Asia  Minor,  to  be 
permanent,  must  be  based  on  an  improved  system  of  education.  All  who  are 
striving  for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  people  owe  a  deep  debt  of 
gratitude  to  the  American  missionaries  for  the  lead  they  have  taken  in  this 
good  work.  You  have  had  to  struggle  with  many  difficulties,  but  you  have  no 
reason  to  be  disheartened  at  the  result  of  your  exertions.  It  has  afforded  me 
unmingled  satisfaction,  during  my  tour  of  inspection  through  Asia  Minor,  to  see 
the  impetus  given  among  people  of  all  creeds  through  the  practical  example  of 
possible  improvement  in  education  afforded  by  the  American  schools. 

"True,  we  are  yet  but  at  the  commencement;  but  I  promise  you  that  all  my 
efforts  shall  be  directed  to  pressing  upon  the  government  the  absolute  necessity 

1  Prof.  Melcon  is  a  graduate  of  the  institutions  at  Bebek  and  Basel,  and  was  for  some  years  a  misElonary  of  the 

Basel  and  Church  Missionary  Societies  at  Ispahan,  Persia,  where  he  had  a  salary  of  ^[200  (jiSi,ooo),  £^o  annuityif 

disabled,  and  ;£6o  per  annum  to  his  wife  if  left  a  widow ;  but  he  came  to  Armenia  College,  on  a  salary  less  than 

$300  and  no  annuities,  because  the  work,  there  seemed  to  promise  so  much  greater  blessing  to  his  people. 

-Missionary  Herald,  1S79,  PP-  473-474- 

25 


386 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


of  organizing  a  system  for  the  better  education  of  the  people  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  the  creation  of  such  a  system,  the  grand  work  already  done  by  you  and  your 
colleagues  will  prove  of  inestimable  aid. 

"With  many  thanks  for  all  your  kindness  during  my  short  stay  in  Harpoot, 

believe  me 

"  Very  truly  yours, 

"V.  Baker." 

In  1880  the  schools  connected  with  this  mission  were  graded  into  primary, 
intermediate,  higli  school,  and  the  college.  The  first  occupies  two  years,  and 
the  others  four  years  each.  Payment  for  tuition  is  required  of  all,  even  though 
the  church,  or  the  young  men's  Christian  associations  have  to  aid  the  parents  in 
meetino-  it.  Yet,  even  so,  the  Bible  schools  hold  their  own  against  those  of  the 
old  church,  which  erects  costly  buildings,  imports  teachers  from  the  capital, 
and  compels  its  children  to  attend  them. 


-.-jS.*''^ 


W-^'S 


A-^s.^J^^  , 


RPTRAlv  ^-  TURKFy*  cm  J  ,F,nF.:- 


AT  AIPTAB* 


The  preparatory  department  of  the  college  was  diminished  by  the  opening 
of  high  schools  in  Arabkir,  Diarbekir,  Hooeli,  Malatia,  Mezereh,  and  Palu. 
Yet  ninety-one  pupils  attended;  forty-seven  in  the  male  department,  and  forty- 
four  in  the  female.  In  the  college  proper  were  forty  young  men  :  eighteen 
freshmen,  eight  sophomores,  seven  juniors,  and  seven  seniors;  and  eleven 
young  ladies  ;  eight  of  them  in  the  first  class  and  three  in  the  second  —  making 
eighty-seven  young  men  and  fifty-five  young  ladies  connected  with  the  college 
in  1880,  or  one  hundred  and  forty-two  in  all,  after  a  graduating  class  of  ten  had 
left  the  institution.  A  very  good  showing  for  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  a 
mission  so  far  in  the  interior  of  Turkey.' 


CENTRAL     TURKEY    COLLEGE. 

Aintab  is  best  known  as  the  home  of  the  young  ladies'  seminary  commenced 
Idv  Miss  Proctor  in  i860.  But  while  one  sex  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  that, 
l<^ev.  T.  C.  Trowbridge  labored  to  establish  a  higher  institution  of  learning  for 

■■  Rev.  J.  K.  Browne,  in  Harpoot  Neivs  for  January,  iSSi. 


ELUCATION.  3S7 

the  young  men.  December  3,  1874,  the  people  of  Aintab  paid  the  last  install- 
ment of  their  subscription  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  piasters  ($7,050 
in  gold).  In  their  poverty  this  showed  very  great  interest  in  the  enterprise',, 
for  a  laborer  earns  only  twenty-five  cents  a  day,  and  boards  himself.  Twenty 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars  was  subscribed  in  England  in  1875,  and  seven- 
teen thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-three  dollars  and  forty-one  cents  in  this 
country.  American  Sunday  school  scholars  gave  two  thousand  five  hundred 
and  eighty-six  dollars  and  two  cents  for  the  college  building,  and  Taha  Effendi, 
a  wealthy  Moslem  of  Aintab,  presented  the  college  with  a  valuable  site,  con- 
taining about  thirty-four  acres. 

The  main  building,  as  seen  in  the  engraving,  is  of  stone,  and  overlooks  the 
western  approach  to  the  city.  Its  length  is  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  includ- 
ing the  wings,  which  are  fifty-two  feet  long  by  twenty-eight  wide.  The  enclosed 
area  is  about  fifteen  acres.  The  small  building  on  the  right  was  given,  chiefly 
by  friends  in  England,  for  the  use  of  the  president. 

The  college  was  opened  October  11,  1876,  with  eleven  students  in  the  fresh- 
man class,  and  twenty-seven  in  the  preparatory  department.  The  whole  num- 
ber in  attendance  soon  rose  to  fifty-five. 

The  studies  pursued  are  the  English,  Turkish,  and  Armenian  languages, 
algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  anatomy,  natural  philosophy,  astronomy, 
physical  geography,  composition,  and  declamation. 

The  faculty  are  Rev.  T.  C.  Trowbridge,  President,  Prof.  Henry  Lee  Norris, 
M.B.  (Edinburgh),  Prof.  Alexander  H.  Bezjian,  Prof,  K.  H.  Sewny,  M.D.,  and 
Mr.  Ovagim,  Tutor ;  the  last  a  graduate  of  Robert  College,  Constantinople. 
The  medical  work  was  an  attraction  from  the  first,  and  early  efforts  were  made 
to  establish  a  dispensary,  a  hospital,  and  a  place  for  clinical  instruction.^ 

Near  the  close  of  1878  President  Trowbridge  wrote  that  two  men  "  had  come 
from  Diarbekir  to  enter  the  medical  department,  one  bringing  a  wife  and  three 
children.  Another  from  Egin,  and  another  from  Baghchijik  desire  to  come. 
Though  some  of  the  medical  class  of  last  year  were  obliged  to  leave,  yet  Dr. 
Sewny  will  have  fifteen  in  his  class  this  year."-  In  a  later  letter  he  says: 
"  Young  men  are  pushing  into  the  college  from  various  directions.  The  num- 
ber is  already  eighty,  and  more  are  coming.  The  greatest  trouble  is  that  most 
are  very  poor,  and  hope  to  work  their  way  through."" 

The  policy  of  the  Greek  church  was  intensely  hostile  to  schools;  but,  under 
missionary  and  other  influences,  the  Bulgarians  in  1870  reported  three  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  schools,  some  of  them  of  a  high  order,  with  sixteen  thousand 
five  hundred  scholars,  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifteen  of  whom  were 
girls,  and  the  avowed  aim  was  to  have  no  Bulgarian,  boy  or  girl,  grow  up  with- 
out a  common-school  education  ;  and  still  the  work  goes  on.  So  that  our 
missionaries  are  free  to  devote  themselves  in  the  line  of  education  to  training 
up  helpers  for  evangelistic  work. 

Our  educational  work  in  Turkey  is  carried  on  in  two  hundred  and  ninety 
schools,  with  eleven  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty-eight  scholars  of  both 
sexes,  besides  many  adults  under  instruction.     There  are  high  schools  to  fit 

^Missionary  Herald,  1S7S,  p.  72.  ^Do.^  1879,  p.  61.  =Do.,  1880,  p.  67. 


388  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

voLing  men  for  college,  theological  seminaries  at  Samokov,  Marash,  Murscvan, 
Harpoot,  and  Mardin,  and  ilie  students,  carefully  selected,  are  carried  through 
a  four  years'  course  of  study.  Hon.  W.  E.  Baxter,  member  of  the  British  par- 
liament, said  recently  in  Scotland:  '"Wherever  I  traveled,  from  Egypt  to  the 
Danube,  men  of  all  races  and  creeds  testified  unanimously  that  the  churches 
and  literary  institutions,  conducted  by  the  Americans  with  marked  ability  and 
freedom  from  sectarian  narrowness,  were  doing  more  for  the  elevation  of  the 
masses  in  the  East  than  any  other  agency  whatever.  Education  among  the 
Greeks  had  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  splendid  work  of  the  American 
missionaries."  He  regarded  the  work  of  the  American  Board  as  invaluable 
toward  settling  the  Eastern  question. 

INDIA. 

Besides  the  common  schools  established  by  the  mission  in  Ceylon,  the  sem- 
inary in  Batticotta  was  established  for  boys  in  1823,  and  continued  in  operation 
thirty-one  years.  Dr.  Poor  was  the  first  principal,  and  connected  with  him  in 
1835  were  Mr.  Hoisington  and  Dr.  Ward,  besides  eight  native  graduates  of  the 
school.  Mr.  Hoisington  was  principal  from  1836,  with  a  short  intermission, 
till  1849.  Its  graduates  numbered  six  hundred  and  seventy,  and  in  1855,  out 
of  four  hundred  and  fifty-four  then  living,  one  hundred  and  twelve  were 
engaged  in  missionary  work,  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  were  in  government 
service,  one  hundred  and  eleven  in  secular  business,  and  seventy-three  were  not 
reported.  Two  hundred  and  sixty  of  the  four  hundred  and  fifty-four  were 
members  of  tl)e  church.  It  has  been  to  Jaffna  district  what  Yale  College  was 
to  Connecticut. 

The  common  schools  in  connection  with  this  mission  in  1870  were  commit- 
ted to  the  care  of  a  native  board  of  education,  on  which  the  mission  was  repre- 
sented, and  the  growth  of  the  schools  under  this  arrangement  was  as  follows : 


1S69 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1S73 

1S74 

.375 

1S76 

1877 

187S 

Number  of  schools, 

49 

60 

66 

88 

105 

"7 

121 

125 

132 

13s 

Number  of  scholars, 

2,341 

2,631 

3,243 

4,797 

5,872 

6,504 

6,588 

7,639 

7,291 

7,805 

No  bad  illustration  of  the  vitality  of  Protestant  missions,  and  the  permanent 
nature  of  their  results,  in  marked  contrast  with  those  of  Papal  missions.  During 
these  years  a  good  proportion  of  the  scholars  have  been  girls.  In  1877  they 
were  one  thousand  three  hundred  and  fifty-two.  It  should  also  be  stated 
that  the  larger  part  of  the  expense  was  paid  by  the  government.  In  1872  four 
sevenths  of  the  entire  cost  was  thus  paid,  and  in  1873  fourteen  thousand  two 
hundred  and  sixty  rupees. 

The  Batticotta  Seminary  ceased  in  1855,  only  to  reappear  as  the  Batticotta 
Training  School,  and  attain  to  a  greater  usefulness.  In  1876  it  had  thirty-five 
pupils  in  four  classes,  pursuing  a  regular  four  years'  course  of  study.  Out  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three  graduates,  one  hundred  were  professed  disciples 
of  Christ,  and  well  qualified  for  usefulness.  In  1877,  out  of  sixty-six  additions 
to  the  churches,  forty-five  were  from  the  mission  seminaries ;  and  of  one  hun- 
dred and  seventv-cight  teachers,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  were  educated  "in 


EDUCATION.  389 

them.  In  1872  fifty-six  out  of  one  hundred  and  nhie  teachers  were  church 
members. 

Jaffna  College  commenced  in  187 1,  and  had  four  classes  for  the  first  time 
in  1875.  Since  then  it  has  matriculated  one  class  and  graduated  another  every 
year.  The  catalogue  for  1879-1880  is  a  neat  pamphlet  of  thirty-four  pages, 
printed  at  Batticotta.  It  gives  a  list  of  twenty-one  directors,  many  of  them 
natives,  and  an  executive  committee  of  seven.  The  trustees  of  the  foreign 
endowment  fund  reside  in  Boston,  Mass.,  of  whom  Rev.  A.  C.  Thompson,  D.D., 
is  chairman.  This  fund  is  intended  to  be  one  hundred  thousand  rupees 
($50,000),  but  at  present  is  only  thirty-seven  thousand,  and  is  intended  to  furnish 
the  salaries  of  the  American  teachers.  The  corps  of  instructors  are  :  Rev.  E.  P. 
Hastings,  M.A.,  principal  ;  Rev.  T.  P.  Hunt,  and  five  others,  who  seem  to  be 
native  graduates  of  mission  seminaries.  Two  of  these  appear  also  on  the  list 
of  resident  graduates,  who  pursue  the  study  of  English  literature,  astronomy, 
chemistry,  mental  philosophy,  and  Latin  further  than  the  regular  course. 
Then  follow  the  names  of  twelve  seniors,  eleven  of  the  senior  middle  class, 
nineteen  of  the  junior  middle,  and  twenty-two  freshmen  ;  sixty-four  in  all. 

Some  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geography,  history,  and  English 
grammar  is  required  for  admission. 

The  same  studies  are  carried  further  in  the  three  terms  of  the  freshman  year, 
with  Scripture  history,  Tamil,  and  translations  from  English  to  Tamil,  and  vice 
versa. 

The  second  year  the  students  carry  these  studies  still  further,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Tamil  classics,  English  literature,  compositions  in  English  and  Tamil, 
and  Wayland's  Mo?-al  Science. 

The  third  3^ear  they  commence  Euclid,  physical  geography,  logic,  and  Latin, 
and  complete  all  of  the  preceding  studies  not  finished  before,  except  English 
literature,  which  continues  through  the  course. 

The  fourth  year  they  study  plane  trigonometry,  evidences  of  Christianity,  nat- 
ural philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  write  compositions  only  in  English. 

Lectures  are  given  during  the  course  on  chemistry,  geology,  botany,  the  art 
of  teaching,  and  on  anatomy  and  physiolog}'. 

The  usual  statements  are  made  concerning  rhetorical  exercises,  religious 
instruction,  the  library,  which  includes  access  to  the  library  of  the  mission,  and 
the  free  use  of  chemical,  philosophical,  and  astronomical  apparatus.  The  col- 
lege has,  also,  a  collection  of  minerals  and  shells. 

Four  examinations  are  described  :  viz.,  the  preliminary,  junior,  senior,  and 
post-graduate  examinations. 

The  terms  this  j^ear  are  :  first,  from  July  3,  1879,  to  October  9,  with  vacation 
of  three  weeks  ;  second,  from  October  30  to  February  5,  18S0,  with  vacation  of 
four  weeks ;  and  third,  from  March  4  to  June  i,  with  vacation  of  three  weeks. 

Each  student  pays  an  entrance  fee  of  ten  rupees,  and  each  term,  in  advance, 
ten  rupees  for  tuition,  about  sixteen  rupees  for  board  fourteen  weeks,  and  for 
books  and  stationery  five  rupees  more. 

Several  scholarships  are  in  different  stages  of  completeness,  only  one  as  yet 
being  available,  and  a  few  permanent  prizes  have  been  provided  for.     More 


39° 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


than  thirteen  hundred  rupees  have  been  expended  on  a  gymnasium,  but  though 
it  is  used,  it  is  neither  complete  nor  free  from  debt  so  far  as  completed. 

The  names  of  the  alumni  then  follow:  seven  of  1876  ;  four  of  1877  ;  seven 
of  1878  ;  and  seven  of  1879  ;  with  a  list  of  those  who  have  received  prizes. 

The  officers  of  the  alumni  association,  organized  in  1878,  are  given.  More 
than  four  pages  of  matter,  partly  historical  and  partly  descriptive,  follow,  and 
an  equal  number  of  pages  of  contributions  in  various  sums,  from  two  hundred 
rupees  down  to  two,  close  the  list. 

There  are  institutions  of  learning  in  the  Marathi,  and  other  Indian  missions, 
only  not  so  prominent,  or  so  long  established  as  those  in  Ceylon. 

CHINA . 

Missionary  education  has  been  carried  on  less  extensively  in  China  than 
elsewhere,  because  Chinese  boys  can  learn  cheaper  at  the  native  schools  than 
a  foreigner  could  teach  them.  At  first  adults  were  reached  through  teaching 
their  children  ;  but  this  method  grew  into  disuse  through  lack  of  funds. 

The  case  was  different  with  girls,  for  they  were  seldom  taught  to  read ;  and 
yet  their  education  was  needful  to  fit  them  for  efficient  cooperation  in  Christian 
work.  The  high  position  accorded  to  learned  women  in  China  has  aided  the 
elevation  of  the  sex.  There  has  been  no  prejudice  against  female  education 
to  be  overcome,  as. in  Moslem  lands,  and  our  "Woman's  Boards"  have  greatly 
promoted  this  branch  of  mission  work.  In  the  hands  of  ladies  set  apart  to  this 
special  agency,  the  schools  have  become  efficient  and  permanent.  There  is  some 
danger  lest  they  be  educated  out  of  sympathy  with  their  surroundings.  Yet 
grace  has  enabled  graduates  from  these  schools  to  overcome  all  that  is  unsym- 
pathetic in  their  home  associations,  and  to  shine  like  lights  in  the  darkness 
around  them,  drawing  up  to  their  higher  level,  rather  than  being  dragged  down 
by  daily  influences  for  evil. 

Foreign  merchants  in  Canton  organized  the  Morrison  Education  Society  in 
1836,  which  for  twelve  years  labored  with  success,  and  sent  forth  several  grad- 
uatesrwho  have  attained  to  high  positions.  When  that  school  closed,  mission- 
ary societies  took  up  the  same  work  in  many  places  along  the  coast.  St. 
Paul's  College  and  the  London  Mission  schools  at  Hong  Kong,  the  Presby- 
terian schools  at  Canton  and  Ningpo,  the  Episcopal  school  at  Shanghai,  our 
own  at  Peking  and  Fuhchau,  and  the  Methodist  schools  at  these  two  places, 
have  done  much  in  this  department. 

School-books  have  been  prepared  in  geography,  arithmetic,  physics,  natural 
history,  astronomy,  mechanics,  medicine,  chemistry,  and  general  history,  some 
of  them  carefully  illustrated.  Yet  none  of  these  branches  are  j'et  taught  in 
common  native  schools,  unless  arithmetic  forms  an  exception.^ 

The  training  school  at  Tung  Cho,  in  North  China,  where  five  young  men 
graduated  in  1879,  ^"<^1  ^'""^  Bridgman  School  for  girls,  at  Peking,  under  the 
care  of  Miss  Mary  H.  Porter  and  her  able  assistants,  also  the  boys'  school  there, 
are  doing  a  good  work  for  that  portion  of  the  empire.  The  boys'  boarding 
school,  in  Fuhchau,  under  Dr.  Baldwin,  and  the  girls'  boarding  school  in  the 
same  city,  are  doing  a  similar  work  for  that  province. 

iDr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  in  Presbyterian  Review,  i8Si,  pp.  42-'13- 


EDUCATION.  391 

vin  Japan,  the  work  of  Capt.  L.  L.  Jones  deserves  mention  as  the  pioneer  of 
our  training  school.  A  graduate  of  the  military  academy  at  West  Point,  and 
for  some  years  a  teacher  there,  he  did  good  service  in  the  regular  army  during 
our  civil  war,  and  after  that  was  engaged  by  an  ex-daimio  to  take  charge  of  a 
scientific  school  at  Kumamoto,  on  the  shore  of  a  large  bay  on  the  western  side 
of  the  island  of  Kiusiu.  His  Christian  influence  there  was  blessed  to  the  con- 
version of  about  thirty  of  his  pupils,  the  most  of  whom  followed  him  into  our 
training  school  at  Kioto,  turning  away  from  positions  with  liberal  salaries  under 
government,  to  prepare  themselves,  through  much  self-denial,  to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  their  countrymen.  Earning  $3.50  per  month,  they  paid  $2.50  for 
board,  and  had  $1  left  for  clothing,  lights,  fuel,  books,  stationery,  and  all  other 
€t  ceteras,  including  benevolent  offerings  given  every  week. 

This  training  school  was  established  by  Rev.  J.  Neesima,  who  left  Japan  at 
great  personal  risk,  and  came  to  the  United  States  for  an  education.  Here  he 
was  taken  under  the  care  of  a  large-hearted  Boston  merchant,  and  after  ten 
years'  study  returned  a  Christian,  devoted  to  the  salvation  of  his  countrymen. 
His  parents  were  the  first  fruits  of  his  labors,  and  he  sent  some  of  their  idols 
to  his  benefactor  in  Boston.  Through  his  influence,  five  and  a  half  acres  of 
land  were  secured  in  Kioto,  a  compact  city  four  miles  long  and  two  in  width, 
situated  at  the  center  of  the  empire,  in  a  populous  valley  nearly  surrounded  by 
mountains.  It  contains  three  thousand  five  hundred  Buddhist,  and  two  thou- 
sand five  hundred  Shinto  temples,  with  a  population  in  1872  of  five  hundred 
and  sixty-seven  thousand  three  hundred  and  thirty-four.  It  is  the  spiritual 
capital  of  Japan.  Here  Buddhism  has  its  headquarters,  which  it  mans  with 
eight  thousand  priests;  and  here,  through  the  personal  efforts  and  influence  of 
Mr.  Neesima,  permission  was  obtained  to  open  a  Christian  school,  in  which 
missionaries  might  teach.  The  buildings  were  dedicated  September  18,  1876, 
though  the  school  was  opened  November  29,  1875,  with  eight  scholars,  all  but 
one  of  them  Christians,  and  soon  increased  to  twenty-six  boarding  and  an  equal 
number  of  day  scholars.  Soon  after  the  dedication  the  number  rose  to  sixty- 
eight,  forty  of  them  church  members,  and  all  setting  forth  the  Gospel  accord- 
ing to  their  ability  at  more  than  fifty  centers  in  and  around  the  city.  Rev. 
J.  D.  Davis  wrote,  October  17,  1878,  that  eighty-seven  were  then  in  the  school- — 
some  from  Higo,  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  southwest,  and  some  from  the 
island  of  Jesso,  five  hundred  miles  northeast.  Of  these,  forty-three  were  church 
members,  and  not  one  of  the  whole  number  but  was  an  earnest  student  of  the 
Bible.  In  1879  the  school  numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  boarding 
scholars.  Fifteen  of  these  finished  the  theological  course,  and  entered  on  their 
work  as  preachers  of  the  Gospel. 

The  course  was  changed  from  five  to  seven  years,  English  studies  occupy- 
ing five  years,  and  theology  two.  The  first  year  is  devoted  entirely  to  English  ; 
the  second  to  arithmetic,  geography,  and  grammar;  the  third  to  history  and 
mathematics;  the  fourth  takes  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  chemistry,  and 
rhetoric;  and  the  fifth  political  economy,  geology,  mental  science,  international 
law,  history  of  civilization,  and  logic. 

Instruction  is  given  through  the  whole  course  in  the  Gospels,  Old  Testament 
history,  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity.  ■ 


392  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

The  theological  course  includes  theology,  pastoral  theology,  the  Christology 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  moral  science,  taught  by  Rev.  J.  D.  Davis ;  church 
history,  Bible  geography,  antiquities,  and  New  Testament  exegesis,  by  Rev. 
D.  W.  Learned.  The  latter  also  instructs  in  political  economy,  and  Mr. 
Neesima  teaches  in  geometry,  natural  philosophy,  and  astronomy. 

Of  the  fifteen  graduates  in  1879,  four  remained  as  teachers  in  Kioto,  six 
entered  the  ministry,  and  four  continued  as  resident  graduates  and  assistants.' 

It  ought  to  be  added  here  that  President  Clark,  of  Amherst  Agricultural 
College,  organized  a  similar  institution  in  Japan,  on  the  island  of  Jesso,  in  the 
extreme  north,  and  here  also  several  of  the  students  became  Christians  them- 
selves, and  at  once  began  to  tell  others  of  their  Saviour. 

At  the  mission  conference  in  London,  October,  1878,  it  was  stated  that 
there  were  then  thirty  mission  schools  in  Japan,  besides  a  theological  seminary 
and  a  college  established  by  the  Presbyterians. 

EDUCATION  OF  WOMAN. 

Other  pages  in  this  volume  show  how  dire  is  the  destruction  that  heathenism 
works  out  in  its  degradation  of  woman,  so  that  the  mere  sight  of  what  she 
endures  would  have  led  missionaries  to  do  all  in  their  power  for  her  relief;  but, 
strange  as  it  may  seem,  sometimes  false  religion  has  found  its  strongest  bul- 
wark in  her  passionate  devotion,  and  missionaries  were  sometimes  led  to  work 
for  her  regeneration  not  from  compassion  only,  but  because  her  influence  at 
home  counteracted  their  labors  in  behalf  of  other  members  of  the  household. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  reaching  her,  and  the  obstacles  encountered 
by  the  pioneers  m  the  work  of  her  disenthralment,  almost  exceed  belief.  Not 
one  instance  is  now  recollected  in  which  missionaries  could  begin  with  estab- 
lishing a  school  for  her  education.  They  could  only  prepare  the  way  for  this 
by  taking  individuals  into  their  families  for  instruction.  Mrs.  Spaulding,  in 
Ceylon,  could  not  find  one  heathen  parent  willing  to  incur  the  disgrace  of  hav- 
ing their  daughters  learn  to  read,  and  could  not  induce  a  single  girl  to  receive 
the  education  that  she  longed  to  impart.  She  often  approached  girls,  hoping 
to  prevail  on  them  to  make  a  beginning,  but  they  fled  from  her  in  terror,  till  at 
length,  by  the  present  of  some  fruit,  she  induced  two  frightened  ones  to 
approach,  and  gradually  won  their  confidence  until  she  induced  them  to  learn 
to  sew,  by  a  promise  that  the  pretty  dresses,  after  they  had  made  them,  should 
be  all  their  own,'^  Similar  difficulties  were  met  in  different  and  widely  sep- 
arated portions  of  the  heathen  world. 

Beirut   Female   Seminary. 

For  a  number  of  years,  missionaiy  ladies  in  Syria,  notably  Mrs.  Matilda  vS. 
Whiting  and  Mrs.  C.  S.  DeForest,  had  taken  native  girls  into  their  families  for 

^  Rev.  D.  W.  Learned  writes,  April  ii,  iSSi,  that  the  theological  class  numbers  twenty-eight  (on  a  later  page 
Dr.  Gordon  says  thirty,  nine  of  them  from  Okayama  and  vicinity,  six  from  Shikoku,  and  three  from  Fukuoka). 
Most  of  them  are  already  engaged  in  Christian  work,  or  expect  to  be  soon,  and  more  than  half  of  the  number  either 
pay  their  own  expenses,  or  are  supported  by  their  own  people.  One  of  them  earns  his  living  by  the  sale  of  Bibles 
on  Saturdays.     Missionary  Herald,  iSSi,  pp.  267,  273. 

-Missionary  Herald,  1S74,  p.  314. 


EDUCATION-.  3f)3 

education ;  but,  looking  to  the  future,  it  was  felt  that  there  should  be  a  sclf-sup- 
porting  female  seminary  conducted  by  natives.  In  October,  1862,  such  a  sem- 
.inary  was  opened,  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Araman,  with  Miss  Rufka  (Rebecca) 
Gregory,  one  of  Mrs.  Whiting's  pupils,  as  assistant,  and  Mrs.  Araman  as  ma- 
tron. At  the  end  of  the  year  the  pupils  numbered  twenty-five.  In  1864  Dr. 
Jessup  collected  $7,000  in  the  United  States,  for  a  suitable  building,  and  in 
1866  the  seminary  moved  into  the  old  mission  house,  which  had  been  fitted  up 
for  it  at  a  cost  of  $10,000.  At  the  close  of  1865  there  were  upwards  of  sixty 
pupils  —  forty-two  boarders,  and  the  rest  day  scholars.  In  November,  1868, 
Miss  Eliza  D.  Everett  and  Miss  Ellen  Carruth  took  charge  of  the  institution, 
though  Mr.  Araman  remained  as  Arabic  teacher.  Miss  Everett  still  remains 
principal,  though  there  have  been  several  changes  in  her  associates.  In  July, 
1873,  the  first  class  of  three  graduates  received  their  diplomas.  The  present 
faculty,  besides  the  principal,  are :  Miss  Ellen  Jackson  and  Miss  Lizzie  Van 
Dyck,  associate  principals,  Michael  Araman,  teacher  of  Arabic,  Madame  Maria 
Churi,  teacher  of  French,  and  seven  native  assistants. 

The  course  of  stud}-,  which  is  in  Arabic,  occupies  four  years,  embracing  in 
the  first  year,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  Dr.  Calhoun's  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Bible ;  in  the  second  year,  grammar  and  Bible  introduction  continued, 
composition,  physiology,  botany,  and  Life  of  St.  Paul ;  third  year,  grammar 
and  composition  continued,  harmony  of  the  gospels,  meteorology,  and  natural 
philosophy  ;  and  fourth  year,  evidences  of  Christianity,  rhetoric,  astronomy,  and 
lectures  on  the  science  and  methods  of  teaching.  General  history  is  also 
studied.  English,  French,  and  piano  are  extra,  and  drawing  and  painting  in 
water  colors  are  optional.  Singing  and  calisthenics  extend  through  the  whole 
course.  The  pupils  attend  the  Protestant  church  and  Sabbath  school,  and  a 
weekly  prayer-meeting  among  the  pupils  is  an  established  institution.  For  five 
years  the  expenses  have  varied  from  $4,475  ^^  $5?5oo  annually,  and  the  receipts 
from  pupils  have  risen  from  $730  to  $1,160,  by  a  steady  increase.  About  half 
of  the  pupils  are  from  the  Greek  sect ;  the  rest  are  Protestants  and  Papists. 
A  few  Druses  and  Moslems  have  also  been  among  them.  Fourteen  in  all 
have  received  a  diploma.  But  those  taught  here,  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  are  scattered  throughout  Syria  and  Egypt,  as  teachers,  wives  of  pastors 
and  teachers  and  merchants,  and  with  rare  'exceptions  give  good  evidence  that 
the  labor  bestowed  on  them  has  not  been  in  vain.  In  dress  and  manners, 
in  the  ordering  of  their  homes,  and  in  society,  they  bear  testimony  to  the  ele- 
vating power  of  a  thorough  Christian  education. 

Dr.  H.  H.  Jessup,  who  remembers  when  the  Syrian  Evangelical  Girls'  Sem- 
inary was  opened,  with  only  four  charity  pupils,  attended  its  commencement  in 
1880,  when  nearly  fifty  boarders  from  Syria  and  Egypt  all  paid  for  their  tuition 
either  wholly  or  in  part.  More  than  $1,000  had  been  expended  that  year  by 
Syrians  for  the  education  of  their  daughters  in  this  Christian  institution,  in  a 
land  where  formerly  girls  were  regarded  as  fit  associates  only  for  donkeys, 
dogs,  and  swine. 

The  arbor  at  the  doorway  was  illuminated  with  lamps  of  American  astral 
oil,  amid  fragrant  flowers  and  shrubs.     Inside,  the  teachers  stood  waiting  to 


394  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

receive  their  guests.  The  library,  the  piano,  the  paintings  on  the  walls,  the 
floral  decorations,  and,  above  all,  the  hearty  welcome  in  his  mother  tongue, 
made  him  almost  lose  sight  of  Syria,  though  the  building  rested  on  the  old 
foundations  of  Phenician,  Greek,  and  Roman  structures;  but  soon  the  array  of 
Syrian  young  ladies  reminded  him  that  he  was  in  the  land  of  dark  eyes  and 
veils,  of  henna  and  azars.  Their  faces,  however,  wore  not  the  surface  beauty 
of  ordinary  Syrian  women,  but  the  deeper  loveliness  of  thought  and  moral 
excellence. 

There  was  a  printed  programme  that  told  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music, 
reading  of  Scripture  and  prayer,  an  address  by  Prof.  Wortabet,  and  the  giving 
of  the  diplomas  by  Miss  Everett.  American  parlor  organs  find  their  way  to 
Syria  as  fast  as  her  daughters  are  taught  here  how  to  use  them.  Pencil 
sketches  and  water-color  paintings  adorned  the  walls.  The  vocal  music,  both 
Arabic  and  English,  was  well  rendered.     The  ode  they  sang  was  original. 

The  graduates  were  only  three  :  Miriam,  from  Deir  el  Komr,  whence  our 
missionaries  were  expelled  by  force  thirty-five  years  before ;  Beuder,  from  Zah- 
leh,  where  the  people  have  twice  driven  missionaries  out,  but  where  now  the 
Protestant  church  overlooks  the  town ;  and  Angelina,  from  Tripoli.  The 
grandfather  of  this  last  had  stood  godfather  to  all  the  Orthodox  Greek  children 
in  the  city,  but  sent  his  own  granddaughter  to  the  mission  school.  Her  younger 
brother  is  now  an  eminent  physician  in  Tripoli,  a  graduate  of  the  Beirut  medi- 
cal college. 

Dr.  Wortabet's  oration  was  addressed  partly  to  the  graduates  and  partly  to 
the  audience,  and  at  the  close  he  contrasted  the  scene  then  before  him  with  the 
previous  condition  of  woman,  when  a  man  near  Gaza  yoked  his  wife  and  ox 
together  to  plow  his  fields. 

After  the  benediction  there  was  a  very  pleasant  reunion  of  the  former  gradu- 
ates with  their  husbands  and  other  friends.  One,  a  tutor  in  the  college  and 
editor  of  a  scientific  monthly,  spoke  very  pleasant  words  of  gratitude  for  the 
admirable  education  so  many  of  their  wives  had  here  received,  especially  that 
moral  and  religious  training  that  gave  true  delicacy  and  lady-like  repose  of 
manner,  a  capacity  for  conversation,  and  for  being  true  helpmeets  for  their 
husbands.  Nor  was  mirth-provoking  rhyme  wanting  on  the  part  of  other 
speakers,  one  of  whom  kept  the  cqmpany  in  a  roar  with  his  happy  hits. 

It  was  one  of  the  innovations  of  the  occasion  that  some  of  the  graduates 
were  dressed  in  mourning,  a  thing  that  formerly  would  not  have  been  allowed 
in  a  public  assembly ;  but  it  was  one  of  the  milestones  that  mark  the  progress 
of  the  elevation  of  woman  in  Syria.^ 

A  female  boarding  school  was  established  at  Sook  el  Ghurb  in  1858,  under 
the  care  of  Miss  Amelia  C.  Temple,  who  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1862, 
as  Mrs.  (ieorge  Gould ;  and  there  was  another  at  Sidon,  to  which  young  ladies 
came  from  all  parts  of  Syria,  even  from  as  far  north  as  Hums  and  Safeeta.  The 
school,  though  in  sympathy  with  the  mission,  was  in  charge  of  two  English 
ladies,  Mrs.  Watson  and  her  daughter,  and  after  them,  of  Miss  Jacombs,  for  five 
years  a  teacher  on  Mt.  Lebanon.     The  number  of  pupils  was  twenty.^ 

'^Foreign  Missionary,  iSSo,  pp.  122-125.  -Dr.  Anderson's  Oriental  Churches,  p  s-*??. 


EDUCATION.  395 


The   Constantinople   Home. 

Early  in  1869,  the  foreign  secretary  of  the  American  Board  asked  the 
Woman's  Board  of  Missions  for  a  Home  in  Constantinople,  which  should  be  the 
center  of  a  threefold  Christian  work  for  woman,  missionary,  medical,  and  edu- 
cational, in  that  city  and  vicinity.  He  asked  for  $3,000,  and  received  it.  In 
the  autumn  of  1870,  Miss  Julia  A.  Rappleye  was  sent  out  to  commence  the 
work.  A  building  was  rented  in  Stamboul,  and  in  October,  1871,  the  first  ses- 
sion opened  with  three  pupils.  During  the  first  year  the  school  gradually 
increased  in  numbers  and  in  popular  favor.  The  design  involved  a  center  for 
Christian  work,  connected  with  the  religious  culture  of  young  ladies.  All  its 
arrangements  sought  the  development  of  a  symmetrical  Christian  character  in 
the  pupils,  fitting  them  to  create  well-ordered  Christian  homes,  to  be  wives  of 
pastors,  or  teachers  of  higher  schools  for  their  own  sex,  such  as  would  com- 
mand respect  in  the  capital  or  elsewhere. 

The  lady  in  charge  of  city  missionary  work  would  not  only  engage  in  it  her- 
self, but  train  up  others  to  do  the  same ;  and  the  resident  physician  would  not 
only  cooperate  in  her  department,  but  so  instruct  the  pupils  in  physiology  and 
the  laws  of  health,  as  to  make  their  future  homes  very  different  from  the 
present  homes  of  Turkey.  It  would  thus  most  efficiently  and  economically 
promote  female  education.  Then,  while  payment  was  to  be  required  from  the 
pupils,  a  limited  number  of  free  scholarships  extended  its  advantages  to  a 
larger  circle.  This  arrangement  would  make  the  institution  better  appre- 
ciated, and  its  results  more  substantial  and  permanent.  So  twenty-five  Turk- 
ish liras  ($110)  was  charged  for  boarding  scholars,  and  half  a  lira  a  month 
($2.20)  for  day  scholars,  payable  in  advance.  The  wisdom  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  Home  is  now  self-supporting. 

The  school  grew  rapidly ;  good  order  and  discipline  were  established  ;  girls 
unused  to  restraint  in  the  family  met  the  requirements  of  school  life  like  the 
daughters  of  our  own  Christian  homes.  The  awkward  shyness  of  those  till  now 
secluded  from  society,  gave  place  to  lady-like  self-possession ;  and  the  thorough- 
ness of  their  scholarship  was  the  wonder  of  their  friends.  Better  than  all,  some 
of  them  gave  token  of  entering  on  a  new  life,  whose  reality  was  evinced  by  the 
marked  change  in  their  deportment  and  spirit  in  daily  life. 

This  success  called  for  an  enlargement  of  the  work,  and  $50,000  was  now 
called  for  to  erect  a  suitable  building,  and  place  the  enterprise  on  a  permanent 
basis;  and  though  the  Woman's  Board  had  already  pledged  $31,000  for  the 
year,  they  nobly  took  this  up  in  addition  to  their  regular  work,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  their  existence  as  a  society. 

A  beautiful  site  was  selected  in  Scutari,  a  city  of  sixty  thousand  inhabitants, 
which  is  to  Constantinople  what  Brooklyn  is  to  New  York ;  but,  owing  to  Turk- 
ish obstructiveness,  two  years  passed  before  the  title  to  the  property  was  finally 
secured. 

At  the  close  of  the  second  year,  July,  1873,  the  number  of  pupils  was  twenty- 
five.  The  lease  in  Stamboul  had  expired,  and  a  larger  house  was  rented  in 
Scutari,  for  two  years,  after  which  it  was  lioped  the  new  building  would  be  ready. 


396  THE    ELY   VOLUME, 

Two  prosperous  years  followed,  and  the  rented  structure  became  far  too  small. 
In  1875  several  teachers  failed  in  health,  owing  to  their  narrow  quarters,  but 
the  school  held  its  own.  As  usual  in  Turkey,  many  difficulties  had  to  be  sur- 
mounted before  permission  to  build  was  secured  ;  but  in  December,  1874,  work 
had  been  begun,  and,  in  spite  of  opposition,  went  rapidly  forward.  It  was  so 
nearly  finished  in  November,  1875,  that  the  teachers,  missionaries,  and  others 
kept  Thanksgiving  in  one  of  the  upper  rooms.  Those  who  have  been  in 
Turkey  can  appreciate  the  gladness  of  thanksgiving  on  such  an  occasion  in 
such  a  place. 

January  6,  1876,  the  new  building  was  occupied,  under  the  charge  of  Mrs. 
K.  P.  Williams  as  principal,  who  had  already  labored  at  Harpoot  and  Mardin, 
Miss  Mary  M.  Patrick,  from  Erzrum,  Miss  E.  C.  Parsons,  from  Painesville,  Ohio, 
Miss  Annie  Bliss,  and  Mrs.  C.  W.  Tomson.^  Many  applications  had  been 
made  for  the  admission  of  young  girls,  pointing  toward  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment in  the  future.  There  are  now  fifty-five  boarders,  and  with  the  day  schol- 
ars, eighty-eight  in  all. 

The  following  account  of  the  building  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  Home. 
Rev.  I.  F.  Pettibone,  who  superintended  its  erection,  describes  it  as  com- 
posed of  a  main  building,  54  X  65  feet,  with  two  wings,  each  31  X  50  feet,  in 
fitting  proportions.  The  basement  of  the  main  building  has  a  dining-room 
on  the  right,  a  laundry  and  bath-room  in  the  center,  and  on  the  left  a  gym- 
nasium. The  first  floor  of  the  main  building  hason  the  left  four  recitation  and 
reception-rooms,  connected  by  folding-doors,  so  that  they  can  be  thrown  into 
one  apartment  with  the  school-room,  which  occupies  the  left  wing.  Four  rooms 
on  the  right  furnish  double  parlors,  dining-room,  etc.,  while  the  right  wing  has 
rooms  for  music,  and  for  the  matron.  The  upper  floor  of  the  main  building 
has  on  the  left  a  teachers'  room,  dormitories,  and  the  physician's  room,  while 
on  the  right  are  two  rooms  for  teachers,  a  guest-room,  and  a  room  for  the  sick. 
The  wings  are  occupied  with  dormitories.     In  front  is  the  library. 

From  the  roof  the  view  is  magnificent.  Facing  the  west,  on  the  left  lies  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  the  Prince's  Islands,  and  far  off  snow-covered  Bithynian  Olym- 
pus. The  slope  of  Scutari  fills  the  foreground,  and  below,  a  mile  distant,  is 
the  Bosphorus.  Beyond  that  rise  the  domes  and  minarets  of  Stamboul,  and  in 
plain  view  is  the  new  Bible  House.  To  the  right  is  Galata,  and  Pera  above  it ; 
while  to  the  north  lies  the  Bosphorus,  with  its  palaces,  and,  more  beautiful 
because  more  beneficent,  Robert  College. 

The  lot  of  ground  contains  nearly  an  acre,  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall. 
The  front  is  divided  into  plats  green  with  grass,  and  brilliant  with  home-like 
flowers.  Horse  chestnut,  locust,  and  other  trees  adorn  the  grounds,  and  a  sum- 
mer-house is  in  the  girls'  garden  in  the  rear.  The  basement  is  built  of  stone, 
and  the  upper  walls  of  brick,  made  weather-proof  by  a  hard  English  cement, 
the  color  of  which  softly  blends  with  the  stone  trimmings. 

Up  to  1877,  fifty-seven  had  been  the  largest  number  of  pupils  at  one  time. 

iMiss  Rappleye  went  from  here  to  Broosa,  where  she  established  a  boarding-school  for  Greek  girls,  which  has 
been  very  successful.  While  this  is  going  through  the  press,  news  comes  of  her  death  in  Benicia,  Cal.,  June  9, 
1881.     She  was  married  to  Hon.  G.  W.  Colby,  April  14. 


EDUCATION,  397 

The  largest  proportion  are  Protestant  Armenians.  Next  come  the  old  Arme- 
nians ;  then  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Turks,  English,  Americans,  German,  Danish, 
French,  and  Jews.  The  first  Turkish  girls  came  as  day  scholars  in  the  autumn 
of  1879,  and  were  welcomed  cordially  by  the  rest.  A  pleasant  feature  of  the 
Home  is  the  absence  of  the  race  prejudice  so  marked  in  Turkey.  The  pupils 
take  pride  in  the  number  of  nationalities  represented  among  them. 

The  course  of  study  is  as  follows  : 

First  year,  arithmetic,  history,  physiology,  English,  French,  Turkish  ;  Greek 
and  Armenian  are  optional ;  compositions,  and  the  Bible. 

Second  year,  algebra,  natural  philosophy,  ancient  history,  botany,  astronomy, 
English,  French,  Turkish  ;  the  rest  as  before. 

Third  year,  geometry,  modern  history,  geology,  mental  philosophy,  evidences 
of  Christianity,  moral  science,  French,  Turkish,  etc. 

Throughout  the  course,  vocal  music,  elocution,  drawing,  gymnastics,  and 
embroidery. 

Preparatory  department,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  mental  and  written  arith- 
metic as  far  as  fractions,  geography,  English  blackboard  drawings,  and,  above 
all,  the  Bible. 

The  language  of  the  school  is  English.  Thus  the  Home  is  bringing  woman 
in  Turkey  to  her  Saviour,  and  fitting  her  to  go  out  and  bring  her  sisters  and 
her  daughters  with  her  to  the  same  heavenly  Friend. 

Female  Seminary,   Harpoot. 

Along  with  the  theological  seminary  at  Harpoot  was  opened  a  training- 
school  for  women.  This  was  needed,  not  only  to  train  up  teachers  and  pastors' 
wives,  but  to  educate  the  wives  of  the  students  in  the  seminary,  as  appears 
from  the  following  account  of  a  day  in  it,  abridged  from  T/ie  /Romance  of  Mis- 
sions :'^  "  In  a  room  in  the  street  close  by  are  a  number  of  hammocks.  Each 
one  contains  a  baby,  and  on  bits  of  carpet  and  cushions  are  seated  small  chil- 
dren, attended  by  a  motherly  woman  and  her  daughter.  This  is  the  primary 
department. 

"  At  a  quarter  past  eight  A.  M.,  the  nakos,  or  steel  bar  used  for  a  bell, 
sounds  the  signal  for  the  pupils  to  assemble,  and  from  the  housetop  we  watch 
them  obey  the  summons.  The  mothers  hasten  to  deposit  their  children  in  the 
nursery,  and  hurry  off  the  older  ones  to  the  day  school.  Those  not  so  cum- 
bered set  forth  more  leisurely.  The  city  girls  may  be  seen  climbing  up  or  com- 
ing down  some  steep  street,  joining  other  groups  here  and  there.  A  company 
of  maturer  ones,  veiled  by  their  kerchiefs,  approach,  some  studying,  and  others 
knitting  as  they  come.  At  half-past  eight  the  door  is  closed,  and  tardy  ones 
wait  in  the  court  till  after  prayers.  All  the  rest  are  in  their  seats,  with  an  open 
Bible  on  the  desk  before  each.  At  the  entrance  of  the  teachers  all  rise  and 
return  their  salaam.  A  portion  of  Scripture  is  read,  followed  by  a  brief  com- 
ment and  application,  and  after  uniting  in  a  song  of  praise,  a  blessing  is  implored 
for  the  day.  Twenty  minutes  have  passed  —  at  the  stroke  of  the  bell  the  pri- 
mary classes  file  off  right  and  left  to  their  recitation-rooms,  and  the  first  class  sit 

'  Roma7ice  0/  Missions  pp.  407-408. 


398  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

down  on  the  floor  in  a  row  for  a  Bible  lesson.  Arithmetic,  geography,  gram- 
mar, reading  and  spelling  fill  up  the  morning  hours,  with  a  recess,  when  the 
mothers  visit  th6  nursery.  After  an  hour's  intermission  at  noon,  they  again 
assemble.  Writing,  the  catechism,  and  a  little  astronomy  and  moral  science 
for  the  more  advanced,  varied  by  singing  and  spelling,  fill  up  the  time  till  four 
o'clock,  when  the  school  closes  with  prayer,  and  the  women  hasten  home  to 
prepare  the  evening  meal." 

A  picture  of  "  an  examination,"  based  on  the  same  authority,'  may  suitably 
follow  this : 

October  25  the  public  examination  took  place  in  the  chapel.  During  the 
preceding  weeks  there  had  been  the  usual  reviews,  reading  and  re-reading  of 
essays,  singing  of  new  pieces  of  music,  and  all  the  drill  so  well  known  to  teachers. 
On  this  first  occasion  of  the  kind  the  doors  were  opened  only  to  a  select 
few,  among  them  pastors  and  helpers  from  a  distance,  and  friends  from  the 
vicinity.  The  scholars  sat  on  carpets  in  the  center  of  the  chapel,  their  Oriental 
garments  slightly  Europeanized,  and  the  kerchiefs  of  their  head-dresses  partly 
concealing  their  faces.  After  singing  and  prayer,  classes  were  examined  in 
Bible  history  and  geography,  astronomy,  moral  science,  the  catechism,  and 
object  lessons.  This  was  varied  by  singing,  led  by  the  melodeon,  and  the 
reading  of  essays,  in  clear,  calm  tones,  on  such  topics  as  Light,  Liberality,  Obe- 
dience, Cleanliness,  "Faithfulness  in  Little  Things,"  and  "The  Greatest  Vic- 
tory." This  last  was  the  work  of  a  little  Syrian  maid  of  Diarbekir,  and  portrayed 
the  conflict  between  good  and  evil  in  the  soul,  as  taking  place  before  the  eye 
of  God,  who  rejoices  in  the  victory  over  self.  The  classes  appeared  well.  Mr. 
Wheeler's  class  in  astronomy  would  have  done  credit  to  any  school,  though,  for 
want  of  text-books  in  Armenian,  the  instruction  had  been  mostly  oral.  The 
graduating  class  had  gone  through  the  Pentateuch  during  the  year,  in  a 
land  close  to  many  of  the  scenes  described,  itself  the  cradle  of  the  race.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  they  had  been  favored  with  lectures'  on  natural  science  and 
physiology,  by  Rev.  O.  P.  Allen,  principal  of  the  seminary.  In  place  of  map- 
drawing,  the  pupils  had  learned  to  make  "flower-pictures,"  and  the  walls  were 
adorned  with  specimens  of  their  skill  in  arranging  leaves  and  blossoms,  col- 
lected in  their  rambles  over  the  hills.  This  cultivated  their  taste,  gave  them 
an  object  in  walking,  and  would  enable  them  to  make  their  homes  hereafter 
more  attractive. 

At  the  close,  the  diplomas  were  given,  with  a  few  impressive  words  by  Mr, 
Wheeler.  Fourteen  completed  the  course  of  study,  and  were  commissioned  to 
go  forth  and  teach  others  wherever  the  Master  might  call  them.  After  the 
missionaries,  some  of  the  native  pastors  addressed  the  school.  One  of  these 
rose  up  awkwardly,  and  for  a  moment  the  hearers  were  struck  by  the  uncouth- 
ness  of  his  country  dialect;  but  soon  he  won  all  hearts  by  his  manly  and  Chris- 
tian utterances,  contrasting  woman  as  she  had  been  and  as  she  appeared  on 
this  occasion.  He  charged  the  graduates  to  go  forth  remembering  their  re- 
sponsibility, having  freely  received,  freely  to  bestow  on  others  the  same  blessings, 
and  carry  on  the  change  so  happily  begun.     The  audience  lingered  to  admire 

1  Do.,  pp.  478-481. 


EDUCATION.  399 

"  God's  pictures,"  as  the}'  called  them,  on  the  walls,  and  went  away  delighted 
with  what  they  had  witnessed,  and  grateful  to  God  for  his  great  mercies. 

Then,  the  school-room  was  long  and  low,  on  the  lowest  floor  of  a  building, 
and  with  windows  so  high  that  nothing  was  visible  save  a  patch  of  blue  sky. 
Now,  it  has  one  of  the  finest  school-rooms  in  Turkey,  high-studded,  airy,  well- 
lighted,  and  with  a  glorious  view  of  the  plain  below.  There  are  also  two  new 
dormitories  for  teachers,  and  a  new  recitation-room.  Then,  pupils  advanced 
only  to  square  root  in  arithmetic,  and  had  a  poor  geography,  with  some  little 
old  maps.  Now,  and  for  two  years  past,  the  course  of  study  will  show  what 
impi'ovement  has  been  made.     It  occupies  four  years,  and  is  as  follows  : 

Preparatory  year.  Gospel  of  Luke,  mental  arithmetic,  grammar  as  far  as 
verbs,  reading,  writing,  and  spelling. 

First  year,  the  life  of  Christ,  as  found  in  the  Gospels,  written  arithmetic, 
modern  grammar,  geography,  Turkish,  reading  and  spelling. 

Second  year,  the  history  of  the  church  in  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles,  arith- 
metic, ancient  grammar  and  translation  of  the  Ancient  Armenian  Testament, 
Turkish,  English,  and  physiology. 

Third  year,  Old  Testament  history,  algebra.  Ancient  Armenian,  parsing  and 
translation  of  Yegheshe,^  English,  and  astronomy. 

Fourth  year.  Old  Testament  history  continued,  natural  and  moral  science, 
history,  English,  and  evidences  of  Christianity. 

Throughout  the  course,  vocal  music,  calisthenics,  compositions  and  recita- 
tions, plain  and  ornamental  needle-work,  and  drawing. 

A  chat  in  English  with  the  head  assistant,  or  a  recitation  in  Peter  Parley's 
History,  would  show  their  acquaintance  with  that  language.  A  duet  on  the 
organ,  or  an  English,  Turkish,  or  Armenian  song  would  attest  their  knowledge 
of  music.  Calisthenics,  sketches,  and  fancy  work,  or  a  dinner  cooked  by  their 
own  hands,  would  also  show  their  attainments  in  other  directions.  Most  of  the 
lessons  are  taught  by  graduates  of  the  school.     The  present  teachers  are : 

Miss  Harriet  Seymour,  Principal. 

Miss  Caroline  E.  Bush,  Associate  Principal, 

Misses  Sara  Medzadoorian,  Anna  Manoogian,  and  Anna  Sarkisian. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  the  winter  of  1879-1880  was  forty.  A  new  class 
has  just  been  admitted,  and  the  first  class  will  join  their  predecessors  in  labors 
to  elevate  their  sisters  all  over  these  ancient  hills  and  valleys  of  Ararat.^ 

What  the  Harpoot  training  school  for  girls  is  doing  for  Armenia  and  Meso- 
potamia, a  like  institution  at  Marsovan,  under  Miss  E.  Fritcher  and  her  asso- 
ciates, is  doing  for  northern  Asia  Minor,  and  would  merit  a  separate  mention 
had  this  volume  only  room  for  all  that  deserves  commemoration.  As  a  speci- 
men of  the  fruit  it  produces,  take  the  following :  One  of  its  graduates.  Nectar 
Der  Tavetian,  has  now  been  engaged  for  three  years  on  an  original  concord- 
ance of  the  Bible  in  Modern  Armenian.     She  has  nearly  completed  the  Old 

'  A  history  of  their  nation. 

-  See  a  communication  from  Miss  C.  E.  Bush,  in  Harpoot  News,  January,  iSSo;  also  Missionary  Herald, 
1878,  p.  78;  and  Anmial  Report  of  A.  C.  C.  F.  M.,  1S79,  p.  39. 


400  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

Testament,  and  hopes  in  two  3?ears  more  to  finish  the  New.  And  this  in  a 
land  where  woman  a  few  years  ago  was  deemed  incapable  of  education.  Tlie 
readers  of  The  Romance  of  Missions  will  be  interested  to  know  that  she  is  from 
Bardezag,  one  of  the  first  girls  whom  Miss  West  selected  to  be  educated,  and 
has  been  for  the  last  two  years  a  teacher  in  the  girls'  school  at  Smyrna. 

Talas  is  one  of  many  fine  towns  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Arg^us.^  Its  houses 
are  better  and  more  costly  than  those  of  most  interior  towns.  They  are  built 
mostly  of  hewn  stone.  Large  gardens  (2  in  the  engraving),  full  of  fruit  trees  and 
fine  English  walnut  trees,  lie  in  the  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  a 
part  of  the  town  is  built.  (  No.  i)  on  the  left  of  the  picture,  is  the  mission 
house ;  (3)  is  a  new  Greek  church ;  (4)  the  main  street ;  and  (5)  the  road  to 
Cesaraea,  which  lies  four  miles  to  the  northwest. 

The  town  was  first  occupied  by  missionaries  in  1868,  and  the  high  school 
for  girls  was  begun  in  1874.  The  building  has  been  erected  in  the  grove  to 
the  right  of  the  mission  house,  but  does  not  appear  in  the  engraving.  Ninety 
pupils  have  been  connected  with  it,  from  twenty-five  towns.  Twenty-four  of 
them  are  now  at  the  head  of  Christian  families  ;  thirty-five  have  been  teachers  ; 
and  forty  are  members  of  the  church. 

During  1879  the  attendance  was  about  fifty.  Twenty-nine  were  at  work 
part  of  each  day,  teaching,  visiting,  conducting  women's  prayer-meetings,  or 
giving  Bible  instruction,  lessons  in  singing,  and  the  like.  Under  one  of  them 
in  a  neighboring  town,  a  school  of  twenty  scholars,  in  a  few  days,  notwithstand- 
ing fierce  opposition,  rose  to  sixty  ;  and  in  another  town,  a  pupil  raised  the 
number  of  her  scholars  from  twelve  to  forty-five.  Miss  Sarah  A.  Closson  has  had 
charge  of  this  high  school  almost  from  the  beginning,  though  Mrs.  C.  C.  Bart- 
lett  was  the  originator  of  the  enterprise. 

Female  Seminary  at  Aintab. 

The  very  marked  success  of  our  mission  at  Aintab  is  seen  not  only  in  the 
large  and  flourishing  churches  now  existing  in  that  interior  town,  but  also  in 
the  literary  institutions  that  are  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  spiritual  work. 
And  first  a  word  about  that  work :  our  missionaries  visited  the  place  in  1847, 
though  after  a  stay  of  two  months  Rev.  T.  P.  Johnson  was  driven  away  with 
stones.  Dr.  A.  Smith,  who  had  previously  sent  a  colporteur  there,  arrived  the 
same  month  (December),  and,  being  a  physician,  was  able  to  hold  his  ground. 
In  January,  1848,  he  organized  a  church  of  eight  members.  In  1855  it  num- 
bered one  hundred  and  forty-one;  and  on  one  Sabbath  nine  hundred  were 
present  in  the  congregation,  and  on  another  thirteen  hundred,  though  the  aver- 
age was  not  over  six  hundred.  The  first  edifice  on  a  new  site  ever  allowed  to 
be  built  by  the  Turks,  for  Christian  worship,  was  erected  in  that  year  for  this 
church.  At  its  dedication  in  February,  thirteen  hundred  and  fifty  people  were 
present.  In  1859  the  Sabbath  school  numbered  nearly  one  thousand,  and  in 
1862  the  church  divided  into  two,  with  entire  harmony,  each  body  numbering 
one  hundred  and  forty-seven  members. 

'  Arjish  Dagh. 


> 

r 
> 

H 
C 

w 


EDUCATION.  401 

The  girls'  school  opened  in  July,  i860,  with  eight  pupils;  up  to  1869  its 
graduates  numbered  twenty-eight  —  three  fourths  of  them  giving  good  evidence 
of  piety.  The  number  of  pupils  at  that  time  was  limited  to  thirty  ;  and  all  were 
required  to  complete  the  course  of  three  years.  To  enter,  they  must  be  thir- 
teen years  of  age,  and  have  completed  primary  geography  and  mental  arithme- 
tic, and  also  translated  one  of  the  Gospels  from  the  Armenian  into  Armeno- 
Turkish,  the  language  of  the  school.  Boarding  pupils  are  received  from  any 
quarter.  They  bring  their  own  bedding,  clothing,  and  books,  and  perform 
tlie  domestic  work.  Board  and  tuition  are  free.  Day  scholars  are  received 
from  Aintab  only ;  at  first  they  paid  nothing  for  their  board  and  tuition.  A 
building  was  erected  for  the  school,  and  dedicated  with  services  of  great  inter- 
est, November  15,  1866.  Miss  Myra  A.  Proctor,  the  excellent  principal  of  the 
school  wrote,  "  It  was  a  happy  day  to  me,  almost  too  much  to  be  borne  calmly, 
when  I  remembered,  step  by  step,  the  way  in  which  we  had  been  led." 

The  seminary  is  in  the  most  populous  part  of  the  city,  on  the  summit  of  a  hill 
only  two  minutes'  walk  from  the  First  Church.  It  is  built  of  a  soft  white  stone 
that  turns  yellow  after  a  few  years'  exposure.  It  consists  of  two  wings,  joined 
by  a  central  portion.  The  roofs  of  the  wings  are  tiled.  The  central  part  has  a 
flat  earthen  roof,  and  contains  a  dining-hall  and  dormitories.  The  east  wing 
is  two  stories  and  a  half  high.  Below  are  the  apartments  for  the  steward  and 
his  family,  also  a  stable  ;  above  is  the  residence  of  a  missionary.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  west  wing  is  the  school-room,  twenty  feet  square,  and  underneath 
are  the  kitchen  and  store-rooms.  The  whole  cost  was  a  little  more  than  $3,000. 
The  annual  cost  of  a  boarding  pupil  is  about  $32.^ 

In  connection  with  the  institution  is  a  small  primary  school,  where  the  pupils 
take  practical  lessons  in  teaching ;  once  a  week  they  have  a  miniature  "  teacher's 
institute,"  to  discuss  the  best  methods  of  teaching,  and  how  to  overcome  the 
difficulties  of  teaching  in  Turkey — difficulties  somewhat  different  from  those 
encountered  by  teachers  in  America.  The  little  school  numbers  thirty  pupils. 
The  charge  for  tuition  meets  its  expenses,  and  the  set  of  teachers  is  changed 
every  three  months,  so  that  all  who  intend  to  teach  may  have  an  opportunity 
to  learn. ^ 

In  187 1,  ten  pupils  graduated,  all  of  them  hopefully  pious.  The  public 
exercises  were  held  in  the  Second  Church.  The  two  native  assistant  teachers 
obtained  a  good  report  for  their  quiet  self-possession  in  such  unwonted  public- 
ity. This  year  Miss  Proctor  proposed  to  the  school  committees  of  the  two 
churches  to  establish  an  intermediate  school  for  girls,  with  a  female  teacher. 
One  of  the  committees  accepted  the  offer ;  the  other  held  back  till  the  church 
committee  constrained  them  also  to  accept  it.  The  trouble  was  want  of  con- 
fidence in  the  ability  of  a  young  woman  to  govern  a  school.  It  is  needless  to 
add  that  the  result  relieved  their  fears.^ 

The  engraving  opposite  page  457,  gives  a  correct  idea  of  Armenian  women, 
not  only  in  Kars,  but  throughout  the  interior  of  Turkey. 

The  seminary  held  a  very  pleasant  reunion  July  8,  1880,  on  the  occasion  of 
its  twentieth  anniversary.      Fifty-five  graduates  were  present,  with  sixty-two  of 

'  Missionary  Herald,  1S69,  pp.  73-76.  2  Do.,  1870,  p.  296.  »Do.,  1S71,  p.  390. 

26 


402  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

their  children  ;  also  twelve  who  had  not  graduated,  and  forty-four  now  in  the 
school.  Out  of  the  ninety-nine  graduates,  eighty-six  were  members  of  the 
church  ;  seventy  had  been  teachers,  four  having  taught  ten  years  or  more.  The 
present  number  of  pupils  is  fifty-six  —  thirty-two  in  the  seminary,  and  the  rest 
in  the  preparatory  course. 

Several  essays  were  read  by  the  graduates,  one  on  "  Home  Training ; "  another 
on  "The  Changes  of  the  last  Twenty  Years,  and  the  Prospects  for  the  Future  ;" 
a  third  on  "  Health  and  its  Requisites  ; "  a  fourth  on  "  The  Influence  of  Edu- 
cated Women."  A  brief  memorial  was  read  of  the  eight  graduates  who  had 
died.  Many  eyes  were  moist  while  listening  to  the  last  words  of  those  who 
died  peacefully,  trusting  in  Christ,  in  the  freshness  of  their  youth.  Their  little 
children,  who  were  present,  added  to  the  tenderness  of  the  occasion. 

The  company  was  bright  with  ribbons  and  badges.  The  graduates  of  1860- 
1870  wore  green;  those  from  1870  to  1880  pink;  and  the  present  pupils  blue. 
The  exercises  were  varied  with  singing,  accompanied  by  the  organ.  The  chil- 
dren were  entertained  with  calisthenics  and  music,  and  lunch  was  served  to  a 
hundred  and  eighty  ladies  and  about  fifty  children.^ 

Besides  a  prayer-meeting  in  the  afternoon,  there  was  a  delightful  social 
gathering  in  the  evening,  when  the  husbands  of  twenty  graduates,  besides  mis- 
sionaries and  native  pastors,  were  present,  and  conversation,  singing,  and  con- 
gratulatory addresses  closed  a  most  enjoyable  day. 

There  is  a  view  of  the  seminary  in  the  Missionary  Herald  for  i86g,  p.  73, 
but  it  is  not  given  here,  because  in  1877  the  building  was  enlarged  to  nearly 
double  its  original  size. 

Besides  Miss  Proctor  (1859),  Mary  G.  Hollister  (1867),  Corinna  Shattuck 
(1873),  and  Ellen  M.  Pierce  (1874),  have  been  connected  with  the  school. '  Miss 
Pierce  has  been  principal  since  1878,  and  five  native  teachers  have  taught  more 
than  a  year. 

It-  may  give  variety  to  this  account  of  schools  and  studies  to  take  a  peep 
into  the  summer  quarters  of  the  girls'  seminary  at  Bitlis,  under  the  care  of  Miss 
Ely  and  her  sister.  The  school  was  commenced  in  1866,  by  Mrs.  Knapp,  aided 
by  others,  and  the  Misses  Ely  took  charge  of  it  in  1868. 

Bitlis  is  a  straggling  town  of  thirty  thousand  inhabitants,  in  a  valley  among 
high  mountains.  Some  of  the  houses  climb  their  steep  declivities,  and  look 
down  on  those  nearer  the  level  of  the  river.  The  engraving  gives  a  better 
idea  of  the  location  than  could  a  labored  description.  The  mountains  rise  two 
thousand  feet  above  the  valley,  and,  like  other  Turkish  mountains,  are  mostly 
bare.  Toil  up  their  steep  sides  ^  for  three  miles,  and  you  reach  the  secluded 
nook  that  forms  the  summer  home  of  the  seminary.  The  grand  summits  look 
down  on  it  with  favor,  and  throw  their  rocky  walls  round  it  for  a  defense. 
The  mountain  stream  close  by  never  ceases  its  song  of  welcome  day  or  night. 
That  huge  walnut  tree,  shading  the  little  terrace  beneath,  forms  the  sitting- 
room.  Those  two  rooms  partly  dug  into  the  hillside  and  partly  walled  with 
loose  stones,  covered  with  reed  mats  resting  on  poles,  are  the  girls'  dormitories, 

'  Li/e  and  Light,  iSSo,  pp.  444-446.  -  The  Turks  call  it  a  yaileh,  or  summer  pasture. 


'  '%. 


EDUCATION.  403 

though  that  tent  also  shelters  some  of  them,  as  well  as  their  stores.  Another 
spreading  walnut  tree*,  half  a  dozen  rods  away,  forms  the  school-room.  Mats 
spread  on  the  ground  serve  for  benches,  and  desks  they  dispense  with.  The 
natives  write  holding  their  paper  on  one  halid  while  using  the  pen  with  the 
other,  so  that  they  do  not  miss  their  desks  so  much  as  we  should.  Then  the 
cool,  bracing  air  gives  energy  for  study.  There  is  no  trouble  about  ventilation, 
and  the  ice-cold  spring  not  far  off  furnishes  most  delicious  water.  Flowers 
invite  to  study  of  botany ;  and  longer  walks  are  taken  to  gather  fuel.  This 
is  made  up  of  dry  weeds,  thistles,  roots,  stray  bits  of  wood,  and  the  droppings 
of  the  herds,  the  last  furnishing  the  principal  fuel  for  many  villages  in  this  part 
of  Turkey. 

Here  they  spend  the  summer  months,  studying  through  the  week,  and  hold- 
ing their  own  meetings  on  the  Sabbath,  with  now  and  then  a  visit  to  the  neigh- 
boring village  to  read  and  talk  with  the  women  there. 

So  the  school  avoids  the  ophthalmia  prevalent  in  the  city  during  these 
months,  and  the  pupiJs  return  in  the  autumn  with  minds  and  bodies  refreshed 
for  the  studies  of  the  winter.^ 

November  17,  1880,  the  school  opened  with  twenty-four  boarders  and  four 
day  scholars.  Two  of  the  graduates  were  employed  as  teachers.  Seven  out  of 
eight  new  pupils  were  from  the  villages.  Their  relatives  were  very  prompt  in 
bringing  the  required  provisions  for  each  pupil.  One  poor  woman  gave  eighty 
pounds  of  wheat  which  she  hacl  begged  during  harvest  from  village  to  village.^ 

There  is  a  brief  account  of  the  Christian  girls'  school  at  Ahmednagar,  in  the 
Report  of  the  American  Marathi  Mission,  for  1880.^ 

The  village  schools  furnish  the  opportunity  to  learn  to  read  and  write,  but 
native  ideas  of  propriety  do  not  allow  girls  of  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  to 
attend  the  same  school  with  boys ;  hence  none  but  very  young  girls  attend  the 
village  school,  and  there  is  considerable  pressure  to  secure  their  admission  to 
this  school,  where  they  are  by  themselves.  Parents  who  can  afford  it  are 
charged  one  rupee  a  month,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  rupees  have  thus  been 
paid  in  during  the  past  year.  Girls  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  in 
their  studies  before  receiving  pecuniary  aid.  The  school  had  over  one  hundred 
pupils  during  the  term,  and  at  its  close  there  were  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  in  attendance.  Many  of  these  were  day  scholars  from  'Nagar,  as  they 
abbreviate  the  longer  name  of  Ahmednagar.  Those  from  abroad  live  in  groups 
of  ten  or  a  dozen  in  separate  houses  within  the  compound,  each  group  under 
the  charge  of  an  elderly  Christian  woman,  who  superintends  the  girls  in  their 
household  work.  Thus  they  form  habits  of  industry,  and  are  better  fitted  for 
future  life  in  their  own  homes.  They  retain  the  native  dress,  and  are  taught 
neatly  and  tidily  to  make  the  best  of  their  humble  means. 

Special  attention  is  given  to  their  religious  training      Besides  daily  morning 

'^  Life  and  Light,  i8So,  pp.  446-447. 

"i  Missionary  Herald,  1S81,  p.  149.  There  is  another  graphic  description  of  scenery  on  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Tigris,  and  of  the  desagrements  of  traveling  in  Turkey,  from  the  pen  of  Miss  Ely,  in  Life  and  Light,  1881,  pp. 
247-253. 

^pp.  2D-22. 


404  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

prayers,  they  attend  the  Sabbath  school,  and  have  Bible  lessons  during  the 
week.  They  are  also  well  trained  in  singing,  so  that  they  can  join  in  that  part 
of  worship.     Thirteen  have  been  received  into  the  churcii  during  the  vear. 

The  school  was  examined  by  the  government  educational  inspector  in  1879, 
and  two  hundred  ninety-eight  and  a  half  rupees  were  given  as  a  grant  in  aid, 
and  the  same  grant  was  renewed  after  a  like  examination  in  1880.  Several 
ladies  and  other  friends  have  also  furnished  means  for  scholarships  and  prizes. 

The  Oodooville  Female  Boarding  School  was  founded  in  1824.  At  first 
under  the  care  of  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Winslow,  it  came  afterwards  into  the  charge 
of  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Spaulding. 

A  full  account  of  this  school,  its  origin,  the  obstacles  it  encountered,  the 
buildings,  the  food  and  dress  of  the  girls,  their  studies,  and  a  catalogue  of  their 
names  up  to  1839,  may  be  found  in  the  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  pp.  39-43. 

More  than  two  hundred  had  studied  there  up  to  1S55,  of  whom  one  hundred 
and  seventy-five  were  church  members.  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Spaulding  were  long 
assisted  by  Miss  E.  Agnew,  who  joined  the  mission  in  1837,  and  still  remains  at 
her  post.  The  year  1874  closed  its  first  half  century,  and  its  jubilee  was  cele- 
brated with  great  reioicing.  The  contrast  between  that  day,  when  companies 
of  fifty  or  sixty  girls  crowded  to  be  examined  for  admission,  many  ready  to 
pay  a  part,  and  some  the  whole,  of  their  expenses,  and  fifty  years  before,  when 
only  two  or  three  females  in  all  Jaffna  could  read,  and  no  parents  could  endure 
the  disgrace  of  allowing  their  daughters  to  learn,  was  wonderful.  Miss  Agnew, 
who  had  then  taught  in  the  school  more  than  a  third  of  a  century,  received 
an  address  of  congratulation  from  her  former  pupils,  and  a  check  for  $825,  to 
establish  "The  Spaulding  and  Agnew  Fund"  for  the  education  of  girls.  Dur- 
ing those  fifty  years,  five  hundred  and  thirty-two  pupils  had  enjoyed  the  privi- 
leges of  the  school ;  of  whom  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  were  still  living.^ 
Of  the  four  hundred  and  sixty-two  who  had  studied  there,  three  hundred  and 
seventy-five  were  members  of  the  churches.^ 

The  Oodoopitty  Female  Seminary  was  opened  May  7,  1868,  with  nineteen 
pupils,  under  the  care  of  Miss  Harriet  E.  Townshend,  and  since  then  has  been 
a  worthy  coadjutor  of  the  older  institution  at  Oodooville. 

As  this  volume  cannot  go  into  like  details  concerning  each  institution,  it 
maybe  well  in  this  connection  to  give  a  list  of  our  female  seminaries.  Besides 
the  Constantinople  Home,  and  the  one  at  Talas,  there  are  six  others  in  West- 
ern Turkey,  viz. :  at  Caghchejuk,  Broosa,  Sivas,  Marsovan,  and  two  at  Manisa; 
in  Central  Turkey,  besides  one  at  Aintab,  is  another  at  Marash  ;  in  Eastern 
Turkey,  at  Mardin,  Van,  Erzrum,  and  Bitlis,  as  well  as  at  Harpoot  ;  in  European 
Turkey,  at  Samokov,  and  Monastir — nineteen  in  all.  In  India  there  is  one 
each  at  Ahmednagar  and  Sholapur.  There  are  four  in  the  Madura  mission, 
one  each  at  Pulney,  Mandapasalie,  Dindigul,  and  Mana  Madura,  but  the  prin- 
cipal one  at   Madura.     Two  in   Ceylon  ;  the   largest  one   at   Oodooville,  and 

^  MissioJtary  Herald,  1874,  pp.  314-316. 

-Catalogues  of  this  school  often  appeared  in  the  Missionary  Herald,  as  in  the  volumes  for  1S53,  pp.  164-165; 
*855,  pp.  342-344;  1856,  p.  306;  1S59,  pp.  199,  200,  etc. 


GIRLS'  SCHOOL   AT   ERZRUM- 


EDUCATION. 


405 


another  at  Oodoopitty.  One  at  Fuhchau,  and  another  at  Peking,  in  China. 
In  Japan,  there  is  one  each  at  Kioto,  Osaka,  and  Kobe.  One  at  Zaragoza,  in 
Spain;  two  in  South  Africa,  at  Inanda  and  Umzumbi;  and  two  among  the 
Dakotas,  at  Santee  and  Sissiton  agencies.  Thirty-six  in  all,  laboring  for  the 
elevation  of  woman,  in  the  fields  occupied  by  the  American  Board. 

Nor  in  describing  the  present,  with  its  large  increase  in  the  number,  and 
great  improvement  in  the  outward  appliances  of  missionary  seminaries  for 
woman,  may  we  forget  the  past.  The  mind  of  the  writer  reverts  at  once  to  the 
female  seminary  at  Oroomiah,  as  specially  favored  in  its  teachers.  Not  to 
mention  the  gifted  Mrs.  Grant,  who  laid  its  foundations,  or  the  faithful  Miss 
Rice,  who  so  worthily  carried  out  the  work  of  her  predecessor,  the  name  of 
Fidelia  Fisk  deserves  especial  mention  in  any  work  that  treats  of  the  mission- 
ary education  of  woman.  There  may  be  some  who  have  advanced  further  in 
the  higher  departments  of  science,  and  others  who  possessed  rarer  gifts  for 
some  one  line  of  literary  labor.  But  in  all  that  goes  to  make  up  a  religious 
educator,  Miss  Fisk  had  few  equals,  and  it  is  safe  to  add,  no  superior.  Mary 
Lyon,  in  many  things,  had  no  equal ;  but  in  some  of  the  finer  traits  of  a  Chris- 
tian educator  Miss  Fisk  excelled  her.  Dr.  Anderson  was  not  given  to  rash 
statements,  but  the  writer  has  heard  him  say  that  the  mission  to  the  Nestorians 
could  have  better  afforded  to  lose  any  other  member  than  her;  nor  can  those 
present  ever  forget  his  testimony  at  her  grave,  that,  in  the  spirit  and  manner 
of  her  daily  life,  she  seemed  to  him  the  nearest  approach  to  his  ideal  of  our 
Saviour  of  any  person  that  he  ever  knew.  She  seemed  to  do  and  say  what  he 
should  have  looked  for  Christ  to  do  and  say  in  like  circumstances.  And  again 
he  says :  "  I  should  find  it  hard  to  name  one  among  the  thousand  and  more 
missionaries  of  the  Board  whom  I  have  personally  known,  who  has  a  brighter 
record."  Nestorian  women  were  especially  favored  in  having  such  an  one  to 
mold  their  characters.  Her  life-work  is  described  so  fully  in  Woman  and  her 
Saviour  in  Persia^  and  in  her  memoir  by  her  cousin,  Dr.  D.  T.  Fiske,  that  it 
is  not  needful  to  repeat  the  description  here. 

This  chapter  gives  only  a  selection  from  the  literary  institutions  in  connec- 
tion with  the  American  Board,  not  a  complete  account  of  them. 

Among  the  Zulus,  Mrs.  Edwards'  boarding  school  at  Lindley,  with  fifty- 
pupils,  and  the  normal  school  and  seminary  at  Adams,  under  the  care  of  Rev. 
W.  Ireland,  with  a  like  number,  ten  of  them  pursuing  a  theological  course, 
deserve  grateful  mention. 

Indeed,  none  of  our  missions  can  prosper  in  the  conversion  of  men,  with- 
out creating  a  demand  at  once  for  institutions  to  train  up  pastors  for  the 
churches,  teachers  for  the  schools,  and  intelligent  men  and  women  for  every 
position  in  life. 


XVIIL.  . 
MEDICAL  SCIENCE. 


The  East  has  been  called  the  cradle  of  medical  science.  The  elaborate 
treatises  of  Avicenna^  on  pathology,  materia  mcdica,  theory  and  practice,  and 
natural  science,  form  the  basis  of  Oriental  practice  in  Turkey  to-day.  He  was 
born  in  Kharmeithen,  in  Bokhara,  370  A.  H.  (about  992  A.  D.),  was  a  most 
diligent  student,  and  possessed  an  intellect  of  rare  excellence.  He  was  physi- 
cian successively  to  the  princes  of  Tabaristan,  Hamadan,  and  Ispahan.  He 
died  at  Hamadan,  428  A.  H.  He  wrote  one  hundred  treatises  on  physics  and 
metaphysics.  Dr.  Van  Dyck  gives  the  table  of  contents  of  his  Canon  of  Medi- 
cine {^oniQ,  1593).^ 

In  India,  inoculation  was  known  long  before  it  was  practised  in  Europe. 
So  was  lithotomy,  and  couching  for  cataract.^ 

Yet  to-day,  both  in  India  and  Western  Asia,  medicine  is  at  a  very  low  ebb. 
In  Syria,  till  quite  recently,  a  poor  tradesman  or  mechanic  could  buy  a  lancet, 
or  grind  an  old  knife  into  the  shape  of  one,  and  set  up  as  a  doctor,  with  no 
knowledge  of  medicine,  and  sometimes  not  even  of  reading.  The  theory  of 
medicine,  where  there  is  any,  is  based  on  the  old  pathology  of  the  four  humors  : 
blood,  bile,  phlegm,  and  black  bile ;  to  which  is  added  a  fifth,  wind.  If  a  sick 
man  does  not  eat  it  is  supposed  that  he  will  die  ;  and  so  indigestible  mixtures 
of  animal  and  vegetable  food  are  forced  down  his  throat  to  make  him  strong. 
Neither  in  India  nor  Western  Asia  is  there  any  true  knowledge  of  anatomy. 
One  tolerably  well  read  in  Arabic  medical  books,  insisted  that  the  liver  filled 
the  left  side  of  the  abdomen.  One,  whose  patient  was  dying  of  inflammation 
of  the  bowels,  called  it  "an  opening  of  the  lungs."  Hernia  and  hydrocele  are 
''  wind  of  the  scrotum,"  lumbago  "  wind  of  the  kidneys,"  and  hemorrhoids 
'"  wind  of  the  rectum."  ■*  Charms  are  relied  on  for  the  cure  of  disease  ;  e.  g.,  the 
^patella  or  trachea  of  a  wolf,  hung  from  the  neck,  is  a  cure  for  the  mumps,  and 
.a  written  amulet  is  very  efficacious,  especially  if  eaten  by  the  patient.  The 
common  aphtha  of  children  is  sought  to  be  cured  by  cauterizing  the  poor  little 

^El  Rais  Abu  'AH  El-Huseiii  Ibu  Abdullah  Ibn  Sina  is  his  name  in  full. 

2  Dr.  Van  Dyck,  in  Journal  of  the  American  Orie7ital  Society,  Vol.  I,  p.  563-567 

3  D.  O.  .^lien's  hidia,  p.  457.  •  •*  Journal  A  merican  Orietital  Society,  Vol.  I,  p.  57S. 

(406) 


MEDICAL    SCIENCE.  407 

one  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  The  Bezoar  stone  is  a  favorite  cure  for  epilepsy 
or  hysteria.  Barbers  are  the  regular  dentists,  and  break  teeth  quite  as  often  as 
they  extract  them.  In  ophthalmia,  irritating  powders  are  sprinkled  on  the  con- 
junctiva. In  injuries  from  falls,  the  patient  is  wrapped  in  a  sheepskin  warm 
from  the  animal,  and,  if  practicable,  must  drink  a  decoction  of  some  member  of 
the  body  of  an  Egyptian  mummy.  The  Arabs  have  a  superstitious  dread  of  all 
surgical  operations,  and  prefer  death  to  undergoing  them  ;  a  preference  that  ' 
was  amply  justified  by  the  ignorance  of  those  who  performed  them  in  the  past. 

The  Chinese  class  the  flying  squirrel  among  birds,  and  hold  that  the  skin  of 
one  held  in  the  hand  during  labor  makes  parturition  easy.  Their  great  medical 
work.  Pun  Tsau,  says  that  the  pure  white  horse  is  the  best  for  medicine,  and 
that  to  eat  the  flesh  of  a  black  horse,  without  wine,  causes  death.  The  heart 
of  a  white  horse,  hog,  cow,  or  hen,  when  dried  and  rasped  into  arrack,  cures 
forgetfulness.  The  night  eyes  of  a  horse  ^  enable  him  to  see  in  the  night,  and 
also  cure  the  toothache.  The  ashes  of  a  skull,  taken  in  water,  cure  insomnia 
if  the  patient  uses  another  skull  for  a  pillow.^ 

D.  W.  Osgood,  M.D.,  in  his  reports  of  the  Fuhchau  Medical  Missionary 
Hospital,  adds  to  our  knowledge  of  Chinese  medicine.  He  says  the  bones  of 
the  tiger  are  eagerly  sought  as  tonics,  and  beef  bones  are  often  sold  under  that 
name.  Consumption  is  treated  with  the  human  placenta  boiled  an  hour  or  two 
in  an  earthen  urinal  that  has  been  in  constant  use  for  years,  and  either  made  into 
pills  or  eaten  in  mass.  As  the  purring  of  a  cat  is  regarded  by  them  as  a  kind 
of  asthma,  feline  faeces  are  a  favorite  remedy  for  that  disease.  For  various 
ulcers  they  give  what  they  call  the  five  poisons,  to  expel  the  malignant  poison 
that  causes  the  local  trouble.  The  recipe  is  :  Serpents,  pulverized,  one  ounce  ; 
wasps  and  their  nests,  half  an  ounce;  centipedes  three  ounces;  scorpions  six, 
and  toads  ten  ounces  ;  grind  thoroughly,  mix  with  honey,  and  make  into  pills. 
Itch  is  to  be  cured  by  swallowing  small  toads  alive.  The  skin  and  faeces  of 
the  elephant,  and  many  more  such  things  find  a  place  in  their  materia  medica. 
A  powder  prepared  from  the  scrapings  of  old  commodes  is  given  to  women 
after  child-birth,  to  prevent  colds. 

The  following  prescription  was  printed  and  circulated  by  benevolent  Chi- 
nese during  the  cholera  of  1878  :  "When  one  has  the  cholera,  you  should  rub 
his  spine  with  an  earthen  spoon  that  has  been  soaked  in  tea  oil,  till  sm.all  black 
spots  appear,  then  puncture  these  with  a  needle  down  to  the  bone  ;  the  poison- 
ous blood  will  thus  be  removed.  Dip  your  hands  in  cold  water,  and  rub  the 
arms  in  front  of  each  elbow,  also  the  popliteal  spaces,  till  they  are  black ;  then 
apply  a  burning  lamp-wick.  Give  the  following  to  an  adult :  One  cup  of  salt, 
heated  in  an  iron  spoon  over  a  slow  fire,  and  mixed  with  one  cup  of  ginger  juice 
and  an  equal  aimount  of  boy's  urine  and  cold  water ;  the  mixture  to  be  given  in  t 
hoc  water.     Whoever  circulates  this  will  obtain  boundless  merit."     Doubtless ! 

There  are  no  examining  boards  in  China,  and  nothing  to  prevent  any  one 
from  hanging  out  his  sign.  There  are  no  dissections,  and  no  distinction  made 
between  veins  and  arteries,  nerves  and  tendons.  The  lungs  are  said  to  be  six- 
lobed,  and  attached  to  the  third  cervical  vertebra.     The  trachea  is  two  inches 

*/ I?.,  the  warts  above  Ihe  knees.  •       -  Middle  Kingdom,  Yo\.  I,  p.  z<)z. 


4o8  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

wide  and  one  foot  long.  The  heart  has  seven  apertures  and  three  hairs.  The 
Hver  has  seven  lobes  —  it  causes  the  eyes  to  move  —  and  contains  the  soul. 
The  gall  bladder  is  the  seat  of  courage.  The  rectum  is  a  straight  tube,  two 
feet  and  eight  inches  long ;  and  the  bladder  below  the  kidneys  is  filled  from 
the  small  intestines.  The  midwives  are  old  women,  who  close  tlie  doors  and 
windows  against  fresh  air,  forbid  bathing  for  several  days,  and  give  ginger  tea 
to  prevent  colds  —  practices  which  often  cause  puerperal  fever. 

It  is  appalling  to  think  of  the  barbarities  of  surgeons  in  heathen  countries, 
and  the  aggravations  of  human  suffering  caused  by  the  charlatanry  of  native 
doctors.  The  missionary  physicians  have  not  only  personally  relieved  much 
suffering;  they  have  educated  many  skillful  doctors  from  among  the  people, 
and  introduced  the  latest  improvements  of  medical  science.  They  have  not 
only  contributed  to  medical  literature  in  the  countries  where  they  practice,  but 
have  added  new  facts  to  medical  science  at  home. 

In  Western  Asia  they  have  contributed  elaborate  reports  on  the  diseases  of 
the  country,  as  modified  by  climate  and  modes  of  life.  Quotations  have  just 
been  made  from  an  article  by  Dr.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  of  Syria,  of  thirty-two 
pages,  in  the  Journal  of  our  Oriental  Society,  on  "  The  Present  Condition  of 
the  Medical  Profession  in  Syria." 

A  writer  in  the  British  Quarterly  ^  says  of  Dr.  Asahel  Grant :  "  He  was  con- 
tinually thronged  with  patients,  both  Moslem  and  Christian.  Children  brought 
their  aged  parents,  and  mothers  their  little  ones.  Those  blind  with  ophthalmia 
were  led  by  the  hand.^  Those  relieved  from  pain  kissed  his  feet,  or  even  his 
shoes  at  the  door.  He  gained  great  repute  by  the  removal  of  cataracts." 
Among  his  patients  were  Kurdish  chiefs,  Georgian  princes,  Persian  nobles,  and 
members  of  the  royal  family.  In  the  great  peril  of  his  first  journey  in  Kurdis- 
tan his  fame  as  a  physician  had  preceded  him,  and  kept  him  in  safety  where 
the  life  of  another  could  not  have  been  assured  for  an  hour. 

"  In  1846,  a  missionary  had  been  stoned  from  Aintab,  In  1852  Dr.  Henry 
Lobdell  was  treated  there  with  the  highest  respect,  because  he  was  a  physician. 
Several  hundreds,  both  Moslems  and  Christians,  signed  a  petition  for  him  to 
remain,  and  gray-haired  men  wept  when  assured  that  he  must  go;  scarcely 
had  he  set  foot  in  Mosul  when  he  was  besieged  by  patients  of  every  class.  A 
hundred,  high  and  low,  crowded  his  room  at  once.  The  people  were  astonished 
at  his  diagnosis.  He  wrote  to  a  friend:  'The  native  doctors  often  blister  the 
whole  head  and  cauterize  every  other  part  of  the  body  with  a  hot  iron.  I  am 
confident  that  I  do  twice  as  much  good  with  my  knowledge  of  medicine  as  I 
could  without  it.'  " 

The  unusual  zeal  to  retain  Dr.  Lobdell  at  Aintab  is  explained  by  the  impres- 
sion made  there  by  Dr.  Azariah  Smith,  who  died  in  1S51.  The  same  writer  in 
the  British  Quarterly  says  of  him  :  "  His  contributions  to  the  American  Orien- 
tal Society,  and  to  various  medical  journals,  show  his  wide  and  accurate  schol- 
arship ;  while  his  reputation  to-day  in  Northern  Syria  proves  his  success  as  a 

1  January,  187!!,  p.  27. 

2The  writer  remembers  how  often  their  eyes  were  swollen  to  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  when  the  good  doctor 
drew  the  eyelids  apart  the  pus  flowed  out  like  thick  cream. 


MEDICAL    SCIENCE. 


409 


practitioner,  and  that  he  had  won  the  confidence  and  love  of  the  people.  Arriv- 
ing at  Aintab  when  the  excitement  against  Americans  was  at  its  height,  he 
entirely  turned  the  tide  of  hostile  public  sentiment,  and  was  the  principal  instru- 
ment in  establishing  (and  giving  character  to)  the  Central  Turkey  mission, 
in  some  respects  the  most  successful  in  Turkey." 

No  one  who  knew  Dr.  Smith  can  ever  forget  him.  Without  much  of  the 
emotional  in  his  nature,  he  was  the  very  impersonation  of  consecration  to  God. 
The  writer  remembers  the  very  tone  and  attitude  in  which  he  once  said  :  "  If 
the  Lord  should  tell  me  to  take  a  small  hammer  and  go  out  and  pound  with 
it  a  great  granite  rock,  I  should  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  go  on  till  he  bade 
me  stop ;  nor  would  it  belong  to  me  to  ask  the  reason  for  the  command,  or  to 
be  anxious  about  results.  My  whole  duty  would  consist  in  doing  as  he  required, 
because  he  required  it ; "  and  these  words  expressed  the  spirit  of  his  life. 

"  Dr.  Henry  S.  West,  a  graduate  of  Yale  College,  ^fter  eighteen  years  of 
faithful  service,  has  recently  died  (1876).  He  was  of  small  stature,  nervous 
temperament,  and  genial  manners  —  a  man  who  loved  his  profession  passion- 
ately, and  devoted  his  life  to  doing  good.  His  modesty  was  proverbial.  He 
had  the  medical  care  of  many  missionary  families,  located  hundreds  of  miles 
apart,  and  all  his  journeys  were  on  horseback..  Unaided,  he  educated  nineteen 
3'oung  physicians  so  thoroughly,  that  when  one  of  them  was  examined  by  the 
faculty  of  the  government  medical  college,  they  expressed  the  indebtedness  of 
the  government  to  Dr.  West,  for  educating  so  many  physicians,  and  doing  it 
so  well.  He  had  to  practice  in  all  departments  of  medicine  and  surgery. 
Patients  came  from  all  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  often  through  much  danger  and 
suffering ;  for,  though  containing  more  than  ten  millions  of  people,  that  region 
was  almost  without  educated  physicians.  He  received  large  fees,  but  all  went 
to  build  churches  for  the  people.  On  a  journey  soon  after  his  arrival,  he 
stopped  at  a  rude  village  for  the  night,  and  was  told  of  a  man  suffering  in 
the  adjoining  khan  from  strangulated  hernia.  The  patient  had  suffered  for 
hours,  was  exhausted,  and  the  parts  much  swollen.  Dr.  West  did  not  know 
the  language,  and  had  no  help  but  a  servant  ready  to  faint  at  the  sight  of  blood. 
There  was  no  light  but  a  small  candle,  yet  he  did  not  hesitate.  He  performed 
the  operation  alone,  and  with  complete  success.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
had  performed  fourteen  hundred  operations  on  the  eyes,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
in  lithotomy,  and  thirteen  in  strangulated  hernia ;  and  in  his  last  sickness, 
mosques,  and  Armenian  as  well  as  Protestant  churches,  echoed  to  prayers  for 
his  recovery.  Thousands  followed  his  body  to  the  grave.  He  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  medical  practice  throughout  Asia  Minor,  and  in  him  the  empire  lost  a 
public  benefactor."  ^ 

After  describing  some  other  operations  by  Prof.  H.  Lee  Norris,  of  Aintab 
(for  the  medical  department  of  the  college  there  has  two  professors),  the  writer 
adds  :  ''  We  reluctantly  leave  this  interesting  part  of  our  subject,  feeling  that 
we  have  done  scant  justice  to  the  immense  amount  of  hard,  and  often  self- 
denying,  labors  of  missionary  physicians  in  Turkey,  most  of  whom  laid  down 
their  lives  in  the  work.  They  were  modest  men,  content  to  toil  quietly  and 
long.     They  rest  from  their  labors,  but  their  works  do  follow  them." 

1  Briiisk  Quarterly  Review,  1878,  p.  28,  abridged. 


41 0  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Rev.  Andrew  T.  Pratt,  M.D.,  was  another  beloved  physician  in  Turkey. 
Converted  when  but  ten  years  of  age,  his  desire  to  preach  the  Gospel  led  him 
to  commence  study  for  the  ministry.  Going  to  Turkey  in  1852,  his  first  station 
was  at  Aintab  ;  but  he  removed  to  Aleppo  in  1856,  and  to  Marash  in  1859. 
Besides  his  medical  practice,  he  educated  five  or  six  Armenians  as  physicians. 
But  his  remarkable  love  for  the  Turkish  language,  and  mastery  of  its  peculiar 
forms  and  idioms,  led  to  his  selection  as  the  associate  of  Dr.  E.  Riggs  in  the 
revision  of  the  Armeno-Turkish  Bible.  The  last  sheets  of  the  New  Testament 
were  in  the  press  when  he  was  called  home  in  December,  1872.  His  Turkish 
grammar  is  also  a  memorial  of  his  devotion  to  that  language.  His  fine  poetic 
taste  and  fondness  for  music  admirably  fitted  him  to  be  a  writer  of  hymns,  and 
many  of  the  best  lyrics  in  the  Armeno-Turkish  hymn-book  are  from  his  pen. 
Through  them,  as  well  as  through  the  pages  of  the  Turkish  New  Testament,  he 
being  dead  yet  speaketh.' 

In  India,  besides  his  labors  as  physician.  Dr.  John  Scudder  began  the  work 
of  educating  native  physicians  in  Madras.  Dr.  Samuel  F.  Green  succeeded 
Dr.  Nathan  Ward  in  Ceylon,  and  was  very  successful  in  raising  up  nearly  one 
hundred  well  educated  physicians  there.  At  the  dispensaries  of  Ceylon,  Mad- 
ura, and  Dindigul,  in  1878,  forty  thousand  cases  were  treated.  At  Dindigul, 
also.  Dr.  Edward  Chester  has  thoroughly  organized  the  work. 

Among  missionary  ladies,  Mrs.  S.  B.  Capron  has  begun  medical  labors  with 
marked  success  at  Madura,  Miss  E.  K.  Ogden,  M.D.,  at  Sholapur,  and  Miss 
S.  F.  Norris,  M.D.,  at  Bombay.  Mrs.  Leonard,  also,  of  Marsovan,  in  Turkey, 
though  not  an  educated  physician,  by  her  successful  treatment  of  the  sick  has 
been  the  means  of  bringing  many  of  the  wealthier  Armenians  to  the  knowledge 
of  Christ,  and  even  opened  a  way  for  the  truth  into  Turkish  families  of  the 
highest  rank.^ 

iNIany  a  superstition  has  received  its  death-blow  from  our  missionary  physi- 
cians;  many  errors  in  native  practice  have  been  corrected;  and  a  good  begin- 
ning made  in  providing  standard  medical  works  for  India.  Rev.  H.  J.  Bruce 
prepared  a  work  on  anatomy.^  S.  F.  Green,  M.D.,  wrote  thirty-two  treatises  in 
Tamil,  among  them  a  volume  on  Obstetrics,  pp.  258,  i2mo;  on  Pharmacopoeia, 
pp.  500,  8vo;  on  Surgery,  pp.  504,  8vo ;  on  Medical  Vocabulary  and  Medical 
Jurisprudence,  pp.  161;  on  Anatomy,  pp.  838,  8vo  ;  on  Physiology,  pp.  700, 
8vo;  a  School  Anatomy^  Physiology,  etc.,  pp.  204,  12 mo  ;  Practice  of  Medicine, 
pp.  917,  8vo  ;  Mother  and  Child,  pp.  44,  i8mo  ;  The  Soul's  Abode,  pp.  44  ;  Secref 
Vice,  pp.  32  ;  and  on  Chemistry,  pp.  516,  8vo ;  besides  works  on  the  Hand, 
Eye,  Ear,  Foot,  etc.  At  home  he  has  published  in  the  Neiii  York  Medical 
jfournal  an  article  on  Tamil  Obstetrics,  and  another  on  Tamil  Surgery.  Dr. 
E.  C.  Scudder  has  contributed  articles  to  periodicals  in  India.  Missionary 
physicians  have  sent  home  specimens  in  medical  botany,  and  in  anatomy,  to 
specialists  in  those  departments,  and  have  communicated  facts  from  their 
foreign  practice  to  throw  light  on  points  debated  among  us.  At  the  same  time, 
where  they  reside,  they  correct  false  systems,  which  inflict  needless  pain  and 

1  Missionary  Herald,  1873,  pp.  75-77-  "  Romance  0/ Missions,  pp.  284,  709. 

2  Bombay,  1S78,  pp.  340,  Svo.     .\Iarathi  and  English. 


MEDICAL    SCIENCE.  411 

often  hasten  death  instead  of  restoring  health.  They  also  teach  the  sacred- 
ness  of  human  Hfe.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the  natives  esteem  them 
very  highly  in  love  for  their  work's  sake. 

At  the  Shanghai  conference,  in  1877,  it  was  stated  that  in  China  native  doc- 
tors were  not  only  ignorant  of  anatomy,  but  also  of  the  nature  of  disease 
and  the  properties  of  medicines,  wliile  they  violate  all  rules  of  hygiene  ;  and 
Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  president  of  the  imperial  university,^  said  that  it  was  not 
easy  to  estimate  the  vah.ie  of  the  books  prepared  by  missionary  physicians,  or 
of  the  scientific  and  other  periodicals  to  which  missionaries  contributed. 
There  was  such  a  growing  demand  for  scientific  books  that  he  could  not  spend 
a  night  in  an  interior  city  but  some  of  the  best  citizens  applied  for  them  ;  and 
others  present  corroborated  his  testimony. 

The  first  medical  missionary  in  China  was  Dr.  Peter  Parker,  sent  out  by  the 
American  Board.  In  1835  he  opened  an  ophthalmic  hospital  in  Canton.  The 
mission  advanced  the  necessary  funds,  and  within  a  year  it  was  repaid  by  the 
foreign  con-Miiunity.  The  medical  missionary  society  was  now  formed,  and 
Howqua,  a  native  hong  merchant,  gave  the  free  use  of  a  house  w^orth  $600  rent, 
for  twenty  years."  Tilings,  however,  were  quite  different  at  the  outset.  Tlien, 
Dr.  Parker  liad  great  difirculty  in  securing  a  building,  and  when  it  was  ready 
no  patients  came  the  first  day.  On  the  second,  a  woman  courageously  trusted 
herself  in  the  hands  of  the  foreigner.  Next  day  half  a  dozen  came,  encouraged 
by  her  success,  and  soon  the  street  was  full.  So  anxious  were  they  to  secure 
his  services  that  even  women  of  the  better  class  staid  all  night  in  the  street,  so 
as  to  secure  an  early  admission.  Long  lines  of  sedan  chairs  almost  choked  up 
the  narrow  lane.  Great  men  with  their  attendants  waited  their  turn  to  see  the 
foreign  doctor.  As  many  as  a  thousand  were  w^aiting  at  once,  and  there  was 
danger  that  people  would  be  injured  by  the  pressure.  Some  came  from  a  great 
distance.  Sometimes  blind  people  from  a  far-off  village  clubbed  together  to 
charter  a  boat  to  Canton,  and  then  waited  four  or  five  days  after  their  arrival, 
till  there  was  a  vacancy  for  new  patients.  One  gentleman  came  a  thousand 
miles.  Magistrates  and  high  officials  were  among  the  patients.  One  commis- 
sioner, who  had  been  cured,  sent  a  tablet  inscribed :  "  Under  your  skillful  hand 
(from  the  winter  of  disease)  the  spring  (of  health)  returns."  Another  wrote  : 
"  Let  the  merits  of  Jesus,  the  Saviour  of  men,  be  proclaimed  throughout  the 
world." 

Dr.  Parker  published  frequent  reports,  and  sent  home  sketches  of  •some 
special  operations,  now  in  the  medical  museum  of  Yale  College.  Ill  health 
compelled  him  to  resign  the  work  in  1855.  Missionary  hospitals  have  been 
established  at  Macao,  Hong  Kong,  and  all  the  open  ports,  by  the  missionaries  of 
other  societies,  as  well  as  our  own.  Not  less  than  a  miflion  cases  had  been 
treated  previous  to  1861,  and  the  work  has  greatly  increased  since  then.  Dr. 
H.  D.  Porter  treats  several  thousand  cases  annually  in  North  China.  Four- 
teen missionar}'  hospitals  are  now  in  operation  in  China. 

It  has  been  pleasant  to  see  how  the  sick  trusted  the  missionary  physician. 
One  was  told  that  in  spite  of  every  precaution  the  operation  might  prove  fatal, 

iThe  Tung  Wan  Kwan.  -Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  in  Presbyterian  Review,  1881,  p.  34. 


412 


THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


but  he  Interrupted  the  doctor  with  the  remark,  "  I  liave  known  you  too  long  to 
require  anything  now  to  inspire  my  confidence."  The  operation  was  success- 
ful. The  Chinese  are  generally  quiet  patients,  and  seem  to  care  little  for  the 
pain. 

Rev.  C.  Hartwell,  Missionary  Herald,  1S78,  pp.  243-245,  shows  how  Western 
science,  in  other  departments  as  well  as  in  medicine,  is  rapidly  overcoming  Chi- 
nese prejudice. 

The  reports  of  the  Fuhchau  Medical  Missionary  Hospital  furnish  a  more 
full  account  of  the  labors  of  D.  W.  Osgood,  M.D.,  which  may  be  tabulated  thus: 


Years. 

Patients. 

Expenses. 

1873 

7.925 

$838.12 

1874 

1875 

8,253 

892.40 

1876 

5.134' 

741-53 

1877 

6,203 

878.00 

1878 

7,288 

1,451.52 

1879 

9,578 

794- '  2 

1 880 

7,838 

1,212.42 

MEDICAL    msStONAKY    HOSPITAL,    FUHCHAU. 

Expenses.      Local  Subscriptions.  Chinese  Subscriptions.  Total. 

$1,084.00  $209.00  $1,293.00 


1,005  00 

172.00 

1,177.00 

Hid  fees 

#31 

81  00 

1,064.00 

233-00 

1,297.00 

10.00 

300.00 

310.00 

1,620.00 

475-17 

2,095.17 

These  figures  \\*ill  not  balance,  for  other  sources  of  income  are  not  here 
given.  The  whole  number  of  different  patients  from  the  beginning,  excluding 
from  the  count  all  subsequent  visits  of  the  same  patient,  was  fifty-one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  thirty-eight.  These  have  represented  nearly  every  class, 
and  also  nearly  every  province  in  China.  The  building,  of  which  a  view  is 
here  subjoined,  was  finished  May  i,  1S7S.     It  contains  eleven   rooms,  one  for 

1  This  year  Miss  S.  Trask,  M.D.,  relieved  hitii  of  many  of  his  female  patients. 


MEDICINE.  413 

paying  patients,  seven  wards  for  otliers,  two  rooms  for  tlie  assistants,  and  an 
operating  room.  It  accommodates  from  fifty  to  sixty  patients.  Three  rooms 
for  cooking  are  in  another  building.     The  entire  cost  of  all  was  $2,270.35. 

The  table  of  diseases  treated  is  very  suggestive.  Cutaneous  diseases  are 
by  far  the  most  numerous,  owing  to  the  uncleanliness  of  the  Chinese  and  their 
dread  of  cold  water,  externally  at  least.  They  count  up  eleven  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-two  in  the  eight  years,  and  ulcers  four  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty-six.  He  mentions  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty- 
four  cases  of  diseases  of  the  mouth,  teeth,  and  lips.  Rheumatism  comes  next, 
furnishing  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  twenty  cases.  Diseases  of  the 
digestive  system  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  ninety-five ;  conjunctivitis, 
two  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirteen  ;  bronchitis,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twelve ;  human  parasites  form  one  item  numbering  six  hundred  and  four 
cases.  Syphilis  furnishes  eight  hundred  and  fifty-three,  and  sodomy  seventy- 
one  cases ;  injuries  caused  by  beatings  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  twent}'- 
two,  and  by  bites  sixty-seven.  These  include  bites  by  dogs,  which  native 
doctors  treat  by  drawing  a  circle  round  the  wound  and  writing  "  tiger  "  in  it, 
because  the  tiger  is  more  than  a  match  for  the  dog ;  but  some  were  caused  by 
human  teeth  in  fighting.  One  military  officer  was  bitten  by  a  thief  Vv'hom  he 
was  arresting,  so  that  he  seemed  for  several  days  about  to  lose  his  hand  ;  and  a 
woman  had  one  hand  entirely  denuded  of  the  muscles,  so  that  the  bones  were 
connected  only  by  their  ligaments,  as  the  result  of  a  bite  in  a  family  quarrel.  The 
suppuration  in  such  wounds  is  unusually  great.  Dr.  Osgood  dissents  from  Dr. 
Williams'  statement  in  T/ie  Middle  Kingdom^  that  "  the  practice  of  compress- 
ing the  feet  is  more  inconvenient  than  dangerous,  for  few  or  none  come  to  hos- 
pitals with  ailments  caused  by  it,"  and  says  that  every  year  he  has  cases  of 
ulcers  resulting  from  the  arrest  of  circulation  in  the  foot  by  that  unnatural  proc- 
ess,^ and  that  the  appearance  of  the  foot  when  stripped  of  its  bandages  is 
thoroughly  disgusting.  In  his  report  for  1873  he  gives  a  drawing  of  a  fibroid 
tumor  of  the  neck  before  and  after  treatment ;  also  of  a  case  of  excision  of  the 
eye.  While  he  had  one  hundred  and  four  cases  of  elephantiasis  in  the  leg,  he 
had  sixty-two  of  the  same  disease  in  the  scrotum,  generally  proceeding  from 
ague,  and  the  swelling  so  great  that  in  twenty-six  operations  he  removed  three 
hundred  and  eighty-four  pounds  from  that  part  of  the  body.  One  case  he  men- 
tions weighing  forty-five  pounds,  measuring  three  feet  in  circumference. 

While  this  hospital  practice  opened  a  way  for  the  Gospel,  his  labors  in  con- 
nection with  opium  were  more  fruitful  in  this  respect,  for,  as  the  Chinese  are 
very  bitter  against  foreigners  for  introducing  the  drug,  which  they  look  on  as 
an  unmitigated  curse,  they  are  correspondingly  grateful  for  any  alleviation  of  the 
evil.  As  early  as  1876  Dr.  Osgood  cured  one  hundred  and  seven  smokers  of 
opium.  At  first  they  were  required  to  deposit  a  dollar  on  entering,  which 
was  refunded  if  they  remained  till  discharged.  After  the  opium  asylum  was 
opened  two  dollars  were  charged  and  one  refunded.  This  excluded  vagabonds 
and  helped  their  purpose  to  remain  and  conquer  the  habit.  Dr.  Osgood 
stopped  the  use  of  the  drug  in  toto  from  the  first ;  used  quinine,  tonics,  a  good 

'  Vol.  II,  p.  38.  -  Report  for  1S75,  p.  5  ;   iSSo,  p.  3. 


414 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


diet,  and  in  some  cases  stimulants.  Chloral  hydrate  was  used  for  two  or  three 
nights,  if  needed  ;  so  also  bromide  of  potassia,  iron,  etc.  The  appetite  ceased 
generally  in  about  a  week,  and  though  impaired  vitality,  or  even  disease, 
resulted  from  the  habit,  yet  more  than  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  cures  were  perma- 
nent. Very  few  women  or  children  use  the  drug.  Of  boatmen,  chair  coolies, 
and  the  like,  perhaps  one  half  use  it,  while  in  some  farming  communities  very 
few  are  addicted  to  the  practice,  though  the  Chinese  say  that  "  opium  shops 
outnumber  rice  shops,"  and  universally  condemn  its  use.  Dr.  Osgood  never 
heard  a  Chinaman  advocate  the  practice.  He  gives  tables  showing  the  occu- 
pation of  his  opium  patients,  their  ages,  the  amount  they  used  daily,  and  the 
time  they  had  been  addicted  to  it.  The  opium  hospital  was  opened  in  1878- 
1879,  as  a  separate  and  self-supporting  institution,  and  in  1880  fifteen  hundred 
cases  had  been  treated  in  it  with  good  success. 

Among  the  patients  at  the  hospital  was  a  military  officer,  who  had  been  an 
opium  smoker.  He  was  severely  sick  when  he  came,  but  after  a  while  was 
cured.  He  was  so  grateful  that  he  set  up  a  tablet  in  the  hospital,  with  an 
inscription,  of  which  we  here  give  an  exact  copy,  only  very  much  smaller  than 
the  original.  Here  is  the  translation  of  it,  the  title  being  the  four  words  in 
largest  type : 

"  The  Chinese  and  Foreigti  [are  as)  Own  Brothers. 

"  The  Honorable  Osgood  from  the 
West,  esteemed  an  excellent  physician, 
of  skill  in  the  land,  crossed  an  ocean  to 
China ;  of  mind  clear  and  expansive, 
with  a  manifest  spirit  of  brotherly  re- 
gard toward  the  people.  I  dwell  affec- 
tionately on  his  name.  When  residing 
in  the  asylum  and  submitting  to  med- 
ical treatment,  the  approach  of  his  hand 
expelled  disease  as  when  (the  genius) 
Hwa-to  was  in  the  world.  This  truly 
was  a  fortune  bestowed  by  Heaven  !  I 
therefore  inscribe  four  words,  'Chung 
Wai  T'ung  Pao,'  not  only  as  a  memo- 
rial of  gratitude,  but  also  of  love. 

"Great  Pure  Dynasty,  Kwangsii,  5th  year,  istmoon,  on  a  felicitous  day.  Chiu 
Taik  Seng  of  (''hu-nang  respectfully  erects  this  tablet." 

Since  the  above  was  written,  news  has  come  of  the  death  of  Dr.  Osgootl  at 
tl\e  sanitarium  near  Puhchau,  August  17,  iSSo.  Tlie  next  number  of  The  Fith- 
chau  Herald  was  clad  in  mourning,  and  the  main  article  was  an  account  of  him 
and  his  work,  written  by  an  English  banker  who  had  watched  his  labors  and 
learned  to  appreciate  them.  After  describing  his  medical  work,^  he  adds:  "It 
w'ould  not  be  strange  if  many  of  his  fifty  thousand  patients  should  echo  those 
words,  first  heard  near  the  cross,  '  He  saved  others,  himself  he  cannot  save.' 

'  See  missionary  Herald,  iSSo,  pp.  489-490. 


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^f-^BS'S 

A    MEMORIAL   TABLET. 


MEDICINE.  415 

"  For  four  years,  every  hour  that  he  could  spare  from  his  other  duties  has 
been  devoted  to  the  translation  of  a  standard  work  on  anatomy,  and  it  is  very 
much  to  the  strain  occasioned  by  his  unremitting  labors  on  this  book  that  his 
early  death  is  to  be  attributed.  The  work  will  soon  be  issued  in  five  volumes, 
illustrated  by  numerous  almost  perfect  plates.  The  finishing  touches  were 
given  only  the  day  before  he  left  home.  Too  great  value  cannot  be  assigned 
to  this  work,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  China.  It  may  safely  be  predicted  that  for 
many  years  to  come  it  will  remain  a  standard  work,  and  conduce  to  the  improve- 
ment of  medical  knowledge  in  this  vast  empire." 

Rev.  J.  E.  Walker  once  remarked  to  a  native  helper  that  $10,000  could  not 
hire  a  physician  to  do  as  Dr.  Osgood  did.  "No,  indeed,"  was  the  reply,  "nor 
several  tens.  Why,  all  his  patients  were  those  that  had  been  given  up  by  our 
native  doctors."^ 

In  Japan,  Drs.  J.  C.  Berry,  M.  L.  Gordon,  W.  Taylor,  and  A.  H.  Adams  are 
doing  a  good  work  on  a  much  larger  scale.  Dr.  Berry  has  had  access  to  all 
parts  of  the  empire,  even  to  the  extreme  north.  He  has  obtained  important 
concessions  from  the  government.  The -privilege  of  a  dissecting-room  was 
granted  to  him  for  investigating  the  pathology  of  a  disease  not  known  in  this 
country,  and  subjects  were  provided  from  deceased  criminals.  At  the  opening 
of  the  building  provided  by  the  government,  he  delivered  an  address,  showing 
among  other  things  that  the  Christian  religion  favored  the  advance  of  science. 
A  hundred  and  fifty  physicians  were  present,  and  so  favorable  was  the  impres- 
sion that  several  took  manuscript  copies  of  the  address. 

In  1874  he  had  charge  of  five  hospitals  supported  in  different  places  by  the 
people,  and  the  government  even  appropriated  Buddhist  temples  to  that  pur- 
pose. 

In  January,  1875,  a  medical  society,  composed  of  twenty-four  Japanese  and 
two  Americans,  was  organized,  which  Dr.  A.  H.  Adams  reported  as  meeting 
twice  a  month  with  increasing  interest. 

That  same  year  Dr.  Berry  asked  permission  to  visit  the  prisons,  in  order  to 
learn  their  system  of  prison  discipline  and  suggest  useful  reforms  ;  the  request 
was  not  only  granted,  but  his  report  to  the  government,  suggesting  separate 
cells,  improved  sanitary  arrangements,  and  other  reforms,  was  published  at  its 
expense,  and  orders  issued  to  put  these  reforms  in  practice.  This  is  the  more 
remarkable,  as  Gospel  ideas  were  set  forth  as  the  only  true  basis  of  such 
improvements. 

In  1877  he  opened  a  medical  school  at  Kobe. 

May  29,  1879,  1^^  writes  concerning  the  hospital  under  his  charge  at  Oka- 
yama :  "  In  the  medical  branch  I  can  expect  nothing  more  than  I  have 
received.  Yesterday  every  obnoxious  official  was  removed,  and  men  of  my 
selection  appointed  in  their  places.  To-day  my  new  hospital  staff,  embracing 
six  of  the  best  physicians  in  the  city,  called  on  me  in  a  body." 

Rev.  T.  S.  Williamson,  M.D.,  gives  a  short  account  of  medicine  among  the 
Dakotas.^     With  them  the  priest  and  physician  are  one,  as  they  believe  that  all 

1  Missionary  Herald,  iSSi,  p.  69.  2  Gospel  A  mong  the  Dakotas,  pp.  435-450- 


41 6  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

diseases  are  caused  by  evil  spirits ;  tlie  tiling  is  to  find  out  what  spirit  caused 
the  disease,  and  then  cast  him  out.  Both  are  done  by  incantations,  accom- 
panied with  much  noise  and  imposture.  They  also  us^  simples,  mostly  roots 
and  herbs,  but  ascribe  the  effect  to  the  spirit  and  not  to  any  property  of  the 
drug.  One  in  ten  of  the  men,  and  one  in  thirty  of  the  women,  are  doctors. 
Dr.  Williamson  only  knew  one  who  gave  medicine  without  conjuring.  Some 
of  them  are  excellent  nurses,  and  do  good  in  that  way.  They  practice  bleed- 
ing with  a  sharp  flint,  and  also  cupping.  For  a  purgative  they  rely  on  the  root 
of  a  tall  species  of  euphorbium  ;  and  to  reduce  swellings  they  use  chiefly  blue 
root,  a  species  of  pyrethrum.  They  use  for  an  anaesthetic  the  fumes  of  calamus 
and  some  other  substances  burned  together.  They  gladly  avail  themselves  of 
the  services  of  educated  physicians.  Even  the  medicine  men  themselves  do 
this,  though  they  do  what  they  can  to  dissuade  others  from  doing  the  same. 

At  present  the  Board  sustains  fourteen  educated  physicians,  who  are  not 
only  opening  doors  for  the  entrance  of  the  Gospel,  but  elevating  the  standard 
of  medical  practice,  and  so  diminishing  the  amount  of  human  suffering,  and 
increasing  the  sum  of  human  enjoyment  in  every  country  where  they  reside. 

The  writer  does  not  know  at  what  time  other  societies  began  to  employ 
missionary  physicians,  but  the  American  Board  sent  out  Thomas  Holman, 
M.D.,  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  in  1819,  and  W.  W.  Pride,  M.D.,  to  the  Choc- 
taws  the  same  year.  Four  others  were  sent  to  the  Sandwich  Islands:  Dr. 
A.  Blatchly  in  1822,  Dr.  G.  P.  Judd  in  1827,  Dr.  A.  Chapin  in  1831,  and  Dr. 
S.  L.  Andrews  in  1836.  After  183 1  there  was  a  great  increase  in  the  number 
sent  forth,  twelve  being  commissioned  between  that  and  1837,  for  different 
parts  of  the  world.  At  first  the  Board  seems  to  have  employed  them  with 
special  reference  to  the  missionaries,  but  afterwards  more  for  the  sake  of  their 
usefulness  among  the  people  where  they  lived. 


XIX. 
COMMERCE  AND  THE  ARTS. 


Some  would  have  us  rely  on  commerce  for  the  uplifting  of  degraded  peoples. 
Doubtless  commerce  has  its  place  among  the  influences  that  work  toward  that 
result.  It  is  the  enemy  of  idleness.  It  stimulates  to  effort.  It  promotes 
thrift.  It  excites  ambition  to  better  one's  condition.  It  creates  an  activity 
favorable  for  the  development  of  many  virtues.  But  commerce  alone,  without 
the  living  power  of  Christianity  to  neutralize  its  evils,  does  not  elevate.  The 
history  of  our  missions  furnishes  some  striking  lessons  on  this  point. 

In  October,  1825,  Rev.  W.  Richards  and  family  were  laboring  alone  on  the 
island  of  Maui,  in  the  North  Pacific.  The  English  whale-ship  "Daniel,"  Captain 
Buckle,  arrived,  and  finding  that  the  native  women  did  not  visit  the  ship  as  form- 
erly, the  crew  went  in  a  body  and  complained  to  the  missionary.  He  reasoned 
with  them  ;  but  in  vain.  They  rushed  into  the  house,  raging  and  threatening  to 
destroy  his  property,  burn  his  dwelling,  and  kill  himself  and  family.  Mr.  Rich- 
ards told  them  :  "  We  came  here  to  devote  our  lives  to  the  salvation  of  men. 
We  are  ready  for  life  or  for  death,  but  we  will  not  consent  to  undo  the  work  of 
God."  His  wife,  also,  though  sick  at  the  time,  and  unprotected  in  the  midst 
of  her  children,  expressed  her  readiness  to  share  the  fate  of  her  husband,  but 
would  not  accept  life  upon  their  terms.  Such  unexpected  firmness  restrained 
their  violence  for  the  moment,  but  not  their  abuse.  Next  day  the  captain,  in 
reply  to  a  note  from  the  missionary,  promised  peace  on  condition  of  his  acceding 
to  the  demands  of  the  crev/.  All  this  while  the  captain  had  a  native  woman  on 
board,  for  whom  he  had  paid  $160,  and  compelled  to  remain  with  him  through 
the  cruise.  But  the  lonely  missionary  was  immovable ;  and  when  on  the  mor- 
row the  crew  came  with  a  black  flag,  knives,  and  pistols,  and  pressed  their  way 
to  the  door,  Sandwich  Island  clubs,  vigorously  wielded  by  indignant  natives, 
drove  the  cowardly  mob  away,  though  a  strong  guard  had  to  be  kept  night 
and  day  to  protect  the  missionary  from   Christian  sailors. 

Will  it  be  believed  that,  two  years  later,  the  British  consul  at  Honolulu,  in 
official  dress,  along  with  Captain  Buckle,  some  weak-kneed  chiefs,  and  several 
foreign  merchants,  strode  into  the  hall  of  council  and  demanded  of  Kaahumanu 
that  Mr.  Richards  be  punished  because  he  had  written  an  account  of  these  pro- 
ceedings to  the  American  Board  at  Boston  ? 

in  the  following   January,  the  United  States  schooner  "Dolphin,"  under 

27  (417) 


4l8  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

command  of  Lieutenant  John  Percival  — stet  opprohrii  ?i07nen  —  arrived  at  Hono- 
lulu, and  her  commander  took  decided  ground  against  the  law  that  forbade  the 
transgression  of  the  seventh  commandment ;  and  on  the  Lord's  Day,  February 
26,  a  company  of  sailors  from  the  schooner  entered  the  house  of  the  sick  chief, 
with  knives  and  clubs,  and  demanded  its  repeal.  They  were  driven  out  after 
they  had  broken  the  windows  ;  and  when  they  overtook  the  missionary  on  his 
way  to  his  own  home,  only  the  prompt  protection  of  the  natives  saved  him  and 
his  family  from  personal  injury,  while  an  officer  of  the  American  navy  reiterated 
in  the  strongest  terms  his  determination  that  the  law  should  be  repealed. 
Some  complain  that,  notwithstanding  missionary  labors,  the  Hawaiian  race  is 
doomed  to  extinction.  How  long  would  it  have  survived  such  treatment  ?  We 
are  not  surprised,  however  much  we  may  be  grieved,  at  the  conduct  of  the 
drunken  crew  of  a  whaler,  composed,  as  such  crews  often  are,  of  the  offscour- 
ings of  a  seaport;  but  that  a  naval  officer  should  so  far  forget  himself  and 
the  reputation  of  his  flag,  shows  how  deep-rooted  and  wide-spread  was  the 
mischief  thus  wrought  among  helpless  heathen.  Small  hopes  of  the  world's 
regeneration  if  it  must  come  through  such  channels.^  It  is  owing  to  the  mis- 
sionaries that  the  Hawaiian  race  has  been  saved  from  the  destruction  that 
otherwise  had  come  to  it  from  Christian  lands. 

This,  however,  is  only  one  side  of  a  world-wide  evil. 

Take  another  side,  as  described  by  Rev.  William  Walker,^  of  West  Africa. 
After  speaking  of  discouragements  in  his  work,  he  adds :  Worse  than  these 
things  are  the  streams  of  fire  poured  out  from  Christian  lands  and  rolling  on 
incessantly.  The  people  sink  beneath  the  flood,  and  there  remains  but  a  sea 
of  salt  surrounded  by  a  land  of  desolation.  We  shudder  at  the  Italian  assassin 
who  first  induces  his  victim  to  abjure  his  God  on  the  promise  of  life,  and  then 
plunges  the  dagger  to  his  heart,  but  so-called  Christian  commerce  commits  the 
same  atrocities  every  day  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

Travelers  write  of  the  coast  climate  as  consuming  the  tribes  that  come  down 
from  the  interior ;  but  the  chief  cause  of  their  wasting  away  must  be  looked  for 
in  cargoes  coming  from  Christian  seaports.  Superstition  demands  its  victims, 
but  Mammon  offers  ever-smoking  holocausts.  The  missionary  toils  at  the  very 
entrance  of  Gehenna. 

Rev.  William  Anderson,  a  Scotch  missionary  in  old  Calabar,  writes  :  "  But 
for  the  British  rum-trade,  long  ere  this  our  native  membership  might  have  been 
numbered  by  hundreds  instead  of  tens."  Another  writes  even  more  sharply ; 
and  what  can  be  more  severe  than  to  charge  on  British  Christians  the  annihila- 
tion of  nine  tenths  of  the  labor  of  one  of  their  ablest  missions?  And  it  is  even 
worse  at  the  Gaboon. 

Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  President  of  the  Tungwen  College,  Peking,  in  a  paper 
entitled  "The  Renaissance  of  China," '^  quotes  from  an  essay  jDublished  in  a 

'  llingbam's  Sandwich  Islands,  p.  274;  Dibble's  Sandiuich  Islands,  pp.  217-226;  Missionary  Herald,  1826, 
pp.  208,  244;   1S27,  pp.  38-43;   182S,  pp.  275-2S1. 

-  Annual  Report,  1870,  p.  6. 

3  See  The  Chinese,  their  Education,  Philosophy,  and  Letters,  i2mo,  pp.  3'9i  Harper  &  Brothers,  Now  York, 
i88i. 


COMMERCE   AND   THE   ARTS.  419 

Chinese  newspaper  by  Chang-lu-seng,  now  vice-minister  to  Japan,  a  nobleman 
of  wealth,  who  has  written  one  volume  on  engineering  and  another  on  chemis- 
try. In  discussing  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  foreign  intercourse, 
he  says:  "Commencing  with  the  last  years  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  we  opened 
the  seaports  of  Kwang-tung  to  foreign  trade,  doing  a  profitable  business  in  teas 
and  silks,  receiving  in  return  woolen  and  cotton  fabrics,  as  well  as  clocks, 
watches,  mirrors,  and  other  luxuries  ;  but  opium  came  in  also,  and  its  poisonous 
streams  have  penetrated  to  the  core  of  the  Flowery  Land."  To  the  advantage 
derived  from  the  purchase  of  foreign  arms,  from  the  assistance  of  foreigners  in 
suppressing  the  late  rebellion,  and  to  the  protection  which  they  extend  over  the 
open  ports,  he  does  ample  justice.  Still  he  concludes  that  the  "advantages 
derived  from  foreign  commerce  are  not  sufficient  to  make  amends  for  the  evils 
it  occasioned.  But  the  benefits  which  we  derive  from  the  teachings  of  the  mis- 
sionaries are  more  than  we  can  enumerate."  He  then  recapitulates  the  scien- 
tific publications  of  missionaries,  from  those  of  the  Jesuits  two  centuries  ago,  to 
those  of  Protestants  today,  and  closes  the  catalogue  with  the  remark :  "  All 
tiiese  are  the  works  of  missionaries.  They  are  well  adapted  to  augment  the 
knowledge  and  quicken  the  intellect  of  China.  Their  influence  on  our  future 
will  be  unbounded."  And  though  he  has  little  personal  sympathy  with  Chris- 
tianity, he  adds  :  "China  is  much  given  to  idolatry,  which  is  to  us  a  source  of 
wasteful  and  foolish  practices.  Now  Christianity  teaches  men  to  renounce 
idol  worship,  in  conformity  with  the  maxim  of  Confucius,  that  he  who  sins 
against  Heaven  will  pray  in  vain  to  any  other.  Should  we  attend  to  these 
instructions,  our  women  would  cease  to  frequent  the  temples,  and  we  should 
waste  no  more  money  in  idolatrous  processions.  Monasteries  would  be  turned 
into  private  residences,  and  their  yellow-capped  inmates  would  not  fleece  the 
people  by  their  deceptions.  Their  services  and  charms  would  be  laughed  at, 
and  this  would  be  a  great  gain."  ^ 

If  we  were  to  undertake  to  determine  the  relations  of  missions  to  commerce 
in  India,  there  are  so  many  other  elements  to  be  considered  in  the  problem, 
that  it  might  be  difficult  to  reach  a  satisfactory  solution.  The  influence  of  the 
British  dominion  in  that  country  would  introduce  uncertainty  into  all  our  con- 
clusions. So  the  opium  trade  complicates  the  matter  very  much  in  China. 
But  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  we  can  trace  much  more  clearly  the  influence 
of  missions  on  commerce,  and  feel  more  sure  of  our  results.  True,  the  slave- 
trade,  under  a  more  euphonious  name,  has  created  disturbance  there,  also ;  but 
that  did  not  begin  until  after  the  relations  of  missions  to  commerce  in  those 
islands  were  fully  established  and  plainly  manifest. 

Missions  found  those  islands  possessed  of  an  admirable  climate,  and  also  of 
much  fruitful  soil,  but  the  people  were  slothful ;  there  was  nothing  to  stimulate 
exertion,  and  the  oppression  of  their  rulers  tended  to  hinder  all  energy  and 
enterprise.  So  they  were  content  to  do  little  more  than  consume  the  sponta- 
neous productions  of  the  soil,  with  such  fish  as  they  could  readily  procure  from 
the  sea. 

Missions,  by  bringing  the   Gospel  into   connection  with  mind  and  heart, 

^ M'ssio/iarj' h' i:raM,  iS^i,  p.  2ic). 


420  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

developed  man  in  his  earthly  relations.  He  woke  up  to  see  that  he  was  naked 
and  needed  clothing.  The  supply  of  this  want  necessitated  commerce,  and  the 
need  of  buying  clothing  stimulated  production  at  home  in  order  to  procure  the 
wherewith  to  purchase  the  commodities  of  other  lands.  It  was  the  influence  of 
missions,  also,  that  in  like  manner^  led  to  the  erection  of  comfortable  homes, 
and  furnishing  them  with  convenient  furniture ;  for  clothing  required  places  for 
safe-keeping,  and  the  new-clad  household  felt  the  need  of  a  corresponding 
advance  in  other  things  ;  they  could  no  longer  sit  on  the  ground,  and  chairs 
involved  tables,  and  tables  cupboards,  and  other  things  as  well. 

Their  rulers,  also,  under  the  same  divine  influences,  laid  aside  their  savage 
violence,  and  voluntarily  introduced  constitutional  modes  of  government;  and 
these  again,  as  they  involved  expense,  also  stimulated  to  modes  of  meeting  it 
that  would  be  permanent,  and  not  repress  the  energy  and  activity  on  which 
they  depended  for  success.  Hence  commerce  arose  and  flourished  under  the 
stimulus  provided  by  the  Gospel. 

True,  there  were  beginnings  of  commerce  where  there  were  no  missions ; 
but  nothing  to  compare  with  those  islands  where  the  missionary  work  developed 
the  capacities  of  man  for  this  life,  as  well  as  for  the  life  to  come. 

A  solitary  trader  might  settle  in  some  island  and  collect  a  little  of  its  natu- 
ral products,  but  the  immorality  which  he  too  often  fostered,  and  the  untruth- 
fulness, in  Avhich  he  also  set  the  example,  repressed  all  enterprise,  and  made 
progress  an  impossibility,  if  it  did  not  provoke  reprisals  that  involved  commerce 
and  trader  in  a  common  destruction. 

Missions,  on  the  other  hand,  constantly  diminished  the  dangers  that  from 
the  first  grew  out  of  heathen  ferocity  and  treachery.  The  isles  of  the  Pacific 
furnish  abundant  illustration  of  this.  Multitudes  there  have  been  the  victims 
of  savage  violence ;  but  wherever  missionaries  go,  safety  and  kind  treatment 
take  the  place  of  peril  and  slaughter.  Look  on  two  pictures  in  connection  with 
our  mission  to  Micronesia. 

October  5,  1835,  ^^^^  whaler  "  Awashonks  "  was  standing  off  and  on  one  of 
the  Marshall  Islands.  While  one  watch  was  below  and  three  men  aloft,  the 
natives  on  board,  at  a  preconcerted  signal,  snatched  the  whale-spades  from  the 
rack,  and  instantly  the  captain,  mate,  and  second  mate  were  slain,  with  four  of 
the  crew.  The  third  mate  fired  up  through  the  binnacle  so  as  to  kill  the  chief, 
who  had  taken  the  place  of  the  man  at  the  wheel,  and  when  he  fell  his  people 
fled,  else  the  entire  crew  had  shared  the  fate  of  the  "  Waverley,"  the  "  Harriet," 
the  "Glencoe,"  and  the  "Sea  Nymph,"  where  none  were  left  to  tell  how  their 
shipmates  perished.  The  brother  of  the  chief  got  away,  badly  wounded ;  but 
afterward,  under  missionary  influence,  became  a  Christian,  and  once  saved  the 
"Morning  Star"  and  all  on  board  from  destruction.  After  a  godly  and  peace- 
able life  he  fell  on  sleep,  and  his  people  became  as  noted  for  their  hospitality  to 
strangers,  as  they  had  been  for  barbarity.'  "  In  places'  once  noted  for  piracy, 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  sent  home,  saved  from  wrecks  by 
Christian  natives."^ 

Lawless  pirates  from  Peru  had  carried  off  a  number  of  the  natives  from  the 

iDr.  A.  C.  Thompson,  in  Missionary  Herald,  iSSo,  p.  92.  -  These/or  Those,  p.  205. 


COMMERCE   AND   THE   ARTS.  42 1 

Marquesas  Islands  as  slaves.  A  chief  whose  son  was  among  the  victims 
vowed  to  kill  and  eat  the  first  white  man  that  fell  into  his  hands.  Mr.  Whalon, 
the  first  mate  of  an  American  whaler,  happened  to  be  that  man,  and  Kekela,  a 
missionary  from  the  Sandwich  Islands,  rescued  him  from  the  revengeful  father, 
though  to  do  it  he  had  to  give  up  his  new  six-oared  boat  which  he  had  just 
received  from  Boston.'  President  Lincoln  heard  of  it,  and  sent  a  valuable 
present  to  Kekela  and  his  associates  in  the  rescue.  The  Sandwich  Islander 
wrote  a  letter  in  reply,  in  which  occurs  the  following:  "As  to  this  friendly 
deed  of  mine,  its  seed  was  brought  from  your  great  land,  by  certain  of  your 
countrymen  who  had  received  the  love  of  God.  It  was  planted  in  Hawaii,  and 
I  brought  it  here  that  these  dark  regions  might  receive  the  root  of  all  that  is 
good  and  true,  which  is  love. 

"  How  shall  I  repay  your  great  kindness  to  me  ?  Thus  David  asked  of 
Jonathan,  and  thus  I  ask  of  you,  the  President  of  the  United  States.  This  is 
my  only  payment  —  that  which  I  have  received  of  the  Lord  —  'love.'  May  the 
love  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  abound  towards  you  till  the  end  of  this  terrible 
war  in  your  land." 

Before  the  letter  reached  Washington  President  Lincoln  had  fallen  by  the 
hand  of  the  assassin.^ 

Missions  promote  commerce  by  correcting  the  dishonesty  of  heathen  tribes. 
Rev.  J.  L.  Wilson  tells  how  some  tribes  in  Western  Africa  overreach  white 
men  who  come  to  buy  their  ivory.  One  man  pretends  to  have  heard  of  an 
unusually  large  tooth  at  some  distance  in  the  interior.  Others  corroborate  the 
story,  and  enlarge  on  its  great  value.  The  desire  of  the  trader  to  get  it  is  cun- 
ningly fostered,  till  he  offers  a  certain  sum  in  advance  to  secure  it  from  his 
competitors.  But  the  owner  of  it  wants  a  great  price,  so  the  white  trader  pays 
what  he  thinks  will  allow  him  a  safe  margin.  Weeks  after,  some  greedy  chief 
on  the  road  must  have  a  present  to  let  the  tooth  pass  through  his  territory. 
This  also  is  given,  only  to  provoke  fresh  demands,  till  the  poor  trader  desper- 
ately pays,  merely  to  save  the  investment  already  made.  When  at  length  he 
receives  the  much  coveted  prize  he  finds  it  a  very  ordinary  affair,  not  at  all 
above  the  average  ;  and  if  he  could  know  the  whole  story  he  would  find  that 
the  tooth  was  in  the  possession  of  his  sharp  African  friend  when  he  first  began 
the  negotiation.^ 

Such  cunning  duplicity  checked  commerce  and  threatened  to  destroy  it 
altogether  in  that  region,  till  the  conversion  of  the  natives  in  the  vicinity  began 
to  affect  their  business  dealings,  and  languishing  commerce  revived. 

Missions  also  promote  commerce  by  creating  a  demand  for  the  comforts  of 
civilization.  As  long  as  the  savage  remains  a  heathen  he  is  content  with  his 
condition,  comfortless  as  it  appears  to  us.  Only  when  a  new  life  transforms 
his  inner  being  does  he  desire  the  improvement  of  his  outward  lot. 

The  martyr  of  Erromanga*  found  in  his  missionary  experience  that  till  a 
savage  people  feel  the  power  of  the  Gospel  they  do  not  desire  civilization  ;  but 

^  A  chief  afterwards  ransomed  ihe  boat  with  a  gun  and  some  other  articles. 

-Story  of  the  Morning  Star,  p.  64-66.  "  Western  Africa,  pp.  247-256.  •■  Rev.  J.  Williams. 


422  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

that  invariably  awakens  such  desire.  European  houses  stood  for  years  in 
Tahiti,  but  no  native  moved  to  copy  them.  Missionaries'  wives  wore  English 
clothing,  but  the  native  women  preferred  their  own  semi-nudity  till  they  felt  the 
power  of  a  new  life  from  above  ;  then,  even  the  poorest  wanted  a  gown,  a  bon- 
net, and  a  shawl,  that  they  might  appear  like  Christian  women. 

Sir  Bartle  Frere,  who  certainly  had  large  opportunities  for  observation,  both 
in  India  and  Africa,  says  :  "  Civilization  cannot  precede  Christianity.  The 
only  successful  way  of  dealing  with  all  races  is  to  teach  them  the  Gospel  in  the 
simplest  manner  possible." 

Simon  Van  der  Stell,  governor  of  the  Cape  colony  in  South  Africa,  sent  a 
Hottentot  boy  to  school  clothed  in  a  military  dress,  with  hat  bordered  with 
gold,  wig,  silk  stockings,  and  a  sword.  He  learned  Dutch,  Portuguese,  and 
other  languages,  and  on  returning  from  India,  where  he  had  spent  several 
years,  he  threv/  his  fine  clothes  into  a  chest,  donned  his  carosse,^  and  taking 
nothing  besides  but  his  sword  and  cravat,  went  back  to  his  people  in  the  bush ; 
for,  as  Rev.  Lewis  Grout,  who  tells  the  story,-  well  remarks :  "  It  takes  more 
than  fine  clothes  and  foreign  tongues  to  make  a  Christian." 

Rev.  James  C.  Bryant,  of  South  Africa,  wrote  in  1849,^  "  o^  fourteen  young 
men  who  have  left  my  employ  within  two  years,  one  has  since  been  con- 
verted at  another  station,  and  of  course  clothes  himself;  the  other  thirteen 
have  gone  back  to  their  heathen  friends,  and  go  as  naked  as  ever.  These  are 
painful  facts,  and  show  how  futile  is  the  attempt  to  civilize  these  people  with- 
out first  converting  them.  Wash  a  pig,  shut  him  up  in  a  parlor,  and  you  may 
keep  him  clean  for  a  while ;  but  as  soon  as  he  is  free,  he  will  return  to  his  wal- 
lowing in  the  mire.  Change  him  into  a  lamb  and  he  will  at  once  abandon  that 
filthv  habit.  To  think  of  civilizing  the  heathen  without  converting  them,  is 
about  as  wise  as  to  think  of  transforming  swine  into  lambs  merely  by  washing 
and  putting  on  them  a  fleece  of  wool.  The  Gospel  is  the  grand  remedy  God 
has  provided  to  lift  up  the  degraded." 

Rev.  Lewis  Grout*  says  that  the  heathen  Zulus  select  patches  of  land  for 
cultivation  along  the  edges  and  angles  of  streams,  or  on  the  bushy  side  of  the 
summit  of  a  hillock,  where  the  women  plant,  weed,  and  harvest  the  crop.  The 
mother  ^  binds  her  babe  on  her  back  in  a  goat  skin,  balances  her  basket  of  seed 
on  her  head,  and  with  her  heavy  pick  on  her  shoulder  —  for  it  weighs  from 
eight  to  ten  pounds  —  goes  forth  to  work.  Sometimes  she  carries  the  babe  all 
day  long  while  she  toils  under  a  burning  sun.  Of  course  a  new  order  of  things 
is  introduced  among  those  who  become  Christians.  An  open,  level  field,  fit 
for  the  plow,  is  preferred  to  the  narrow,  precipitous  patches  which  must  be  dug 
by  hand.  But  among  the  heathen  portion  of  the  people  the  poor  woman  with 
Jher  pick  and  basket  still  serves  as  plow  and  cart,  ox  and  horse. 

The  woman  who  is  sold  for  oxen  must  toil  in  this  way,  but  the  oxen  for 
-which  she  is  sold  are  never  yoked.  They  are  only  eaten  by  their  lazy  masters. 
The  ox-yoke  belongs  to  Christian  civilization. 

Those  who  become  Christians  buy  plows  and  wagons,  build  houses,  and 

1  Skin  robe.  "Zulu  Land,  p.  53.  ^Missionary  Herald,  p.  414. 

*Zulu  Land,  p.  99-  °  See  engraving,  p.  203. 


COMMERCE    AND    THE    ARTS.  423 

purchase  furniture.  As  far  back  as  1865,  live  hundred  American  plows  were 
sold  in  Natal  alone,  and  there  was  a  growing  demand  for  cloth,  for  saddles  and 
harnesses,  for  books  and  maps  ;  while  the  heathen  Zulus  were  marked  out  from 
the  rest  by  their  nakedness,  their  filthy  kraals,  and  utter  lack  of  comforts  and 
conveniences. 

After  long  years  of  toil  and  hope  deferred  among  the  Bechuanas,  one  of  the 
first  tokens  for  good  that  cheered  the  heart  of  Robert  Moffat  was  the  rows  of 
candles  that  appeared  hanging  around  the  native  huts.  Till  then  the  negroes 
had  laughed  at  the  missionaries  for  wasting  their  fat  meat  by  burning  it ;  but 
now  that  they  were  learning  to  read  the  Word  of  God,  they  felt  the  need  of 
candles  for  themselves.  Up  to  that  period  the  outer  darkness  of  an  African 
village  after  sunset  had  been  a  dreary  emblem  of  the  moral  darkness  within. 

Rev.  J.  H.  Seelye,  D.D.,  President  of  Amherst  College,  in  writing  of  our 
own  Indians,  says  :  "  Civilization  is  in  a  most  important  sense  a  gift  rather  than 
an  acquisition.  Men  do  not  gain  it  except  as  stimulated  thereto  by  some 
incitement  from  above  themselves.  The  savage  does  not  labor  for  the  grat- 
ifications of  civilized  life,  since  these  he  does  not  desire.  His  labors  and 
desires  are  both  dependent  on  some  spiritual  gift  which  quickens  his  aspi- 
rations, and  calls  forth  his  toil.*  Unless  he  has  some  help  from  without,  some 
light  and  life  from  above  to  illumine  and  inspire  him,  the  savage  remains  a 
savage;  and  without  this,  all  the  blandishments  of  the  civilization  with  which 
he  might  be  brought  in  contact  could  no  more  win  him  to  a  better  state,  than 
all  the  light  and  warmth  of  the  sun  could  woo  a  desert  into  a  fertile  field." 

When  English  missionaries  went  to  the  Indians  in  Canada,  they  took  with 
them  skilled  laborers  to  teach  them  how  to  labor,  and  by  providing  them  at 
first  with  comfortable  houses,  clothing,  and  food,  hoped  to  call  forth  their 
endeavors  to  perpetuate  these  comforts.  But  the  Indian  would  not  work, 
and  preferred  his  wigwam  and  skins,  his  raw  flesh  and  filth,  to  the  cleanliness 
and  convenience  of  a  civilized  home ;  and  it  was  only  as  Christian  influences 
transformed  him  inwardly,  that  he  was  led  to  work  for  the  improvement  of  his 
outward  condition.  The  same  is  true  everywhere ;  civilization  does  not  repro- 
duce itself.  It  must  first  be  kindled,  and  can  then  only  be  kept  alive  by  a 
power  genuinely  Christian. ' 

The  English  yournal  of  the  Society  of  Arts"'  endorses  this  same  truth,  stating 
that  at  the  Edendale  mission  station  "  seventy  monogamous  Zulus  live  in 
houses  like  Europeans,  with  furniture  in,  and  gardens  round  them.  They  have 
a  school  and  stone  church,  built  by  the  men  themselves,  while  three  hundred 
thousand  of  the  same  race  live  within  the  frontiers  of  Natal,  having  been  nearly 
half  a  century  in  contact  with  English  civilization,  yet  without  a  bed  to  lie  on, 
a  chair  to  sit  on,  table,  or  domestic  implement  of  any  kind." 

A  still  more  striking  fact  is  mentioned  on  page  646  of  the  same  journal: 
"In  the  colony  of  Lagos  in  Western  Africa,  some  of  the  natives  have  acquired 
wealth,  and  desire  to  imitate  English  habits.  One  man  built  himself  an  ele- 
gant house,  furnished  after  the  most  approved  modern  fashion ;  yet  neither  he 

1  Tlie  Cougregationalist,  January  12.  iSSi.  2  June  13,  1879,  p.  648. 


424  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

nor  his  family  occupy  it,  but  live  in  an  adjoining  hovel."  Would  that  have 
been  the  case  had  the  man  and  his  family  been  Christianized  ?  Yet  to-day 
some  even  there  are  Christians.  This  city  was  originally  built  as  a  stronghold 
of  the  slave-trade,  and  for  generations  its  name  was  associated  with  all  the 
horrors  of  that  infamous  traffic ;  but  now  the  landmark  which  guides  vessels 
into  this  "  Liverpool  of  Africa "  is  the  spire  of  a  Christian  church,  and  the 
annual  exports  amount  to  $2,000,000.  Take  away  the  religion  represented  by 
the  church  and  would  the  exports  continue  ? 

Dr.  J.  L.  Wilson  explains  the  indisposition  of  the  people  of  Congo  to  adopt 
the  habits  of  civilization  under  Papists,  by  the  fact  that  they  were  unconverted.^ 
He  says  something  more  is  needed  to  civilize  heathen  than  merely  to  set  before 
them  specimens  of  civilized  life.  The  idea  is  unphilosophical,  for  it  implies 
that  the  only  thing  in  the  way  of  their  improvement  is  ignorance,  whereas  there 
is  inherent  in  heathenism  an  aversion  to  those  activities  which  alone  can  secure 
prosperity.  We  look  in  vain  for  any  upward  tendencies  in  pagans  till  their 
moral  and  intellectual  natures  are  awakened;  and  as  Popery  has  no  power  to 
do  this,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  so  little  trace  of  civilization  in  Congo. 

So  in  the  partial  civilization  of  Turkey.  While  the  neglecters  of  the  Bible 
continue  on  in  their  gloomy  and  comfortless  abodes ;  chairs  and  tables,  books 
and  book-cases,  Yankee  clocks  and  glass  windows,  mark  the  homes  of  those  who 
love  the  truth.  Within  sixteen  years  nearly  five  hundred  sets  of  irons  for  fan- 
ning mills  have  been  ordered  from  a  single  firm  in  New  York,  through  our 
missionaries  at  Harpoot,  and  the  native  carpenters  have  been  taught  to  supply 
the  woodwork,  so  that  through  the  Gospel  the  fields  in  that  part  of  Turkey  are 
better  tilled  and  their  produce  better  cared  for.^ 

The  New  York  Z^ra/r/ published  the  despatch  of  the  Hon.  E.  F.  Noyes,  our 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  France,  to  the  secretary  of  state,  referred  to  on  p. 
379,  and  adds  :  "  Our  merchants,  manufacturers,  and  steamship  owners  will  find 
in  it  many  valuable  suggestions.  Mr.  Noyes  brings  out  strikingly  the  signifi- 
cant fact  that  there  is  in  that  part  of  the  world  a  population  nearly  as  large  as 
our  own,  entirely  friendly,  with  whom  we  may  establish  the  closest  commercial 
relations.  We  can  there  find  an  immense  market,  if  we  have  only  the  enter- 
prise and  sagacity  to  cultivate  it.  Turkey  and  Egypt  are  well  disposed  towards 
us,  the'  American  missionaries  having  sown  among  them  the  seeds  of  friend- 
ship. The  subject  is  one  of  supreme  importance,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  excellent  recommendations  of  Mr,  Noyes  will  not  be  lost." 

Rev.  Henry  Marden,  of  Marash,  says  of  Central  Turkey  :  ^  "  The  Oriental, 
when  left  to  himself,  is  entirely  satisfied  with  the  customs  of  his  ancestors,  and 
aspires  to  nothing  better.  No  contact  with  Western  civilization  has  ever  roused 
him  from  his  apathy,  but  when  his  heart  is  warmed  into  life  by  Gospel  truth, 
his  mind  awakes,  and  he  wants  a  clock,  a  book,  a  glass  window,  and  a  flour- 
mill.  Almost  every  steamer  that  leaves  New  York  for  the  Levant  brings  sew- 
ing machines,  watches,  carpenters'  tools,  cabinet  organs,  or  other  appliances  of 
Christian  civilization,  in  response  to  native  orders  that  never  would  have  been 
sent  but  for  the  open  Bible  ;  and  now,  as  you  pick  your  way  along  the  narrow 

,      1  IVestern  Africa,  p.  327.  -  Missionary  Herald,  1881,  p.  86.  '  Do.,  18S0,  p.  48. 


COMMERCE    AND   THE    ARTS.  425 

street  through  the  noisy  crowd  of  men,  camels,  donkeys,  and  dogs,  the  click  of 
an  American  sewing  machine,  or  the  sweet  strains  of  an  American  organ,  often 
greet  your  ear,  like  the  voice  of  an  old  friend  from  home." 

The  entire  cost  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  mission  up  to  1869  was  $1,220,000.^ 
The  imports  of  the  islands  in  1863  were  $1,175,493.25,'-  and  the  exports  were 
$1,025,852.74.  The  custom  house  receipts  in  the  same  year  were  $122,752.68, 
and  the  number  of  merchantmen  entered  at  the  custom  house,  ninety-eight, 
averaging  five  hundred  tons  each,  besides  one  hundred  and  two  whaling  ves- 
sels. Recent  tables  give  the  value  of  exports  to  the  islands  from  San  Fran- 
cisco alone,  for  1867-1869,  as  $4,702,029.  Take  one  third  of  this,  as  the 
exports  for  one  year,  and  we  have  the  startling  fact,  that  a  group  of  islands  of 
no  commercial  importance  whatever  when  the  Gospel  was  carried  there  sixty 
years  ago,  without  commerce,  or  any  material  for  commerce,  except  the  sandal- 
wood of  their  mountains,  now  pay  in  one  year  at  a  single  American  port  more 
money  by  $367,343  than  the  entire  cost  of  their  Christianization  during  these 
sixty  years.'^     Let  that  single  fact  tell  whether  missions  promote  commerce. 

The  testimony  of  more  recent  facts,  obtained  from  government  records  at 
Washington,  is  not  less  noteworthy.  During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1879, 
the  trade  between  Boston  and  these  islands  amounted  to  $125,355.  The 
profits  on  this  at  twelve  and  a  half  per  cent,  would  be  $15,669.37!^.  San  Fran- 
cisco last  year  had  a  trade  with  the  islands  of  $5,053,013,  the  profits  on  which, 
at  the  same  rate,  would  be  $631,626,621-.  The  whole  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  these  islands  last  year  amounted  to  $5,546,116,  against  less  than 
$2,000,000  in  1871  ;  and  its  profits  at  the  same  per  cent,  were  $693,264.50.  So 
that  the  whole  amount  expended  by  the  Board  on  the  islands  from  1820  to 
1880  would  be  canceled  in  less  than  two  years  by  the  profits  on  the  present 
commerce. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Micronesia  amounted  in  1879  to 
$5,534,367,  with  profits  as  before  of  $691,796;  and  during  that  year  the  mis- 
sions there  cost  only  $16,975  i  ^^  ^'^^^  ^'^^  ^'"^^  dollar  paid  out  by  the  Board, 
commerce,  from  trade  created  by  those  missions,  reaped  $40.75.'* 

While  dealing  with  money  matters  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  some  careful 
calculations  of  Rev.  T.  S.  Williamson,  M.D.,  mentioned  in  Dr.  Warren's  T/iese 
for  Those,  pp.  220-231,  which  show  that  the  removal  of  the  Dakotas  to  their 
new  reservation  on  the  Missouri  was  really  owing  to  Lhe  instruction  they  had 
received  from  missionaries,  saving  the  government  $210,000,  which  is  $140,705 
more  than  the  entire  cost  of  all  the  missions  to  that  people.  Again  :  It  cost 
for  the  support  of  the  heathen  Dakotas  $120.00  per  head;  but  two  thousand 
two  hundred  Christian  Dakotas  were  supported  for  seven  years  at  a  cost  of 
only  $120,000;  which  at  the  rate  of  the  cost  of  the  heathen  Dakotas  would 
have  been  $1,848,000;  involving  a  saving  of  $1,728,000.  So  much  economy 
is  there  in  first  Christianizing  the  Indian  and  then  letting  him  labor  for  his  own 
support,  as  he  will  do  when  brought  under  the  divine  influence  of  Christian 

1  Dr.  Anderson's  Sandwich  Islands,  p.  340.  2  -q^   Anderson's  Hawaiian  Islands,  p.  251. 

'^Missionary  Herald,  1S80,  p.  S4.  *  Rev.  G.  Hood,  in  the  Foreign  Missionary,  1S81,  p.  391. 


426  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

motives,  carrying  others  along  with  him  by  the  power  of  his  good  example  and 
success. 

The  following  facts,  culled  from  the  communication  of  a  correspondent  in 
the  New  York  Times  of  September  5,  1879,  may  show  how  missions  promote 
the  interests  of  commerce.  He  had  been  visiting  the  Dakotas  at  the  Santee 
agency  in  Nebraska,  and  says  :  "  The  houses  are  well  built,  and  many  of  them 
furnished  in  good  taste.  The  people  sleep  on  mattresses  and  bedsteads,  sit  on 
chairs,  and  eat  with  knives,  forks  and  spoons  from  white  stone  ware.  Some  have 
clocks  and  framed  engravings  hanging  on  the  walls,  and  all  have  good  stoves  and 
kitchen  ware.  The  women,  especially  the  young  ladies,  have  a  fondness  for 
Saratoga  trunks,  some  having  three  or  four  of  them.  In  several  houses  we 
found  baby  coaches  of  recent  styles,  in  which  Indian  mothers  lull  their  babies 
to  sleep  instead  of  strapping  them  to  a  board  and  hanging  them  to  a  limb  of  a 
tree. 

"  Both  sexes  and  all  ages  wear  the  clothing  of  civilization.  It  is  easy  to 
distinguish  those  who  have  attended  schools,  for  they  are  always  neat  and  clean 
in  person  and  dress.  Many  of  them  dress  in  good  taste,  and  tie  their  long 
black  tresses  with  bright  ribbons." 

True,  it  may  seem  to  degrade  this  bright  picture  of  missionary  success, 
when,  instead  of  dwelling  on  the  elevation  of  character,  and  the  addition  made 
to  human  well-being,  we  look  at  it  only  in  the  light  of  the  market  opened  up  to 
Christendom ;  but  the  reader  must  remember  that  this  volume  views  the  whole 
subject  of  missions,  not  merely  in  the  light  of  its  eternal  spiritual  results,  but 
also  in  that  of  its  secular  benefits. 

MECHANIC  ARTS. 

There  are  those  who  attribute  the  progress  of  the  present  century  to  its 
unprecedented  skill  in  the  mechanical  arts,  even  more  than  to  its  advance  in 
science.  We  believe  that  for  both  we  are  indebted  primarily  to  the  Gospel. 
That  quickens  the  human  mind,  and  stimulates  man's  inventive  powers.  But 
those  who  think  so  much  of  mechanical  arts  will  ask  what  missionaries  have 
done  in  this  direction  ? 

In  reply  we  might  point  to  savage  nations  lifted  out  of  barbarism  into  civil- 
ization, with  all  its  appliances  —  not  carried  bodily  among  them,  as  a  garland  is 
placed  upon  a  marble  statue,  there  to  wither  and  decay,  but  made  to  grow  out 
of  the  renovated  national  life,  as  leaves  and  blossoms  from  the  living  tree. 
But  here  we  labor  under  the  disadvantage  of  being  unable  to  transport  our 
reader  to  heathen  lands,  so  that  he  can  see  with  his  own  eyes  the  need  of  reno-' 
vation,  and  then  witness  the  change  wrought  by  the  grace  of  Christ ;  for  no 
one  who  has  not  seen  it,  can  appreciate  the  utter  and  helpless  degradation  of  a 
barbarous  tribe  without  the  Gospel.  The  dweller  in  a  Christian  land  in  his 
thoughts  carries  over  the  civilization  which  he  sees  at  home  to  the  heathen  land, 
and  cannot  form  any  idea  of  it  as  it  was.  Hence  it  is  impossible  for  Iiini  to 
appreciate  the  change.  Tell  him  that  a  tribe  of  Zulus,  who  had  been  naked 
savages,  among  whom  woman  was  a  slave,  and  treated  with  revolting  cruelty, 
her  forced  labor  the  chief  source  of  the  means  of  living,  now  wear  clothes,  treat 


€i[)c  HortiV  S^tapcr,  in  '3traBic, 

Vjj.)\   ^ii^  jAi3  Vv5  Vx)  y3  \^    ^«-^J    •  V>C:^^    Vi2.5^\   VxsVo 

. /,iLi\  "f.  Vx-ii  f'S) .  4..  ,^  (i  Vxli>j:  Jl .  Vx.u  r>^-;AvM 
S^;^ .  J.J  \  jj,\^  Jcs^Hj  S^iWj  diW^\  dil  o^ 


COMMERCE   AND   THE   ARTS. 


437 


woman  with  kindness  and  respect,  and  have  plows  and  wagons,  houses  and 
gardens,  and  he  only  points  to  the  inferiority  of  those  plows  and  wagons  to 
the  same  articles  at  home.  He  cannot  see  the  superiority  of  things  as  they 
are  there  now  above  what  they  were  before. 

So,  instead  of  dwelling  on  this  general  view,  let  us  look  at  some  details. 

The  invention  of  printing  in  China  preceded  our  own  by  five  centuries, 
Fungtau  having  invented  the  process  of  block  printing  in  933  A.  D.,  while 
Gutenberg,  in  Germany,  followed  after  in  14363  but  it  was  reserved  for  Rev. 
Samuel  Dyer,  a  missionary  of  the  London  Society  at  Penang  (from  1829  to 
1843),  to  substitute  the  use  of  metallic  types  for  the  cumbrous  wooden  blocks 
that  had  been  used  for  nine  hundred  years. 

These  metallic  types  were  greatly  improved  and  extended  by  Mr.  Richard 
Cole,  who  had  charge  of  the  American  Presbyterian  press  at  Hong  Kong.  In 
the  year  185 1  he  had  increased  the  assortment  of  each  of  two  fonts  to  about 
four  thousand  seven  hundred  characters.  William  Gamble,  manager  of  the 
Presbyterian  press  at  Shanghai,  also  made  a  beautiful  font  of  small  pica  size 
by  electrotyping,  bringing  the  assortment  of  each  to  nearly  seven  thousand 
characters,  at  a  very  cheap  rate.  The  native  newspaper  press  owes  its  exist- 
ence and  activity  to  the  introduction  of  movable  types  by  missionaries. 
Wooden  blocks  are  now  discarded  at  the  government  press  in  Peking.^ 

It  is  something  to  have  had  two  such  printers  in  China  as  Dr.  S.  Wells  Will- 
iams, subsequently  secretary  of  legation  to  our  ambassador,  and  P.  R.  Hunt, 
who  was  in  Peking  from  1868  till  his  death  in  1878.  He  had  previously  been  at 
Madras  from  1840  till  1866.  When  he  left  there  a  valuable  gold  watch  and 
chain  were  presented  to  him  by  native  Christians  and  others,  who  made  grate- 
ful mention  of  their  "  deep  sense  of  the  benefits  conferred  on  Southern  India 
by  his  elegant  editions  of  Tamil  classical  works,  which  had  raised  printing 
there  to  a  place  among  the  fine  arts  ;  and  especially  by  his  accurate  and  beau- 
tiful editions  of  the  Tamil  Bible,  which  had  called  forth  the  gratitude  and 
admiration  of  all  native  Christians." 

Mr.  E.  Breath  made  great  improvements  in  Syriac  types,  and  delighted  the 
Nestorians  by  printed  letters  made  in  exact  conformity  to  those  of  their  best 
manuscripts. 

Dr.  Eli  Smith  made  a  collection  of  the  best  specimens  of  Arabic  caligraphy, 
and  from  the  most  admired  of  these,  aided  by  Mr.  Homan  Hallock,  produced 
a  type  which  Arabs  pronounce  the  beau  ideal  of  beauty.  So  much  admired  is 
it  that  the  Dominican  convent  at  Mosul  at  once  applied  for  a  font.  So  did  the 
German  Oriental  presses  at  Leipsic,  and  the  Jesuits  at  Beirut.  Its  fame 
extends  from  Monrovia,  in  Western  Africa,  to  Peking,  in  China.  Specimens  of 
three  different  fonts  are  here  subjoined,  each  of  them  being  a  copy  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  The  upper  one  is  vowelled,  /.  e.,  has  the  vowels  added  to  the 
consonants  above  and  below  the  lines,  the  same  mark  having  a  different  sound 
according  to  its  location.  The  middle  one  is  the  same  font  without  vowels, 
and  the  lower  one  a  smaller  size,  yet  retaining  the  beautiful  proportions  of  the 
larger  font.     Mr.  Hallock  also  greatly  improved  the  Greek  and  Armenian  type 

'Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  in  Presbyterian  Review,  iSSi,  pp.  37,  3S. 


428  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

used  at  Smyrna,  and  the  improvement  is  so  in  accordance  with  the  Greek  taste 
that  when  the  American  Bible  Society  asked  the  opinion  of  Dr.  E.  E.  Bliss 
about  American  fonts  of  Greek  type,  he  candidly  expressed  the  opinion  that 
they  would  not  suit  the  Greek  people.^ 

The  fonts  of  Dewanagari  type,  used  for  Sanskrit,  Marathi,  and  Hindi;  of 
Modi  type  —  the  cursive  letter  of  Marathi  clerks;  and  of  Gujerati,  all  of  them 
cut  bv  Mr.  Thomas  Graham,  while  in  connection  with  the  American  mission 
press,  are  the  finest  in  existence.^ 

The  great  work  of  the  learned  Dr.  John  Wilson,  of  Bombay,  was  his  volume 
on  The  Parsi  Religion,  as  contained  in  the  Zend-Avesta,  Unfolded,  Refuted,  and 
Contrasted  with  Christianity,  and  it  was  printed  by  the  American  mission  press 
of  Bombay,  from  the  first  Zend  and  Pahlawi  types  cast  in  the  East.  The  Rev. 
D.  O.  Allen,  D.D.,  sent  forth  from  the  foundry  of  that  press  the  first  metal 
tvpes  for  the  regeneration  of  Western  India,  as  Carey,  Marshman,  and  Ward 
had  done  long  before  at  Serampore  for  Eastern  India  and  China.^ 

When  the  persecution  in  1839-1849  prevented  the  students  in  Bebek  Semi- 
nary either  getting  help  from  others  or  helping  themselves,  Dr.  Hamlin, 
their  teacher,  a  genuine  Yankee,  set  up  a  sheet-iron  workshop  in  the  basement 
of  the  seminary  building.  He  taught  others  the  art  of  gilding,  and  of  assaying 
ores.  Some  of  them  developed  rare  genius  in  chemistry,  and  one  especially, 
to  whom  a  noted  manufacturing  chemist  made  a  most  tempting  ofifer,  that 
opened  the  way  to  wealth  and  honor,  declined  it  for  the  sake  of  teaching  his 
countrymen,  on  a  salary  of  $12  a  month  and  finding  himself.  Another  he 
taught  to  manufacture  camphene.  Then,  as  Mehemet  II  had  given  every 
foreign  nationality  at  Constantinople  the  right  of  having  its  own  bakery.  Dr. 
Hamlin  took  advantage  of  this  to  establish  a  steam  flour  mill  and  bakery,  and 
the  amusing  methods  by  which  he  foiled  the  Turks  in  their  usual  attempts  to 
hinder  it,  and  overcame  other  obstacles  growing  out  of  his  own  inexperience  in 
such  matters,  he  has  told  us  most  graphically  in  his  interesting  volume,  Among 
the  Turks?"  His  supplying  the  British  hospital  with  bread  ;  his  getting  $30,000 
worth  of  flour  from  a  Greek  grain  dealer  on  his  own  simple  promise  to  pay, 
so  great  was  the  reputation  of  missionaries  for  honesty ;  and  the  way  in  which 
he  conquered  British  official  arrogance  and  incompetence,  are  all  set  forth  in 
the  same  volume  to  the  life.'' 

There  is  no  mention  made  of  it  in  missionary  reports,  nevertheless  it  is  true, 
that  for  improvements  in  the  ordinary  mechanic  arts,  as  well  as  for  spiritual 
good,  heathen  peoples  are  indebted  to  the  personal  labor  and  teaching  of  the 
missionary.  The  writer  well  remembers  that  in  Mosul  we  had  no  chairs,  nor 
any  native  mechanics  capable  of  making  them,  and  as  all  imported  articles 
were  brought  on  the  backs  of  horses  and  mules,  hundreds  of  miles  over  very 

^  Bible  Society  Record,  1880,  p.  58.  -  Letter  of  Rev.  S.  B.  Fairbanks,  D.D. 

3  Life  o/yohn  Wilson,  by  G.  Smith,  LL.D.,  p.  132.  ••  Among  the  Turks,  pp.  218-225. 

f^Do.,  pp.  22S-240. 


COMMERCE    AND   THE   ARTS.  429 

rough  roads,  such  fragile  goods  stood  small  chance  of  ever  reaching  their  des- 
tination whole.  But  Dr.  Grant  was  equal  to  the  emergency ;  and  partly  by 
his  own  handiwork,  partly  by  showing  an  ingenious  mechanic  how  to  do  it,  he 
succeeded  in  producing  a  very  creditable  imitation  of  our  mahogany  chairs  in 
the  walnut  wood  of  the  region,  which  have  served  as  a  pattern  ever  since,  and 
introduced  a  new  element  into  domestic  comfort  and  convenience  in  Mosul. 
The  same  was  true  of  tables,  which,  in  our  form  at  least,  were  unknown  to  the 
natives ;  for  a  table  so  high  as  ours  would  be  somewhat  out  of  reach  to  one 
seated  on  the  floor,  or  on  the  low  mukkaad  of  the  region. 

No  small  part  of  the  usefulness  of  missionaries  among  savage  tribes,  after 
spiritual  life  has  begun  to  manifest  itself,  consists  in  showing  their  converts  a 
more  excellent  way  in  the  line  of  material  improvement. 

The  buildings  erected  by  our  missionaries  for  their  higher  schools,  of  which 
several  specimens  have  already  been  given  in  these  pages,  bear  witness  to  their 
promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts ;  and  so  do  their  church  edifices,  of  which  an 
illustration  is  given  on  the  opposite  page,  from  Pasumalai,  in  Madura.^ 

^  Miisiottary  Herald,  1S74,  p.  33. 


XX. 
WINES  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


Some  good  men,  intense!}-  moved  b}-  the  evils  of  intemperance,  and  dis- 
tress.ed  bv  the  inipiet}^  of  those  who  \\Test  certain  Scriptures  to  their  own 
destruction,  have  been  led  to  affirm  that  two  kinds  of  wine  were  spoken  of  in 
Scripture :  one  good  and  commendable,  the  other  poisonous  and  pernicious ; 
and  have  made  the  process  of  fermentation  the  dividing  line  between  the  two. 

Others,  equally  zealous  for  the  removal  of  dnmkenness,  but  more  dispas- 
sionate in  their  views  of  the  means  to  attain  this  result,  saw  that  this  theor}'- 
did  violence  to  holy  Scripture,  since  the  word^  which  these  affirm  always 
denotes  the  destructive  wine  is  used  to  mark  that  which  was  offered  to  the 
Lord,  laid  up  in  the  sanctuar}%  and  used  in  connection  with  sacrifice,  to  say 
nothing  of  its  use  as  a  symbol  of  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel. 

In  this  wide  divergence  of  views  at  home,  it  was  to  be  expected  that  mis- 
sionaries located  in  Bible  lands,  being  intelligent  observers  of  facts,  familiar 
with  the  original  languages  of  Scripture,  and  devoted  to  the  promotion  of 
human  well-being,  would  make  some  valuable  contributions  towards  a  correct 
knowledge  of  the  facts,  and  their  testimony  will  now  be  adduced  as  one  of  the 
contributions  of  the  missionary  work  to  human  knowledge. 

The  first  to  say  anything  on  this  subject  was  the  Rev.  W.  G.  Schauffler,  in 
the  Biblical  Repository  for  1S36,  pp.  286-30S.  In  that  article  he  mentions  first, 
all  the  arguments  known  to  him  in  favor  of  our  Lord's  having  used  mtist,  or 
svrup,  in  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  and  then  states  the  reasons  which 
lead  him  to  hold  that  fermented  wine  Avas  used.  He  goes  into  various  phil- 
ological arguments  ;  but  it  is  only  important  to  know  his  conclusions  and  any 
facts  to  which  he  bears  witness. 

One  important  fact,  to  which,  as  a  missionar}^  to  the  Jews,  and  one  well 
acquainted  with  Rabbinical  literature,  he  was  unusually  qualified  to  bear  wit- 
ness, is  this  :  The  fruit  of  the  vine,  pri  ha  gephen,  is  the  name  given  in  the  2al- 
miid,  section  Berakoth,  Perek  six,  to  the  wine  on  which  a  blessing  was  pro- 
nounced at  the  Passover,  and  this  name  is  given  to  it  in  the  blessing  itself. 
He  says  :  "The  undeviating  practice  of  the  synagogue  in  all  places  of  their  dis- 

'  Yayin. 
(430) 


WINES    OF    THE    BIBLE. 


431 


persion,  bears  witness  that  in  the  cup  was  fermented  wine,  and  no  syrup  water." 
At  the  Passover,  every  Jew,  however  poor,  must  have  four  cups  of  fermented 
wine.  Again  :  "  As  to  the  contents  of  the  cup,  there  is  but  one  opinion  exist- 
ing, and  there  has  been  but  one  until  now.  It  was  yayin,  and  this,  accord- 
ing to  the  standing  rule  of  the  synagogue,  was  fermented  wine."  So,  also,  he 
says,  we  "  look  in  vain  throughout  the  body  of  the  church  for  difference  in 
doctrine  or  practice  as  to  the  contents  of  the  cup  at  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
nature  of  the  bread  has  been  in  dispute;  the  time  of  observing  the  ordinance, 
one  day  before  the  Passover,  or  on  it ;  the  propriety  of  giving  the  cup  to  the 
laity ; .  the  frequency  and  import  of  the  rite ;  but  as  to  the  original  contents  of 
the  cup  there  has  been  no  diversity  of  opinion."  He  also  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  grape  syrup  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  There  is  not  even  a 
Hebrew  name  for  it,  and  the  only  Chaldean  term,  "carena,"  is  from  the  Latin 
or  Greek. 

The  next  missionary  who  has  written  on  the  subject  was  the  Rev.  Justin 
Perkins,  D.D.,  of  Oroomiah.  In  his  Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia,  p.  236, 
published  in  1843,  he  says: 

"Inquiries  have  often  been  proposed  to  me  on  the  subject  of  the  wines  of 
Persia.  The  facts  in  the  case  are  these  :  The  juice  of  the  grape  is  used  there 
in  three  ways.  When  simply  expressed  it  is  called  sweet ;  /.  e.,  sweet  liquor. 
It  is  not  drank  in  that  state,  nor  regarded  as  fit  for  use,  any  more  than  new 
unsettled  cider  at  the  press  in  America  ;  nor  is  it  even  called  wine  till  it  is  fer- 
mented. 

"  A  second,  and  very  extensive  use  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  is  the  syrup, 
made  from  boiling  it  from  (in)  this  sweet  state,  which  resembles  our  molasses, 
and  is  used  in  the  same  way,  for  sweetening,  but  is  never  used  as  a  drink. 
This  is,  in  fact,  neither  more  nor  less  than  Oriental  molasses. 

"  The  third  use  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  is  the  distillation  of  it  into  arrack, 
or  Asiatic  brandy.  The  wines  of  Persia  are  in  general  much  lighter  than  those 
of  Europe,  but  still  they  are  always  intoxicating.  In  making  these  statements, 
I  throw  down  no  gauntlert  for  controversy  on  the  much-vexed  wine  question, 
but  wish  simply  to  communicate  information.  Were  I  to  hazard  the  expres- 
sion of  personal  feeling  and  opinion  on  the  general  subject,  it  would  be  that  of 
the  deepest  regret  for  any  approximation  in  the  tendency  of  the  age  to  the 
removal  of  the  sacred  landmarks  of  Scripture  institutions." 

This  is  certainly  a  very  modest,  clear,  and  trustworthy  statement  of  simple 
facts. 

The  next  witness  is  Rev.  Eli  Smith,  D.D.,  a  resident  in  Syria  from  February 
19,  1827,  till  his  death,  January  11,  1857,  ^""^  one  of  the  most  careful  observers 
and  accurate  writers  at  home  or  abroad.  He  wrote  an  article  on  "  The  Wines 
of  Lebanon  "  for  the  Bibliotheca  Sac7-a}  His  information  was  obtained  from 
seven  districts  of  Lebanon,  extending  from  Tripoli  nearly  to  Sidon ;  /.  <?.,  from 
one  end  of  Lebanon  to  the  other. 

He  says  the  methods  of  making  wine  there  are  numerous ;  byt  may  be 
reduced  to  three  :  (i)  The  simple  juice  of  the  grape  is  fermented  without  desic- 

^  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1846,  pp.  385-3S9. 


432  THE     ELY     VOLUME. 

cation  or  boiling.  Little  is  made  in  this  way,  and  it  will  not  keep  except  in 
favorable  localities.  That  made  in  Bhamdun,  by  treading  the  grapes  in  bask- 
ets, will  not  keep  a  year.  Yet  it  possesses  rather  strong  intoxicating  powers. 
(2)  The  juice  of  the  grape  is  boiled  down  four  or  five  per  cent,  before  it  is 
allowed  to  ferment.^  Much  more  is  made  in  this  way,  and  the  wine  is  com- 
monly sweet ;  that  is,  not  very  acid.^  (3),  The  grapes  are  dried  in  the  sun  from 
five  to  ten  days,  till  the  stems  are  dry ;  then  they  are  pressed,  and  micst,  skins, 
stems,  and  all  are  put  into  open  jars  to  ferment  for  a  month,  after  which  it  is 
strained  and  sealed  up.  Wine  thus  made  keeps  better  than  other  kinds,  and 
amounts  to  about  one  third  in  weight  of  the  grapes  used.  Sometimes  these 
three  processes  are  combined  in  various  ways,  and  the  best  wines  yield  thirty- 
three  i^er  cent,  of  what  is  called  good  brandy. 

Wine  is  not  the  most  important  product  of  the  vine.  The  vineyards  of 
Bhamdun,  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  are  about  two  miles  long  and  one 
half  a  mile  wide.  For  three  months  grapes  form  the  principal  food  of  the 
villagers.  Besides  this,  they  make  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  pounds 
of  raisins,  and  twenty-four  thousand  pounds  of  dibs,  or  molasses  ;  all  of  this 
last  is  for  their  own  use.  Two  thirds  of  the  raisins  are  sold  in  Beirut,  to  make  a 
candy  called  Helaweh,  or  steeped  in  water  for  a  drink;  a  small  part  of  them 
only  is  distilled. 

When  he  asked  whether  brandy  was  ever  put  in  wine,  the  uniform  answer 
was,  "  It  is  dearer ;  why  should  we  put  it  in  ? "  But  unintoxicating  wine  he 
could  not  hear  of ;  and  when  he  asked  about  unfermented  wine,  he  was  always 
met  with  a  stare  of  surprise.  The  very  idea  was  to  them  absurd,  for  their 
name  for  wine,  hhamr,  is  derived  from  hhamar,  to  ferment,  and  means  fermenta- 
tion.    Nor  could  he  learn  that  any  process  was  ever  employed  to  arrest  it. 

Both  Greek  and  Papal  priests  affirmed  that  sacramental  wine  must  be  per- 
fect, pure  wine  ;  if  unfermented  it  would  not  be  used  ;  and  yet  the  Papists  reject 
fermented  bread,  because  they  say  Christ  used  that  which  was  then  on  the 
table,  just  as  for  the  same  reason  he  used  fermented  wine.  The  Jews  in  Pales- 
tine use  the  same.  The  chief  rabbi  at  Hebron  gave  Dr.  Smith  unleavened 
bread  and  wine  during  the  Passover  in  1835,  ^'^^  when  asked  how  he  could 
have  it  in  the  house,  he  replied,  that  as  long  as  the  acetous  fermentation  had 
not  begun  it  was  not  prohibited. 

The  only  form  in  which  the  unfermented  juice  of  the  grape  is  kept  is  dibs. 
To  make  this,  the  fresh  must  is  mixed  with  a  little  clay  to  clarify  it,  and  remove 
acidity,  and  then  boiled  down  one  half  or  three  fourths  in  bulk.  It  is  as  thick 
as  molasses,  and  is  sometimes  beaten  till  it  becomes  a  bright  yellow  color,  and 

'  It  is  amusing  to  read  the  comment  of  an  American  writer  on  this:  "It  was  boiled  to  prevent  fermentation  " 
(sic).  And  then  follows  the  equally  edifying  statement:  "After  fermentation  wine  cannot  be  boiled  down  to  a 
syrup"  (as  though  anybody  had  said  that  dibs  was  made  from  wine).  —  Cojnrmtnion  Witie  and  Bible  Tetnperancc, 
p.  18. 

-  This  sense  of  the  term  "  sweet  wine  "  is  corroborated  by  President  S.  C.  Bartlett,  who,  writing  from  Hebron, 
in  his  new  work,  From  Egypt  to  Palestine,  says  that  the  guide  Shappira  brought  two  kinds  of  wine,  one  called 
"strong  wine,"  and  the  other  "sweet  wine."  The  difference  was  caused  by  keeping  the  grapes  three  weeks 
before  pressing  them  for  the  latter,  which  made  the  juice  thicker  and  sweeter.  Both  were  fermented;  but,  says 
President  Bartlett,  the  sweet  wine  seemed  to  me  the  stronger,  though  its  strength  was  disguised  by  its  sweetness. 
This  Shappira,  an  intelligent  Jew,  had  never  heard  of  unfermented  wine  at  the  Passover  in  Germany,  Holland, 
Armenia,  or  Palestine  (though  he  had  traveled  in  them  all),  or  of  any  who  thought  it  ought  to  be  so. 


WINES    OF    THE    BIBLE. 


433 


of  the  consistency  of  ice-cream.     It  is  an  eatable,  and  is  never  counted  a  drink. 
It  is  generally  eaten  with  bread  or  used  in  cooking. 

Rev.  B.  Labaree,  Jr.,  wrote  to  his  father,  late  president  of  Middlebury  Col- 
lege :  "  After  the  most  careful  inquiry,  I  cannot  learn  that  any  unintoxicating 
wine  is  ever  made  in  the  country.  All  kinds  are  fermented,  and  all  more  or  less 
speedily  intoxicates.  The  unfermented  juice  of  the  grape  is  never  used  as  a 
beverage.     The  Syriac  word  for  wine,  hhamra,  means  ferment." 

Dr.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  who  completed  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Arabic  which  was  begun  by  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  writes  as  follows  : 

"There  is  not,  and,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  never  was  (in  Syria)  anything  like 
unfermented  wine.  The  thing  is  not  known  in  the  East.  Syrup  and  molasses 
are  made  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  but  nothing  called  wine  is  unfermented. 
Raisins  are  sometimes  soaked  and  eaten,  and  the  water  drank  ;  but  it  is  never 
called  wine.  Must  is  called  mustar,  and  wine  hhamr,  because  it  is  fermented. 
Whence  hhameer  =  leaven,  and  ihtamar  =  fermentation. 

"The  Orientals  make  dibs  of  raisins  and  ferment  them  for  distillation  into 
arrack ;  but  neither  grape  juice  nor  raisin  water  could  be  kept :  it  would  either 
be  wine  or  vinegar  in  a  few  days,  or  go  into  putrefactive  fermentation.  The 
native  churches  —  Evangelical,  Greek,  Coptic,  and  Armenian  —  all  use  fer- 
mented wine  at  the  communion,  and  have  no  idea  of  any  other. 

"The  Jews  not  only  use  it  at  their  feasts,  but  use  it  to  great  excess.  In  my 
judgment  the  proper  wine  for  the  communion  is  that  which  the  blessed  Saviour 
used  ;  i.  e.,  the  ordinary  wine  of  the  country,  such  as  was  at  hand  when  he  insti- 
tuted the  ordinance." 

Rev.  J.  H.  Shedd,  D.D.,  says  :  As  a  missionary,  I  have  taken  a  deep  inter- 
est in  the  discussion  of  the  temperance  question.  In  the  far  East  we  have  the 
demon  of  intemperance  to  fight,  as  well  as  in  America.  Perhaps  a  brief 
account  of  our  experience  may  contribute  to  a  right  understanding  of  the  Bible 
method  of  dealing  with  this  fearful  evil. 

I.  Our  experience  gives  no  comfort  to  those  who  think  an  abundance  of 
pure  and  cheap  wine  is  a  remedy  for  intemperance.  We  have  never  found 
wine  an  ally  to  temperance,  though  it  flows  around  us  almost  as  cheap  and 
abundant  as  water.  The  region  about  Oroomiah  is  the  land  of  vineyards.  A 
cent  can  often  buy  three  pounds  of  grapes.  A  gallon  of  wine  costs  but  a  pit- 
tance. Ever  since  the  days  of  Noah  that  region  has  been  the  home  of  the 
vine.  During  autumn,  grapes  form  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  diet.  The  pre- 
served products  of  the  vineyards  are  raisins,  grape-molasses,  and  wine.  The 
wine  is  made  in  a  very  primitive  manner,  and  is  wholly  unadulterated.  All  the 
varieties  are  very  light,  I  believe,  compared  with  those  of  Europe,  and  if  any  in 
the  world  are  harmless,  they  are. 

But  beastly  intemperance  is  the  besetting  sin  of  the  people.  The  habit  of 
unrefofmed  Nestorians  and  Armenians  is  to  drink  wine  as  the  camel  drinks 
water.  The  drinking  is  usually  done  up  between  the  vintage  and  spring.  The 
wine  is  exhausted  at  Easter.  Tjll  then  drunkenness  is  too  common  to  excite 
remark.  In  large  villages  I  have  found  it  nearly  impossible  to  find  a  sober 
man  on  a  feast  day.     The  immorality,  mental  degradation,  midnight  carousals, 

28 


434 


THE    ELY   VOLUME. 


and  losses  from  riotous  living,  idleness,  and  crime  cannot  be  exaggerated.  The 
wine  weddings  are  the  bane  of  the  Christian  peasant,  and  the  source  of  the 
debt  and  misery  that  often  break  up  his  home.  Many  acquire  the  passion  for 
stimulants,  and  pass  from  wine  to  arrack.  Among  the  nominal  Christians  of 
Persia,  as  elsewhere  in  the  East,  the  worst  obstacle  to  the  Gospel  is  wine  and 
the  attendant  intemperance. 

II.  The  evil  cannot  be  overcome  by  a  half-hearted  resistance.  He  who 
thinks  that  Christians  can  indulge  as  they  please,  attend  convivial  feasts,  and 
still  keep  themselves  pure,  is  mistaken.  The  remedy  must  be  decisive  antago- 
nism to  that  which  more  than  any  other  one  thing  dishonors  God  and  destroys 
souls. 

The  conviction  among  the  most  thoughtful  native  Christians  is,  that  total 
abstinence,  not  enforced  by  an  outside  pressure  but  adopted  from  principle,  is 
the  only  remedy.  Anything  short  of  this  opens  the  way  to  so  many  exceptions 
and  disastrous  lapses  that  it  is  unsafe,  and,  in  our  day  at  least,  can  never  pro- 
duce a  pure  and  self-denying  church,  or  stem  the  tide  of  drunkenness.  But  on 
what  ground  shall  total  abstinence  be  argued  and  enforced  ? 

III.  We  have  not  found  the  true  position  to  be  wdiat  some  call  the 
advanced  Bible  ground  that  fermented  wine  is  something  in  itself  unclean  and 
accursed.  My  experience  of  nearly  eleven  years  in  the  East  has  not  furnished 
the  least  basis  for  the  distinction  some  make  between  fermented  and  unfer- 
mented  wines  in  the  Bible,  or  Bilile  lands.  We  should  find  it  utterly  impossi- 
ble to  lead  men  who  speak  Arabic  and  Syriac  to  acknowledge  such  a  distinction, 
for  they  would  say  that  the  very  name  of  wine  —  a  word  from  the  root  Hhamr, 
to  ferment  —  means  fermented.  The  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament  was 
made  very  near  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  and  this  is  the  word  used.  The  most 
diligent  inquiries  of  those  most  familiar  with  Orientals  in  their  own  country 
can  find  no  unfermented  wine.  The  people  know  nothing  of  the  luxury  spoken 
of  by  classical  writers,  and  nothing  of  any  mode  of  preserving  the  juice  of  the 
grape  from  becoming  intoxicating.  The  testimony  of  all  familiar  with  the  East 
is  the  same.^ 

The  position  is  untenable  in  Bible  lands  that  wine  means  the  sweet  juice  of 
the  grape,  or  that  wine  in  all  circumstances  is  unlawful  and  accursed.  It  would 
not  carry  a  single  conscience,  but  it  would  array  the  temperance  reform  against 
the  plain  teachings  and  example  of  the  Word  of  God.  If  pressure  could  be 
brought  to  carry  such  a  point  for  a  time,  the  reaction  would  only  be  more  ter- 
rible when  that  pressure  was  removed. 

IV.  The  moral  basis  of  total  abstinence  in  the  Koran  is  one  it  would 
hardly  be  wise  to  imitate,  if  we  could.  Unlike  the  Bible,  the  Koran  makes 
wine  under  all  circumstances  a  sinful,  accursed  thing.  Strict  Mohammedan 
Haw  enjoins  the  destruction  of  every  earthen  vessel  that  has  held  wine,  and  a 
metal  one  must  be  washed,  scoured,  and  sunned  repeatedly  ere  it  is  used  again. 
It  is  a  crime  to  make,  taste,  or  sell  it,  Islam  is  a  compulsory  total  abstinence 
society,  and  is  a  partial  success ;  but  it  is  the^  success  of  superstition  and  force. 
In  all  the  essentials  of  a  true  reform,  enforced  total  abstinence  is  a  failure, 

'  See  Bil'liotlicca  Sacra,  January,  iSOg. 


WINES   OF   THE    BIBLE.  435 

because  Moslems  regard  it  as  a  compulsory  yoke,  and  the  heart  being 
unchanged,  they  only  need  an  excuse  to  indulge  in  this  as  in  every  other  lust. 
The  essence  of  temperance  is  conscientious  self-restraint,  and  this  is  wanting; 
hence  Moslems  have  never  lived  up  to  their  law,  and  with  their  waning  faith 
drunkenness  in  Persia  and  Turkey  is  fearfully  prevalent.  Some  have  always 
evaded  the  law,  under  the  plea  that  only  wine  is  forbidden,  and  distilled  drinks 
are  not  mentioned.  So  they  drink  arrack  as  the  Irishman  does  whiske}^ 
Many  partake  secretly,  but  large  numbers  are  open  drunkards,  even  maniacs  of 
inebriation.  Mohammedanism  is  a  failure  as  a  temperance  reform,  as  it  is  in 
everything  that  pertains  to  good  moral  character.  Christians  can  never  covet 
such  a  superstitious  virtue  as  abstinence  has  been  in  Moslem  lands.  The 
Mohammedan  is  a  drafted  recruit,  who  runs  at  the  first  fire.  The  truly  tem- 
perate enlists  from  principle,  and  so  endures. 

V.  In  the  East  we  are  thus  shut  up  to  advocate  this  cause  on  moral 
grounds.  We  cannot  resort  to  prohibition,  nor  can  we  use  the  doubtful  inter- 
pretation that  makes  the  Bible  bless  unfermented  wine  and  curse  the  fermented. 
Such  a  distinction  is  not  known.  Wine  is  wine.  It  is  the  proper  element  to 
be  used  at  the  communion,  the  best  symbol  that  Christ  could  have  chosen. 
Some  in  Bible  times  used  wine  for  the  same  purpose  that  we  use  tea  and  coffee 
now ;  and  who  knows  but  such  times  will  come  again  ? 

But  we  do  not  now  live  in  such  circumstances.  Wine  is  now  joined  with 
the  whole  train  of  destructive  distilled  liquors.  It  prepares  the  way  for  drunk- 
enness. It  is  the  source  of  sorrow,  woe,  and  death.  As  in  the  days  of  Hosea, 
it  is  the  companion  of  whoredom  and  every  loathsome  thing;  and  no  fact  is 
plainer  than  that  the  stream  of  drunkenness  is  fed  by  the  use  of  the  milder 
drinks. 

Drunkenness  is  a  sin  which  God  will  punish.  Wine  drinking  leads  to  this, 
and  to  avoid  drunkenness,  with  its  temporal  and  eternal  woe,  we  must  dry  up 
its  springs.     Here  is  Bible  ground. 

Still  more  emphatic  is  the  law  of  self-denial  for  the  good  of  others. 
Romans  xiv :  21.  This  argument  can  be  used  with  great  force,  for  in  the  East 
wine  is  palpably  the  source  of  untold  sin  and  evil.  It  cripples  the  church, 
causes  quarrels  among  brethren,  aggravates  every  other  difficulty,  causes  back- 
sliding, and  prevents  sinners  from  repenting  in  cases  without  number.  Men 
are  stumbling  into  death  and  hell,  and  the  example  of  Christians  using  wine 
makes  them  allies  of  the  destroyer.  The  charges  against  it  are  enough  to 
make  every  friend  of  Christ  and  of  souls  a  total  abstainer. 

Further :  The  Christian  position  is  not  one  of  mere  neutrality.  Christian 
liberty  is  not  a  cloak  for  self-indulgence.  We  have  no  right  to  say:  "To  drink 
or  not  to  drink  is  equally  lawful,"  for  "  whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin."  We 
must  be  clear  in  our  conscience  that  what  we  do  is  to  save  men  and  not  to 
destroy  them. 

"  But  Christ  made  wine."  Very  true.  He  came  to  seek  and  to  save  the 
lost.  Every  act  of  his  life  tended  to  this.  The  miracle  was  not  sinful,  but 
eminently  fitted  to  manifest  his  glory  and  confirm  the  faith  of  the  spectators. 
Their  thoughts  were  elevated  from  the  banquet  to  his  claims  as  the  Son  of  God. 


436  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

Let  US  follow  this  example.  If  we  are  placed  in  circumstances  where  making 
wine  or  drinking  it  is  a  decided  means  of  leading  men  to  Christ,  let  us  dc  it. 
But  who  acts  from  such  a  motive  in  drinking  wine  ?  With  its  influence  on  the 
side  of  sin,  with  distilled  liquors  waiting  to  huny  on  to  ruin  those  whom  his 
example  starts  on  the  road,  who  will  advocate  wine  drinking  as  a  Christian 
duty,  or  an  act  to  which  he  is  prompted  by  the  love  of  God  and  souls  ?  He 
who  drinks,  no  less  than  he  who  abstains,  should  act  from  the  conviction  that 
thus  he  best  honors  Christ.  I  have  seen  Christians,  yielding  to  appetite,  plead 
liberty  and  harmless  indulgence.  I  have  seen  them  refrain  from  wine  on  Sun- 
day as  unfitting  them  for  worship  ;  but  never  one  who  pleaded  that  wine  was  a 
means  of  grace,  or  an  aid  to  the  cause  of  Christ. 

These  are  the  grounds  on  which  we  must  wage  this  war  in  Bible  lands,  and 
it  is  cheering  to  know  that  such  arguments  are  not  used  in  vain.  A  good 
Protestant  among  us  is  generally  a  good  temperance  man  ;  and  all  understand 
that  one  cannot  be  a  wine  drinker  and  at  the  same  time  an  exemplary  Chris- 
tian, Dancing  has  been  practiced  by  eminent  saints ;  but  who  could  be  a  fol- 
lower of  Christ  and  join  in  the  lewd  dances  of  the  East  to-day  ? 

In  scores  of  villages  among  Armenians  and  Nestorians  enough  has  been 
saved  by  temperance  to  pay  for  the  support  of  the  Gospel,  and  in  some 
churches  there  is  a  voluntary  agreement  that  all  should  abstain  entirely,  rejoic- 
ing in  the  privilege  of  denying  themselves  to  promote  the  cause  of  Christ. 
The  Holy  Spirit  sets  his  seal  to  total  abstinence,  for  often  the  first  thing  the 
awakened  sinner  does  is  to  confess  that  wine  is  his  enemy,  and  renounce  it. 

I  believe  in  the  use  of  every  right  means  for  the  suppression  of  vice. 
Intemperance,  as  an  evil  in  society,  must  be  dealt  with  by  the  civil  law ;  but  in 
the  church,  abstinence  must  be  placed  on  Bible  grounds,  which  will  stand  the 
test  of  all  time  in  every  land.  Leaving  all  questionable  issues,  let  us  plant  our- 
selves on  sound  and  defensible  principles,  and  there  let  us  stand.^ 

Rev.  Dr.  S.  Wolcott,  who  spent  three  years  in  Syria,  says  in  a  letter  to  a 
friend  :  "  My  studies  in  Hebrew  and  Greek  have  confirmed  the  impression  con- 
veyed by  our  English  version,  that  the  wine  of  the  Bible  was  fermented ;  that, 
indeed,  nothing  else  was  counted  wine,  though  the  fruit  of  the  vine  was  used  in 
other  forms.  Had  I  held  a  different  theory,  it  could  not  have  survived  a  resi- 
dence in  the  land  where  the  Bible  was  written.  There  the  unbroken  force 
of  native  tradition,  both  Jewish  and  Gentile,  sustains  the  interpretation  I  have 
given,  and  it  is  embodied  in  permanent  memorials.  The  wine  used  in  the 
Eucharist  by  native  churches  of  all  sects  is  such  wine,  and  no  other,  because 
they  believe  that  it  was  used  in  the  original  Supper,  and  the  Jews  use  the  same 
and  no  other  at  the  Passover,  from  a  similar  conviction.  I  am  aware  that 
these  statements  are  disputed,  but  not  by  men  who  have  lived  in  Palestine. 
Some  commentators  hold  that  the  wine  created  by  our  Saviour  was  what  the 
Arabs  call  dibs;  but  that  is  the  native  molasses  —  must  boiled  down  to  a 
syrup,  and  classed  not  as  a  drink  but  as  food.      Had  the  ruler  of  the  feast  at 

'  This  condensed  form  of  Dr.  Sliedd's  views  was  read  and  approved  by  him  when  he  was  last  in  this  country. 
The  reader  needs  also  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  region  where  Dr.  Shedd  labored  is  further  from  Syria  than  Pitts- 
burg is  from  Boston,  or  Savannah  from  New  York. 


WINES    OF    THE    BIBLE.  437 

Cana,  a  judge  of  good  wine,  been  served  with  that,  it  would  have  been  no 
nearer  wine,  or  less  consistent  with  the  sacred  narrative,  than  sweet  jniist,  with 
no  enlivening  property  whatever." 

Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.,  in  his  new  edition  of  The  Land  and  the  Book^ 
says:  "Grapes  not  sold  in  the  markets  are  dried  into  raisins,  or  the  juice  is 
expressed  and  boiled  down  into  dibs — a  syrup  of  grapes  resembling  molasses 
—  an  article  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  as  is  supposed  under  the  kin- 
dred name  of  debash,  but  which  in  some  places  is  translated  honey,  and  in  others 
manna.  //  is  not  a  beverage  at  all ;  but  forms  a  part  of  the  ordinary  food  of  the 
present  inhabitants  of  Hebron,  and  throughout  the  land  from  Dan  to  Beer- 
sheba,  and  further  still." 

Rev.  George  E.  Post,  M.D.,  professor  in  the  Syrian  College,  Beirut,  Syria, 
says  of  the  wine  used  at  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  :  "  It  was  undoubt- 
edly fermented.  No  such  thing  as  unfermented  wine  is  known  here.  The 
juice  of  the  grape  alone  is  not  used  as  a  beverage.  The  concentrated  juice  of 
the  grape  after  boiling  is  not  drink  at  all,  but  the  counterpart  of  molasses  and 
honey,  which  has  become  somewhat  candied ;  that  is,  a  semi-solid  conserve, 
eaten  with  bread  as  a  relish.  To  call  this  wine  is  to  trifle  with  the  text  and 
meaning  of  Scripture.  Temperance  needs  no  such  sorry  and  untruthful 
defence  as  this.  Light  wine  is  still  made  extensively  in  the  East,  and  seldom 
abused."^ 

Rev.  W.  Wright,  a  secretary  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  when 
he  was  a  missionary  in  Damascus,  obtained  the  following  statement  from  the 
missionaries  in  Syria,  to  use  in  an  article  which  he  intended  to  write  for  publi- 
cation : 

"  We,  the  undersigned,  missionaries  and  residents  in  Syria,  having  been 
repeatedly  requested  to  make  a  distinct  statement  on  the  subject,  hereby 
declare  that  during  the  whole  time  of  our  residence  and  traveling  in  Syria  and 
the  Holy  Land,  we  have  never  seen  or  heard  of  an  unfermented  wine  ;  nor 
have  we  found  among  Jews,  Christians,  or  Mohammedans,  any  tradition  of 
such  a  wine  ever  having  existed  in  the  country.  May,  1875."  This  was  signed 
by  Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.,  Rev.  S.  H.  Calhoun,  Rev.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck, 
D.D.,  and  Rev.  H.  H.  Jessup,  D.D.,  missionaries  of  the  Presbyterian  Board, 
formerly  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions ;  Rev. 
J.  Robertson,  Rev.  J.  Crawford,  and  Rev.  W.  Wright,  missionaries  from  Great 
Britain  ;  Rev.  J.  Wortabet,  M.D.,  a  native  Syrian,  and  Professor  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  in  the  Syrian  College ;  R.  Brigstocke,  M.D.,  Professor  of 
Obstetrics  and  Medical  Jurisprudence  in  the  same  institution  ;  James  Black, 
Esq.,  who  for  more  than  forty  years  had  been  the  leading  foreign  merchant  in 
Beirut;  and  Michael  Meshakah,  M.D.,  of  Damascus,  the  most  learned  Syrian  in 
Syria.  Will  it  be  believed  that  an  American  writer,  whose  work  is  published 
by  the  National  Temperance  Society,  calls  this  "a  prejudged  and  formulated 
statement,  prepared  in  Scotland  by  interested  parties,  and  sent  to  Syria  for  ex- 
parte  testimony  ?  " 

Thus  far  no  allusion  has  been  made  to  the  testimony  of  Henr}'  A.  Homes,  a 

'  Southern-  Palatine  and  Jerusalem,  p.  279.  -  Stmday  School  World,  1S7S,  p.  200. 


438  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

former  missionary  at  Constantinople,  not  because  he  does  not  agree  witli  all 
the  rest,  but  because  he  has  been  persistently  charged  with  contradicting  them. 
Of  course,  If  he  does,  then  the  house  is  divided  against  itself  and  cannot  stand ; 
but  what  are  the  facts  ?  The  following  condensation  of  his  statements  in  the 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,^  has  been  submitted  to  him  and  received  his  approval. 

As  among  us  wine  is  known  to  promote  drunkenness,  and  the  grape  is  sup- 
posed to  be  cultivated  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  making  wine,  it  is  difficult  to  do 
justice  to  the  Bible  commendation  of  the  vine.  To  relieve  the  difficulty  he 
enumerates  seventeen  products  of  the  vine.  These  are  grapes  ;  the  acid  juice 
of  the  green  grape,  used  in  cooking ;  grapes  slightly  dried,  for  winter  use  ;  rais- 
ins, preserves,  and  confectionery  made  from  must;  pickled  grapes,  grape  molas- 
ses, called  dibs  in  Arabic,  pekmez  in  Turkish  ;  nardenk,  grape  sugar,  vinegar, 
raisin  drink,  raisin  wine,  wane,  brandy  ;  the  leaves  of  the  vine,  and  the  vineyard 
as  a  place  for  recreation.  Now,  so  far  from  contradicting  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  this 
only  corroborates  what  he  said  about  the  vineyards  of  Bhamdun.^  The  only 
point  in  which  he  differs  from  any  missionary  is  where  he  speaks  of  raisin  wine^ 
for  Dr.  Van  Dyck  spoke  of  there  being  none,  so  far  as  he  could  learn  ;  but  the 
different  customs  of  Beirfit  and  Constantinople  may  account  for  this  differ- 
ence, which  does  not  at  all  affect  the  main  point  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
unfermented  wine.  What  does  Mr,  Homes  say  about  that?  Let  all  candid 
men  hear  and  decide  for  themselves,  whether  he  sanctions  the  idea  of  an  unfer- 
mented wine.  His  words  are  :  ^  "  Witie  as  a  ferme?ited  liquor  coJitains  a  certain 
amount  of  alcohol,  and  there  is  Jio  substance  now  called  wine  by  any  one,  that  is  not 
intoxicating^  Again  :  ^  "That  which  we  at  this  day  call  wine,,we  all  know  to  be 
an  intoxicating  liquor r  Again  :  ^  "  All  that  is  now'  called  wine  in  the  East  is  as 
truly  wine  as  what  is  called  wine  in  France.  ^  Whether  boiled  or  not  boiled, 
•whether  sweet  or  sour,  all  the  known  wines  are  intoxicatifig."  And  yet  this  is  the 
witness  brought  forward  to  prove  that  wine  in  the  East  is  unfermented  !  His 
article  is  the  sole  basis  for  such  rash  statements  as  "a  dozen  missionaries  have 
testified  to  it."  But  does  he  not  speak  of  the  inspissated,  unfermented  juice  of 
the  grape  ? ''  Yes  ;  and  this  is  what  he  says  :  ^  "  //  is  never  regarded  as  a  boiled 
wine^  but  as  a  sweetening  syrup.  It  may  sour,  but  never  becomes  wine,  011 
account  of  the  amount  of  boiling."  Dr.  Smith  had  said  :  "  It  may  be  beaten  to 
the  consistency  of  ice-cream."  Mr.  Homes  says  :  "  Beaten  and  stirred  up  with 
mustard  seed  for  some  days  it  becomes  a  whitish  paste."  What  is  the  differ- 
ence in  the  two  statements  ?  Again  he  says  :  ^^  "  The  boiling  which  some  give 
their  7nust  to  secure  a  wine  that  will  keep  better  should  not  be  confounded  with  boil- 
i7ig  the  same  must  to  make  sugar  and  molasses.  The  one  is  not  reduced  one 
twentieth  in  bulk,  the  other  is  reduced  more  than  three  fourths."  Hence  inspis- 
sated wine  should  never  be  confou7idcd  with  inspissated  grape  juice.  The  former 
gives  us  an  intoxicating  liquor,  the  latter  molasses."  "  In  some  districts,"  he 
says,  "the  people  regard  the  boiled  wines  as  stronger  than  the  unboiled."     We, 

1  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S48,  pp.  2S3-295.  ^  p.  432.  Sp.  2S4.  ■«  p.  2S4.  'ip.  292. 

'■  In  a  letter  to  the  writer,  Mr.  Homes,  to  whom  I  forwarded  all  I  have  written  about  him,  said,  "  1  do  not  see 
that  you  have  at  all  misapprehended  my  meaning.  There  is  no  wine  in  Syria  or  Turkey  as  little  intoxicating  as  the 
wines  of  the  Rhine."  7  Dibs  or  pekmez.  Sp.  289.  "Vincuit. 

i"p.  292.  "  Dr.  Smith  had  said  one  half  or  three  quarters. 


WINES    OF    THE    BIBLE. 


437 


might  say  the  same  of  the  sweet  wines  ;  that,  tliough  by  drying  the  grapes  in  the 
sun,  or  boiling  the  musf,  the  wine  is  made  sweeter,  such  wines  are  still  intoxi- 
cating, and  some  of  them  extremely  so. 

In  another  place  ^  he  says:  "Whatever  language  has  been  used  in  modern 
or  ancient  times,  describing  certain  wines  as  unintoxicating,  should  be  received 
with  much  allowance.  If  Horace  speaks  of  the  innocentis  pocula  Lesbii,  or  if 
Atheneus  declares  that  surre?ttina  vina  caput  non  tenent,  the  language  is  compara- 
tive merely,  and  means  that  some  wines  were  not  so  intoxicating  as  others." 
He  does  not  mention  pressing  the  juice  of  the  grape  into  a  cup  to  be  drunk 
immediately,  among  the  uses  of  the  grape,  because  no  such  custom  exists, 
unless  among  children  at  play.  On  the  contrary,  he  affirms:^  "There  is  no 
sufBcient  evidence  to  prove  it  a  usage  of  antiquity.  We  cannot  say  that  the 
butler  of  Pharaoh  had  such  a  habit,  for  he  only  did  it  in  a  dream.  Genesis 
xl  :  21  tells  us  that  when  set  at  liberty  he  simply  gave  the  cup  into  Pharaoh's 
hand.  Nor  does  the  language  of  classic  poets,  treated  by  the  rules  of  ordinary 
criticism,  imply  that  the  drinkers  of  those  days  were  satisfied  with  such  abstemi- 
ousness. Statues  have  indeed  been  found  representing  the  juice  pressed  directly 
from  the  cluster  into  a  cup.  But  this  may  be  as  much  the  language  of  imagina- 
tion as  any  poetry,  and  little  accords  with  the  accounts  of  either  Bacchus  or 
his  followers,  who  never  touched  grape  juice  till  it  was  weir  fermented."  So 
entirely  is  Mr.  Homes  at  variance  with  those  who  dream  of  an  unfermented 
wine. 

How  such  testimony  can  be  made  to  contradict  that  of  other  missionaries  it 
is  difficult  to  understand.  Mr.  Homes  is  even  careful  to  say:^  "When  travel- 
ers have  met  with  some  of  these  liquid  and  almost  solid  products  of  the  grape, 
they  have  called  them  wine.  Thus  Parry  states  that  'the  Turks  carry  with 
them  on  their  journeys  unfermented  wine,'  which  could  only  be  some  kind  of 
grape  syrup." 

But  what  about  nardenk ?  Mr.  Homes  says  : •*  "It  ordinarily  has  not  a  par- 
ticle of  intoxicating  quality."  Then  he  would  refuse  to  call  it  wine;  but  he 
says,  ordinarily  it  is  not,  implying  that  sometimes  it  is.  When  is  it  so  ?  He 
tells  us:^  "Some  large  jars  of  it  fermented  on  a  voyage  from  Asia  Minor  to 
Odessa,  and  then  the  owners  paid  duty  on  it  as  wine."  Then  before,  it  was  not 
wine,  but  when  it  fermented,  even  an  Oriental,  however  he  might  grudge  it, 
could  not  refuse  to  pay  the  duty  that  fermentation  made  collectible.  Then 
fermentation  was  the  door  through  which  it  entered  the  domain  of  wine.  But 
does  not  Mr.  Homes  call  nardenk  wine  ?  No.  See  how  carefully  he  speaks  :  ^ 
"  As  there  has  been  great  search  for  an  unfermented  wine,  as  soon  as  I  came 
on  the  traces  of  nardenk  I  followed  them  up  to  see  what  it  was,  for  though  in 
the  present  use  of  language  an  u?ifermented  wine  is  an  impossibility,  yet  here  is 
a  cooling  grape  liquor  which  is  unintoxicating,  and  seems  to  correspond  with 
certain  drinks  included  by  the  ancients  under  the  term  wine."  Did  he  find, 
then,  that  it  actually  corresponded .-'  Near  the  close  of  his  article  he  gives  the 
reply  to  that  question  thus  : ''  "  We  need  not  look  for  an  unintoxicating  wine  to 
account  for  the  blessings  pronounced  on  the  vine  in  the  Bible."     The  follow- 


440  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

ing  sentences  from  a  letter  to  the  writer,  dated  April  19,  1870,  may  make  his 
position  even  plainer  still :  "  It  is  not  intended  to  ferment  any  more  than 
canned  preserves  ;  still  it  does  sometimes  ferment,  and  so,  becoming  what  it  was 
not  intended  to  be,  must  then  be  called  wine.  In  its  natural  state  it  is  not  fit 
to  drink.  I  would  add  that  my  interest  in  nardenk  was  not  owing  to  its  abso- 
lute importance,  but  because  it  was  something  undescribed  among  the  sherbets 
of  Turkey,  and  I  wanted  to  study  it  in  connection  with  matters  in  dispute  at 
home,  but  I  never  thought  of  implying  that  I  had  found  a  7vine  that  would  not 
intoxicated 

The  writer  does  not  know  of  a  missionary  in  Bible  lands  who  gives  the  least 
encouragement  to  the  figment  of  an  unfermented  wine  in  those  lands,  unless  it 
be  a  single  unintentional  mistake  in  Miss  Maria  A.  West's  Romance  of  Missions, 
and  as  it  gives  an  opportunity  to  commend  a  most  excellent  book,  and  no  one 
will  be  more  glad  of  the  correction  than  the  author,  to  whom  all  lovers  of  the 
missionary  work  are  under  so  great  obligation,  the  writer  will  here  venture  to 
correct  it. 

This  volume  is  a  duodecimo  of  seven  hundred  and  ten  pages,  published  In 
New  York  in  1875.  It  gives  a  series  of  interior  views  of  missionary  life,  such 
as  few  others  could  have  written.  They  are  not  only  vivid  sketches ;  they  are 
as  accurate  as  they  are  vivid.  The  author  has  the  rare  gift  of  knowing  what  to 
put  into  the  picture  and  what  to  leave  out.  Some  might  even  be  present  in 
scenes  which  she  describes  and  not  see  so  much  as  her  pages  set  before  us. 
The  only  point  of  resemblance  between  the  book  and  "romance  "  is  the  intense 
interest  with  which  readers  peruse  its  pages.  The  unreality  of  "  romance  "  is  here 
wholly  wanting.  The  writer  could  not  but  feel  the  deepest  interest  in  pages 
that  described  the  same  route  from  Marsovan  to  Diarbekir  over  which  he  passed 
in  1842.  Miss  West  stopped  repeatedly  in  the  same  building*  that  he  had 
spent  the  night  in  before  her,  and  the  old  "  environment "  seemed  to  come 
back  out  the  misty  past  under  her  magic  touches  distinct  as  yesterday.  But 
we  must  not  forget  the  correction.  On  page  589,  after  statements  that  imply 
Miss  West  had  personally  known  no  other  wine  than  that  which  intoxi- 
cates, she  adds  in  parentheses  :  "  In  the  Syrian  ^  church,  the  oldest  in  the  world, 
//  seems  that  fermented  wine  is  not  used  for  the  communion.  When  the  fresh 
juice  of  the  grape  cannot  be  obtained,  raisins  are  soaked  and  the  juice 
expressed  for  that  purpose."  Now  two  things  are  plain  here:  one  that  Miss 
West  was  speaking  only  from  hearsay,  and  the  other  that  she  had  refer- 
ence only  to  times  when  not  "  the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape  "  but  '*  wine,"  as  we 
shall  see,  cannot  be  obtained.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  where  she  got  her 
information.  The  erroneous  statement  of  an  exceptional  case  made  by  Mr. 
W.  F.  Ainsworth  journeying  through  the  country  of  the  Mountain  Nestorians  at  a 
season  when  the  wine  of  the  preceding  vintage  is  sometimes  exhausted  —  thirsty 
throats  having  been  unable  to  stop  drinking  while  it  lasted  —  and  when  unusual 
methods  have  to  be  employed  to  supply  the  deficiency,  has  been  exalted  into 
a  correct  statement  of  a  regular  custom.  The  writer  will  not  state  his  own 
recollections,  though   he    spent    two   years   among  the  Christians  of  Eastern 

'  The  printer  has  it  Syricic,  vvliich  relates  to  language,  not  to  churches. 


WINES    OF   THE-  BIBLE.  44I 

Turkey,  and  visited  the  Mountain  Nestorians  both  before  and  after  the 
massacre,  but  gives  instead  tlie  written  testimony  of  the  most  intelHgent 
native  member  of  the  evangelical  church  in  Mosul  —  a  man  who  has  been,  we 
trust,  a  true  disciple  now  for  nearly  forty  years.  Micha  Ibn  Yonan  writes  in 
Arabic,  in  a  letter  dated  April  15,  1874:  "We,  and  all  the  other  Christian 
sects,  use  fermented  wine,  hhamr  muhhamr,  at  the  Lord's  Supper.  That  is,  at 
the  end  of  summer,  men  gather  grapes,  press  them,  and  make  from  the  expi'essed 
juice  wine,  which  is  preserved  both  for  a  beverage  and  for  the  Lord's  Supper. 
But  the  Jews  at  the  Passover  make  new  wine  from  raisins,  that  is,  dried  grapes, 
yet  that  is  fermented^  (yihhtamr)  also  ;  and  they  say  there  is  no  injury  from  it, 
for  it  is  new ;  but  all  of  it  is  fermented  and  intoxicating,  or  causing  fermenta- 
tion (muhhtamr  wa  muhhamr),  and  we  also  sometimes  use  this."  This  testi- 
mony of  one  who  knows,  may  correct  the  unintentional  error  occasioned  by 
reporting  from  hearsay. 

The  above  was  written  without  the  slightest  expectation  of  ever  seeing  Miss 
West ;  but  the  writer  is  now  happy  to  add  that  she  has  seen  the  above  state- 
ments in  manuscript,  and  cordially  endorses  the  correction  of  a  mistake  that 
arose  simply  from  giving  too  hasty  credit  to  a  report  that  has  since  proved 
unworthy  of  confidence. 

^This  statement  of  Micha  shows  that  Mr.  Ainsworth  blundered  as  usual  when  he  ssM  {Travels  in  Asia 
Minor,  etc  ,  Vol.  II,  p.  209)  that  "  raisin  water  supplied  the  place  of  wine  at  the  sacrament"  in  Duree.  It  could 
not  have  been  raisin  water,  or  raisin  drink,  as  Rev.  H.  A.  Homes  calls  it  {Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1S48,  p.  291),  for  that 
"  is  drank  only  when  freshly  made."  The  sherbetjee  "  ladling  out  raisins  and  liquor  together  for  his  street  custom- 
ers." It  was  "  raisin  wine,"  which  is  made  by  soaking  one  part,  by  weight,  of  raisins,  in  four  parts  of  warm  water, 
for  two  days;  then  the  raisins  are  taken  out,  bruised,  and  again  put  in,  till  the  fermentation  has  been  sufficient. 
The  result  is  called  in  Arabic,  nebidh,  and  is  often  distilled  to  make  brandy.  Nothing  else  would  have  been  used 
by  Mar  Eeshoo  or  any  other  Oriental  ecclesiastic. 

We  have  seen  Colonel  Chesney  (see  page  67  of  this  volume)  misled  by  his  blunder  of  "a  bridge  of  ropes" 
{Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  etc.,  Vol.  II,  p.  217)  at  Lezan  into  the  general  assertion  that  "  the  intercourse  from  side 
to  side  of  t^ie  Zab  is  by  means  of  rope  bridges,"  and  friends  of  temperance  have  been  misled  in  like  manner  by  this 
other  blunder  of  "  raisin  water"  into  statements  equally  general  and  just  as  baseless. 


XXL 
NATIONAL  REGENERATION. 


The  plan  of  this  volume  includes  an  account  of  some  of  the  instances  in 
which  our  missionaries  have  regenerated  communities  and  lifted  them  from  the 
mire  of  the  pit.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  an  adequate  picture  of  these 
changes  to  one  who  has  not  personally  witnessed  both  the  previous  debasement 
and  the  subsequent  improvement.  Something  has  already  been  said  of  the 
moral  and  social  condition  of  the  heathen  without  the  Bible ;  but  there  is  much 
more  that  might  be  added,  and  still  more  that  cannot  be  repeated,  it  is  so  vile. 
If  we  look  at  the  work  as  a  whole,  Dr.  M.  Mitchell,  of  Edinburgh,  reports  that 
more  than  two  millions  of  men  now  living  have  been  rescued  from  paganism 
through  Protestant  missionaries,  during  the  last  fifty  years  ;  but  our  view  will- 
be  more  intelligent  if  we  consider  the  several  fields  in  detail. 


SANDWICH  ISLANDS. 

At  the  Sandwich  Islands  the  property  of  an  entire  community  was  less  than 
that  of  our  average  citizen.  Books  they  had  none.  The  knowledge  of  their 
wisest  men  was  exceeded  by  that  of  our  little  children.  They  spent  their  time 
in  sleeping  and  swimming,  clapping  their  hands  and  tattooing  their  skins,  roast- 
ing bread-fruit,  climbing  for  cocoanuts,  and  catching  fish.  The  women,  with 
long  patience,  beat  out  cloth  from  the  bark  of  trees,  played  in  the  surf,  and 
painted  with  turmeric.     Their  moral  character  has  been  already  described. 

In  1826,  only  six  years  after  the  commencement  of  the  mission,  John  Young, 
who  had  been  on  the  ground  for  more  than  thirty-six  years,  wrote  of  the  thou- 
sands he  had  seen  massacred  in  war,  and  the  immense  numbers  slaughtered  on 
idol  altars ;  but,  he  added,  "  I  rejoice  that  true  religion  is  supplanting  idolatry  ; 
that  a  code  of  Christian  laws  is  taking  the  place  of  despotism,  and  good  morals 
are  superseding  vice  and  crime." 

The  missionaries  gave  them  the  Bible,  and  through  that  the  family,  schools 
and  churches,  industry  and  commerce,  literature  and  constitutional  government. 
The  facts  detailed  by  forty-one  missionaries  in  1848  are  a  marvel  of  history.^ 

•See  IIa-waiia7i  Isiatids,  by  R.  Anderson,  D.D. ,  pp.  92-9S ;  Missionary  Herald,  1849,  pp.  17-23. 
(442) 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION,  443 

Any  prediction  of  such  a  change  beforehand  would  have  been  scouted  as  the 
wildest  dream. 

Dr.  Anderson  says,  this  people  have  been  humanized  by  the  Gospel.  In- 
stead of  a  murderous  war-spirit  is  one  of  gentleness  and  peace.  They  obey 
the  laws  and  regard  the  rights  of  property.  Marriage  was  one  of  the  earliest 
fruits  of  the  Gospel.  There  were  two  thousand  weddings  between  July  i,  1830, 
and  July  i,  1831.  The  domestic  arts  flourish;  sewing  machines  and  melodeons 
may  be  seen  even  in  the  homes  of  the  poor.  Women  taught  by  missionary 
ladies  are  often  accomplished  in  manners  and  elegant  in  dress.  In  1836  the 
king  and  chiefs  applied  for  instruction  in  agriculture,  the  arts,  and  the  science 
of  government,  and  Rev.  W.  Richards,  in  1838,  was  released  from  the  service 
of  the  Board  to  aid  them  in  their  public  affairs.  Instead  of  all  power  being  in 
the  hands  of  one  man,  as  the  missionaries  found  it  —  the  chiefs  even  holding 
power  only  at  his  pleasure,  and  with  no  law  to  shield  the  people  from  plunder 
at  any  time  or  at  any  extent  —  June  7,  1839,  a  bill  of  rights  was  voluntarily  given 
by  the  king.  A  constitution  was  conferred  October  8,  1840,  and  the  government 
was  modeled  after  that  of  England.  The  government  provides  for  popular  edu- 
cation, and  there  is  all  the  machinery  needful  for  the  healthy  development  of 
national  life.^  The  constitution  ordained  that  "no  law  shall  be  enacted  at 
variance  with  the  Word  of  the  Lord  Jehovah,  or  with  the  general  spirit  of  his 
Word." 

Rev.  S.  H.  Damon,  the  well-known  seamen's  chaplain  at  Honolulu,  states 
that  the  proportion  of  true  Christians  among  them  is  as  great  as  in  any  part  of 
Christendom. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Bostoji  jfournal  writes  from  Honolulu  in  1870: 
"  Fifty  years  ago  they  were  a  horde  of  naked  savages,  offering  human  sacrifices 
and  sunk  in  the  grossest  sensuality.  Today  they  hold  a  place  among  Christian 
nations.  A  constitutional  government  administers  equitable  laws.  They  have 
the  appliances  of  an  advanced  civilization.  Churches  dot  the  islands,  and 
the  proportion  of  readers  is  larger  than  in  Boston." 

Previous  to  that,-  Dr.  Leonard  Bacon  challenged  any  one  to  show  that  even 
in  the  capital,  where  foreign  demoralization  is  most  intense,  vice  is  worse  than 
in  our  own  commercial  cities.  Our  missionaries  found  them  as  naked  as  Adam 
and  Eve  in  Paradise,  and  quite  as  far  from  being  ashamed.  Now  they  are 
decently  clothed,  with  comfortable  homes ;  native  mechanics  ply  their  trades, 
and  industry  and  thrift  widely  supersede  the  indolence  and  waste  of  savage 
life  ;  while  the  Sabbath  is  kept  as  well  as  in  Scotland  or  New  England. 

In  this  connection,  their  Christian  benevolence  deserves  honorable  mention. 
\\\  1870  the  members  of  nine  churches  in  the  island  of  Hawaii  gave  on  an  aver- 
age $4.10  each.  The  Hawaiian  churches  in  1870  contributed  $31,000  in  gold, 
and  $6,476  of  this  amount  were  for  foreign  missions.  Their  missionaries  have 
been  the  means  of  Christianizing  fourteen  of  the  Marquesas  Islands.  In  1867 
one  church  had  five  missionaries,  with  their  wives,  in  those  islands,  and  others 
prepariiig  to  go.^ 

^Hawaiian  Islajids  (Anderson),  pp.  23S,  325.  -In  1864. 

'^Missionary  Herald,  1871,  p.  10  ;  Foreign  Missionary,  iSSi,  p.  444. 


444  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

At  one  time  in  Waimea,  the  court-house  door  was  closed  for  weeks,  and 
the  magistrate  said  that  the  place  was  so  free  from  crime  it  could  get  along  well 
enough  without  him.^ 

Hon.  Richard  H.  Dana,  Jr.,  of  Boston,  a  member  of  the  Episcopal  church, 
wrote  from  the  islands,  in  i860,  to  the  New  York  Tribune  in  substance  as  fol- 
lows :  In  less  than  forty  years  the  missionaries  have  wrought  a  wonderful 
change.  They  have  established  schools  and  reared  up  native  teachers,  and, 
whereas  they  found  the  people  half-naked  savages,  eating  raw  fish,  oppressed  by 
feudal  chiefs,  and  abandoned  to  sensuality,  they  see  them  now  decently  clothed, 
lawfully  married,  and  going  to  school  and  worship  with  more  regularity  than 
our  own  people.  The  more  elevated  among  them  hold  seats  on  the  judicial 
bench,  and  in  the  legislature,  or  fill  the  local  magistracies. 

Every  mission  family  was  a  source  of  civilizing  influence  ;  each  mission- 
house  was  a  dispensary,  and  each  missionary  a  school-teacher.  The  mission- 
ary ladies  not  only  taught  them  from  books,  but  to  sew,  knit,  and  iron  clothes, 
and,  better  than  all,  to  train  up  their  children.  Approaching  them  in  sickness 
with  the  peculiar  sympathies  of  the  sex,  they  exerted  the  tenderest,  and  so, 
often,  the  most  efficient  influences. 

For  two  months  I  have  been  a  guest  in  many  of  their  families,  and  I  can 
truly  say  that,  besides  fidelity  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  to  the  natives,  in 
kindness  to  strangers,  and  general  information,  it  would  be  hard  to  find  their 
superiors  at  home.  I  have  seen  in  their  homes  collections  of  minerals,  plants, 
shells,  and  flowers,  valuable  to  science,  and  they  have  often  preserved  the  best, 
sometimes  the  only,  records  of  volcanic  eruptions,  earthquakes,  and  meteoro- 
logical observations.  They  have  done  nearly  all  that  has  been  done  to  pre- 
serve the  national  traditions,  legends,  and  poetry  ;  but  for  them  the  Hawaiian 
would  never  have  been  a  written  language ;  there  would  have  been  few  or  no 
reliable  records,  historical  or  scientific  ;  tradition  would  have  perished  ;  the 
native  government  been  overborne  ;  and  the  interesting,  gentle  native  race  sunk 
into  servitude  to  foreigners. 

•The  educational  system  of  the  islands  is  their  work,  and  one  of  them  is  now 
minister  of  education.  In  every  district  are  free  schools,  where,  besides  read- 
ing and  writing,  singing  by  note,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  geography  are 
taughi  by  natives.  At  Lahainaluna  is  a  normal  school,  now  partly  supported 
by  government.  Several  missionaries  have  schools  for  advanced  studies.  One 
of  them,  Mr.  Lyman,  at  Hilo,  has  nearly  one  hundred  boys,  who  maintain 
an  orchestra  of  ten  or  twelve  flutes.  At  Honolulu  is  a  royal  school  for 
natives,  and  another  middle  school  for  whites  and  half-castes.  The  college  at 
Punahou,  established  at  first  for  missionary  children,  now  receives  the  children 
of  other  foreigners,  and  is  incorporated.  The  professors  are  graduates  of  the 
school,  and  completed  their  education  in  the  United  States,  one  of  them  the 
first  in  his  class  at  Williams  College,  and  another  the  same  at  Yale. 

Some  visitors  to  these  islands  have  disparaged  the  missionaries;  but  after 
visiting  among  all  classes,  from  the  king  to  the  beggar,  and  seeking  infor- 
mation from  all,  both  natives  and  foreigners,  friendly  and    unfriendly,  I  find 

'^Missionary  Herald,  1S71,  p.  153. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION. 


445 


that  the  best  men,  and  those  best  acquahited  with  the  history  of  events 
here,  hold  the  labors  and  conduct  of  the  missionaries  in  high  esteem.  Mere 
seekers  of  pleasure  and  gain  do  not  like  them.  Those  who  sympathize  with 
that  American  naval  officer  who,  by  threatening  to  bombard  the  town,  com- 
pelled the  authorities  to  send  off  women  to  his  vessel,  are  naturally  hostile  to 
missions.  Doubtless  the  missionaries  have  influenced  legislation  and  the 
police  system.  It  is  fortunate  that  they  have  done  so.  Had  they  and  their 
friends  not  prevailed,  it  would  have  been  the  usual  history  of  a  handful  of 
foreigners  exacting  everything  from  a  people  who  denied  their  right  to  any- 
thing. The  government  and  its  best  friends  stand  between  the  people  and  the 
besieging  army. 

In  the  interior  a  traveler  may  carry  money  through  the  wildest  regions 
unarmed.  I  found  no  hut  without  its  Bible  and  hymn-book,  and  family  prayer 
is  as  common  as  in  New  England  a  century  ago.  The  Hawaiian  missionary 
society  was  organized  in  185 1  to  carry  the  Gospel  two  thousand  miles  beyond 
to  the  islands  of  Micronesia,  and  also  to  the  Marquesas  group. 

It  was  fitting  that  at  the  first  Universal  Exposition  in  Paris,  the  hideous 
idols  once  worshiped  in  Hawaii  should  be  placed  alongside  of  the  Hawaiian 
Bible,  with  a  number  of  books,  some  charts,  and  several  copies  of  native  peri- 
odicals, a  silent  testimony  to  the  influence  of  missions  on  the  destiny  of  nations. 

The  success  of  missionary  work  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  is  so  remarkable, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  much  spoken  against  by  some,  that  it  is  no  work  of 
supererogation  to  adduce  the  testimony  of  another  witness,  an  Episcopalian 
clergyman,  the  Rev.  Franklin  S.  Rising,  who  wrote  in  June,  1867,  to  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  the  Board  in  substance  as  follows :  ^ 

111  health  led  me  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  a  year  ago,  and  kept  me  there 
four  months.  The  recollections  of  that  visit  are  very  fragrant,  not  so  much 
from  the  pleasure  of  a  sojourn  in  the  tropics,  and  a  descent  into  one  of  the 
grandest  volcanoes  of  the  world,  as  from  the  rare  privilege  of  seeing  for  myself 
what  can  be  done  in  half  a  century,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  for  a  heathen  peo- 
ple. As  the  controversy  growing  out  of  the  Reformed  Catholic  mission  had 
filled  the  air  with  conflicting  stories,  I  resolved  to  see  for  myself  what  had  been 
done,  or  left  undone,  by  all  concerned ;  and  I  sought  to  carry  out  this  purpose 
in  the  fear  of  God.  In  doing  this  I  visited  thoroughly  the  principal  islands 
and  nearly  every  mission  station,  with  their  religious  and  educational  institu- 
tions. I  made  the  personal  acquaintance  of  missionaries  of  all  creeds,  and  the 
more  I  investigated  the  more  I  felt  that  your  work  there  had  been  an  eminent 
success.  I  use  the  phrase  eminent  success,  however,  in  a  relative  sense.  All 
has  not  been  done  that  could  be  desired,  but  more  than  could  have  been 
expected.  The  time  has  been  too  short  to  complete  the  process  of  Christianiz- 
ing a  nation ;  but  it  has  been  long  enough  to  transfer  them  from  the  sway  of 
heathenism  to  the  benign  influences  of  the  Gospel.  To  me  it  seemed  marvel- 
ous that  in  so  short  a  time  the  social,  political,  and  religious  life  of  the  people 
should  have  undergone  so  radical  a  change.  Looking  at  the  kingdom  of 
Hawaii  nei  as  it  takes  its  place  today  among  the  nations  of  the  world,  I  see  in 

1  See  Missionary  Herald,  1S67,  pp.  225-231. 


446  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

it  one  of  the  most  blessed  manifestations  of  the  power  of  the  Gospel ;  but  to 
speak  more  particularly  : 

I  found  your  missionaries  mostly  venerable  men  who  had  toiled,  some  of 
them,  fifty  years  in  the  service,  till  their  hair  had  grown  gray  and  their  grand- 
children were  around  them.  They  have  held  to  their  work  with  a  tenacity  of 
purpose  truly  sublime.  They  have  won,  and  still  retain,  the  confidence  and 
love  of  the  people.  In  every  department  of  the  national  life,  civil,  religious, 
and  social,  they  have  made  their  mark,  and  of  it  they  have  no  reason  to  be 
ashamed.  Whatever  of  good  is  in  the  nation  is  due  under  God  mainly  to  them. 
Whatever  of  evil  remains,  lingers  in  spite  of  their  unceasing  efforts  to  remove  it. 
They  have  been  charged  with  seeking  to  make  Hawaiians  "over-righteous," 
but  never  with  conniving  at  sin.  They  have  toiled  to  make  a  licentious  race 
virtuous,  and  to  supplant  drunkenness  with  sobriety.  They  have  given  the 
people  a  written  language,  a  literature,  and  both  educational  and  political  insti- 
tutions based  on  the  Word  of  God  and  the  rights  of  men.  They  brought  into 
a  heathen  despotism  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  of  justice  and  truth,  of  the  father- 
hood of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man.  That  they  made  some  mistakes 
was  to  be  expected  ;  that  they  did  not  make  more  excites  our  wonder,  for  to  err 
in  judgment  is  the  experience  of  their  brethren  the  world  over.  That  their 
constant  aim  has  been  to  promote  the  true  interests  of  the  Hawaiian  race  no 
one  can  deny. 

It  is  said  that  we  must  live  in  the  same  house  with  a  man  to  know  him 
thoroughly.  Now,  as  there  are  no  hotels  outside  of  Honolulu,  and  the  mission- 
aries are  hospitable,  I  have  been  able  to  become  well  acquainted  with  them. 
I  was  received  by  them  with  affectionate  kindness.  I  sat  with  them  at  their 
tables,  knelt  at  their  family  altars,  went  with  them  to  their  churches,  and  saw 
them  in  their  annual  meeting.  I  found  them  genial  Christian  gentlemen. 
Though  I  was  almost  impertinent  in  my  questions,  I  soon  learned  that  they 
had  nothing  to  conceal,  and  my  affection  was  won  by  the  cheerful  piety  of  their 
homes. 

Their  sons  and  daughters  are  a  bright  testimony  to  their  wisdom  and  piety. 
Born  and  brought  up  for  the  most  part  in  these  heathen  islands,  they  have  been 
educated  in  great  measure  by  their  parents,  amid  pressing  cares,  and  far  from 
the  advantages  of  New  England.  Yet  when  they  visit  that  home  of  their 
fathers  they  have  won  respect  for  their  intelligence,  accomplishments,  and 
above  all  for  their  piety.  All  of  the  daughters,  and  most  of  the  sons,  are  spot- 
less in  their  characters,  loving  their  native  islands,  speaking  the  Hawaiian  lan- 
guage correctly,  and  in  all  cases  sympathizing  with  the  work  of  their  parents. 
The  sons  are  clergymen,  teachers,  planters,  lawyers,  merchants,  physicians,  and 
editors.  The  daughters  teach  or  set  a  good  example  in  the  ordering  of  their 
own  homes.  They  are  deeply  interested  in  all  that  concerns  their  dear  Hawaii 
nei,  and  there  is  no  class  whom  the  Kamehamehas  could  so  ill  afford  to  lose. 

In  forming  an  estimate  of  what  has  been  done  for  the  natives,  we  need  to 
guard  against  either  superficial  judgment  or  too  high  expectations.  The  good 
and  bad  are  mixed  here  as  elsewhere.  Because  some  cannot  find  New  York 
and  London  reproduced  here,  they  think  nothing  has  been  done  worth  report-  • 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  447 

ing,  and  that  accounts  of  native  improvement  are  "pious  frauds."  But  less 
tlian  fifty  years  ago  they  were  heathen  ;  their  vices  are  hereditary,  their  virtues 
are  acquired  ;  their  past  is  against  them  ;  the  mode  of  life  induced  by  their 
climate  retards  their  progress,  and  foreign  residents  too  often  tempt  them  to 
the  service  of  Satan.  Hence  we  should  expect  to  find  them  children  in  the 
arts,  in  education,  religion,  politics,  and  personal  character,  and  to  see  element- 
ary forms  of  civilization  and  Christianity. 

Take  first  their  civilization.  As  you  step  on  shore  at  Honolulu  you  see  the 
intermingling  of  the  barbarism  of  the  past  with  the  civilization  of  the  present. 
Here  is  an  old  man  eating  a  raw  fish-head,  there  a  woman  in  civilized  dress  is 
fattening  a  puppy  for  the  table.  Some,  whose  habits  were  formed  when  the 
missionaries  came,  cling  to  the  past.  Those  who  are  younger  adopt  foreign 
customs  as  far  as  they  can,  while  others,  like  the  royal  family  and  the  chiefs, 
are  elegant  in  their  dress  and  establishments,  and  would  be  at  ease  in  any 
drawing-room  in  Christendom.  Though  as  a  people  they  have  not  climbed  as 
high  as  we  have,  their  progress  is  commendable.  In  some  thatched  huts  you 
find  sewing  machines  and  melodeons.  They  are  acquiring  the  industrial  arts. 
A  larger  proportion  read  and  write  than  in  any  other  country.  Many  write  for 
the  papers.  They  discuss  politics,  and  vote.  They  enter  the  legislative  assem- 
bly and  talk,  till  the  kingdom  breathes  freer  when  they  adjourn.  .  The  pomp 
and  pageantry  at  the  opening  of  parliament,  the  foreign  embassadors,  and  the 
reading  of  the  royal  address,  ought  to  be  good  evidence  of  their  civilization; 
and  all  is  the  direct  result  of  the  missionary  Vv^ork. 

What  of  their  Christianity  ?  Tried  by  the  same  tests  as  our  own,  certain 
things  indicate  that  it  fills  a  high  place  in  the  national  heart.  The  constitution 
recognizes  the  Christian  faith  as  the  religion  of  the  nation.  The  Bible  is  in 
almost  every  hut.  Prayer  —  social,  family,  and  individual  —  is  a  national  habit. 
The  Lord's  Day  is  better  kept  than  in  New  York.  Stone  and  brick  churches 
dot  the  islands,  built  by  the  freewill  offerings  of  the  people.  The  Word  is 
preached  and  the  sacraments  administered.  Nothing  but  their  language  and 
complexion  distinguish  their  Sunday  schools  from  ours.  Their  religious  con- 
tributions are  generous,  and  an  educated  native  ministry  grows  in  numbers  and 
in  influence. 

Some  striking  contrasts  impress  us  with  the  greatness  of  the  change  in  these 
islands.  Some  of  the  churches  are  built  of  the  very  stones  that  formed  the  old 
temples  where  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  A  former  priest  offered  prayer 
at  a  service  where  I  made  an  address,  and  some  told  me,  through  an  interpreter, 
of  the  idolatrous  rites  in  which  they  had  taken  part,  and  rejoiced  in  the  great 
change  that  had  taken  place  since  then. 

But  we  want  evidence  that  the  Gospel  molds  the  individual  character ;  and 
bright  examples  in  the  past  bear  witness  to  this,  as  Kaahumanu  and  Kapeolani, 
and  some  now  living,  were  pointed  out  to  me,  whose  lives,  once  notoriously 
wicked,  are  now  changed.  They  love  the  Bible,  the  sanctuary,  and  prayer,  and 
are  hungering  after  righteousness.  There  are  doubtless  tares  among  the  wheat ; 
and  where  are  they  not  ?  So  licentiousness  is  the  sin  of  the  land.  Mission- 
aries grieve  over  much  which  they  cannot  prevent,  because  foreigners  tempt 


448  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

natives  to  sin  and  then  condemn  them  as  sinners.  The  people  are  like  their 
volcanoes  :  some  still  active,  others  having  spent  their  force,  and  still  others 
peaceful  as  those  craters  where  the  okias  bloom  and  the  birds  sing  sweetly  and 
dwell  safely. 

Two  things  always  betokening  spiritual  health  mark  the  Christian  life  of 
Hawaii :  one  is  foreign  missionary  zeal,  and  the  other  a  growing  native  minis- 
try. But  we  need  not  follow  Mr.  Rising  as  he  expatiates  with  delight  on  these 
marks  of  religious  life  in  these  islands.     He  adds  : 

"I  have  only  touched  the  surface  of  my  subject ;  but  I  have  said  enough  to 
indicate  the  triumph  of  the  Gospel  in  Hawaii  nei.  Should  I  contrast  their 
efforts  with  those  of  missionaries  of  other  creeds,  their  success  would  be  more 
marked  and  apparent." 

Rev.  G.  L.  Chaney,  formerly  pastor  of  the  Hollis  Street  (Unitarian)  church, 
Boston,  in  his  work  on  the  Sandwich  Islands,  entitled  Aloha^  says  in  sub- 
stance : 

"  Do  you  think,"  one  asked  of  a  religious  merchant  of  Honolulu,  "  that  the 
mission  here  has  really  done  the  people  much  good?  "  "That  depends,"  was 
the  spirited  reply,  "  on  whether  the  natives  have  souls  or  not."  I  would  be 
willing  to  rest  the  question  on  much  lower  ground,  for  even  if  the  benefits  of 
the  Christian  religion  were  for  this  world  only,  it  would  be  preeminently  true 
that  Christianity  has  blessed  and  redeemed  this  people.  The  people  of  the 
United  States  have  contributed  more  than  a  million  of  dollars  to  this  mission. 
What  have  been  the  returns?  In  1863  fifty-six  Protestant  churches,  to  which 
sixty-seven  thousand  members  had  been  received.  Add  to  this  common 
schools,  the  translation  and  circulation  of  the  Bible,  and  a  large  amount  of 
educational  and  Christian  literature.  Follow  missionary  influence  through  all 
the  departments  of  the  work  and  it  will  be  found  that  not  only  religion,  educa- 
tion, literature,  even  the  very  existence  of  a  written  language,  but  the  govern- 
ment itself  owes  its  best  features  to  Christian  teaching.  The  first  utterance  of 
the  bill  of  rights — a  paper  corresponding  to  our  declaration  of  independence 
—  says,  in  Bible  phrase,  that  "  God  has  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men  ; " 
and  the  motto  of  the  kingdom  today  is,  that  "  Righteousness  is  the  foundation 
of  the  land."  In  the  code  of  laws  it  is  provided  that  "the  religion  of  Jesus 
Christ  shall  continue  to  be  the  established  religion  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands." 
Thus,  in  form  and  in  substance,  is  the  government  based  on  Christian  prin- 
ciples. 

Dr.  Coan  has  labored  here  nearly  fifty  years,  and  every  house  within  a  hun- 
dred miles  knows  and  honors  him.  In  1869  he  had  received  twelve  thousand 
six  hundred  and  twenty-seven  people  into  his  church  -^  the  largest  church  roll 
of  any  minister  in  his  generation.  More  than  two  thousand  were  received  on 
one  day,  though  their  conversion  was  not  of  that  ephemeral  sort,  for  their  sin- 
cerity had  been  tested  by  a  long  previous  probation.  If  I  dwell  on  his  work,  it 
is  not  because  he  was  the  chief  missionary,  but  because  he  is  a  fine  example  of 
his  kind.  At  church  I  found  the  veteran  standing  in  the  door  welcoming  with 
beaming  face  and  a  hearty  grasp  of  the  hand  the  people  as  they,  entered,  and 

1  Love  to  you. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION. 


449 


when  I  saw  some  Chinese  church-members  among  them  it  gave  me  a  sense  of 
the  brotherhood  of  man,  with  which  the  intellectual  assent  to  this  truth  at 
home  compared  only  as  a  fine  description  of  a  luscious  fruit  Vith  its  actual 
taste. 

Dr.  Coan  came  up  the  road  to  his  church  one  Sunday  at  the  head  of  a  fun- 
eral procession.  The  large  church  was  full.  No  chief  would  have  had  a  larger 
funeral ;  yet  the  deceased  was  only  a  nurse  and  day  laborer.  Her  worth,  and 
not  her  rank,  was  her  glory. 

I  was  in  Honolulu  when  the  "  jSIorning  Star "  returned  from   her  annual 


.      % 


QUEEN   OPATINIA. 


voyage  to  Micronesia.  She  brought  glad  tidings  from  afar  ;  for  there  the  Word 
of  Jesus  Christ  had  taken  such  hold  that  the  queen  of  one  island  (Opatinia) 
had  left  her  kingdom,  and  her  pleasant  home,  to  bear  the  news  of  salvation  to 
islands  further  west. 

Speaking  of  the  spread  of  Christianity,  Mr.  Chaney  says:  "It  went  with 
Paul  the  length  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  sent  the  divinities  that  crowded  its 
shores  sighing  from  their  fanes;  it  crossed  the  Atlantic  with  Columbus,  the 
prevailing  motive  of  whose  voyage  was  the  advancement  of  Christianity;  it. 
occupied  the  "new  world  in  the  name  of  Christ,  and  years  afterward  sent  its 
missionaries  to  the  Pacific  isles,  to  conquer  them  for  God.     If  we  could  know 

29 


45°  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

what  cruel  rites,  involving  human  sacrifice  ;  what  deadly  worship,  perpetuating 
human  ignorance  and  hale;  what  t\  ran  nous  inequalities,  shielded  by  the  death- 
line  of  a  pitiless  tabu  ;  what  habitual  warfare  and  shameless  vice  ;  what  rooted 
wrongs,  persistent  injuries,  established  lies,  and  low  customs  this  rebuking, 
renewing  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  has  met  and  overthrown,  we  should  not  spend 
our  strength  in  needless  criticisms  upon  its  earlier  evidences,  or  passing  accom- 
paniments, but,  convinced  and  converted  by  its  abiding  purity  and  power,  we 
should  go  forth  to  share  its  blessings  with  all  mankind."  ^ 

In  Micronesia  the  native  languages  have  been  reduced  to  writing.  That  of 
Ponape  by  Dr.  L.  H.  Gulick  and  Rev.  A.  A.  Sturges ;  that  of  Kusaie  by  Rev. 
B.  G.  Snow ;  that  of  the  Marshall  Group  by  Rev.  E.  T.  Doane  and  Dr.  G.  Pier- 
son  ;  and  that  of  the  Gilbert  Islands  by  Rev.  H.  Bingham,  Jr. :  while  the 
Mortlock  Group  is  indebted  to  Opatinia,  a  converted  princess  of  Ponape,  for 
the  same  service.  The  dialect  of  the  Marquesas  Islands  is  allied  to  that  of 
the  Hawaiian  and  Tahitian  Islands,  and  whatever  has  been  published  in  it  has 
been  published  by  the  missionaries  of  the  Board.  Dr.  Gulick's  vocabulary  of  the 
Ponapean  language  may  be  found  in  Volume  X  of  the  younial  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society.  That  of  the  language  of  the  Gilbert  Islands,  by  Mr.  Bing- 
ham, containing  five  thousand  words,  has  not  yet  been  printed.  Numerous 
schools  have  been  established,  among  them  three  training  schools;  and  more 
than  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  pages  have  been  printed.  The  Bible 
exposes  the  foulness  of  vice,  and  reveals  to  them  the  way  of  life.  Churches 
and  Christian  homes  have  been  formed  ;  the  rights  of  property  and  the  sacred- 
ness  of  human  life  are  maintained ;  natives  have  become  teachers,  magistrates, 
legislators,  and  preachers  of  the  Gospel.  Thus  the  foundations  of  social 
order  have  been  laid,  and  commerce,  and  even  art,  have  found  homes  in  Micro- 
nesia. In  December,  1879,  the  "  Morning  Star  '*'  visited  the  Mortlock  group,  a 
portion  of  the  Caroline  Islands,  which  is  the  chosen  missionary  field  of  the 
church  at  Ponape.  Here,  at  Nomr,  as  the  tide  was  low,  the  canoe  in  which  the 
missionaries  landed  was  lifted  bodily  out  of  the  w\ater  and  carried  to  the  beach, 
where,  at  the  head  of  a  broad  road,  stood  a  fine  new  church,  the  comfortable 
houses  of  the  people  lining  the  road  on  either  side,  all  the  result  of  one  year's 
labor  by  Moses  and  Deborah,  the  native  missionaries.  Twenty-six  couples 
were  married,  the  church  dedicated,  and  nearly  sixty  were  ready  to  be  organ- 
2zed  into  a  church  of  Christ.  A  ball  of  cocoanut  fiber  as  large  as  a  hogshead 
was  their  first  missionary  offering ;  and  the  people  wanted  to  give  their  neck- 
laces, bracelets,  and  rings  for  the  same  object.  They  even  gave  up  their  loved 
pastor  and  his  wife,  as  best  qualified  to  go  to  an  island  beyond,  and  accepted 
the  pastor  who  had  been  brought  to  take  his  place.  Moses  was  taken  to  Ruk, 
•whence  a  chief  had  come  to  Nomr  and  been  waiting  nine  months  for  a  teacher 
rto  carry  back  with  him ;  and  here,  too,  he  was  received  with  great  joy,  though 
.the  "Morning  Star"  had  never  been  there  before,  and  the  natives  hid  out  of 
-sight  till  they  recognized  their  chief.  The  chief,  bearing  the  name  of  Paul, 
-with  wife  and  daughter,  landed  in  Christian  clothing  among  their  naked  people. 

Fifteen   hundred  natives  are  already  in  the  churches,  and  one  thousand 

^  Aloha,  pp.  155-160. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  45] 

pupils  in  the  schools.  There  is  a  gradual  blossoming  of  civilization  out  of  the 
vigorous  growth  of  Christian  institutions.  At  Ponape  the  king  sanctioned  the 
election  of  a  Christian  chief,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  election  of  seven 
persons  to  act  with  the  chiefs  as  a  legislature,  and  seven  more  as  sheriffs.  A 
court  was  also  regularly  constituted  for  trying  offenders.  February,  1874,  a 
law  was  passed  giving  one  homestead  to  every  man  who  would  build  a  house 
upon  it.  Here  is  plainly  the  germ  of  a  Christian  nation,  and  though  eddies 
will  doubtless  occur,  the  main  current  of  improvement  will  flow  onward. 

In  1878  the  young  king  of  Apaiang,  with  his  people,  adopted  a  written  code 
of  laws  ;  and  so  Micronesia  follows  on,  not  far  behind  Hawaii. 


IP-E STERN  AFRICA. 

In  Western  Africa  the  evils  of  heathenism  had  long  been  aggravated  by  the 
slave-trade.  Polygamy,  witchcraft,  and  other  cruel  customs  prevailed.  Mr. 
Bushnell  tells  of  a  sick  chief  sending  for  fetich  doctors,  who  drowned  a  slave 
that  they  alleged  had  caused  the  sickness  by  his  witchcraft,  then  killed  another 
in  whose  body  they  pretended  to  lind  a  live  witch,  and  after  that,  at  the  funeral 
of  the  chief,  put  a  third  to  death  in  a  most  cruel  manner.  In  a  Shekani  town, 
one  man,  accused  of  witchcraft,  was  burned  to  death  over  a  slow  fire,  in  1863. 
The  Mpongwes  are  rapidly  decreasing,  through  their  vices  and  superstitions. 
The  Bible  description  of  heathenism  ^  is  true  to  the  letter  among  them.  They 
often  give  to  the  cannibal  Pangwes,  who  come  from  the  interior,  a  man  to  be 
killed  and  eaten.  The  women  are  bought  and  sold,  whipped,  and  compelled 
to  work  beyond  their  strength.  This  renders  them  perverse  and  malicious,  and 
they  are  utterly  unchaste. 

Here  the  Bible  has  been  given  to  fifteen  tribes.  Four  thousand  children  are 
in  schools,  and  seven  thousand  natives  in  the  churches ;  though  the  results 
have  not  been  so  marked,  nor  is  the  prospect  so  promising  here,  as  in  some 
other  fields  of  labor. 

ZULUS. 

The  Zulus,  in  South  Africa,  occupied  the  same  low  level  of  sensual  sav- 
agery. One  can  hardly  imagine  a  social  state  worse  than  theirs.  It  was  more 
bestial  than  human.  Their  women  were  bought  like  cattle  and  for  cattle,  and 
their  polygamy  was  of  the  worst  form.  Men  and  women  were  grossly  drunken 
and  licentious.     Unchastity  was  frowned  on  only  after  marriage. 

When  asked,  '^' Who  made  you  ?  "  they  replied,  "The  first  man."  "And  who 
made  him  ?  "  "  He  grew  from  a  reed."  "  And  who  made  the  reed  ?  "  They 
could  not  tell.  They  thought  that  snakes  were  re-incarnations  of  departed 
human  souls,  and  so  worshiped  them.  Forty  thousand  of  such  heathen  are  now 
professed  disciples,  and  a  larger  number  are  in  school.  Rev.  A.  Grout  said  in 
1865:  '"I  have  lived  to  see  a  hundred  fold  more  than  I  ever  dreamed  of." 
In  1857  one  hundred  Zulus,  each  with  one  wife,  lived  in  decent  houses.  Two 
years  later  school-books  were  printed,  and  land  owned  by  its  cultivators,  who 

1  Romans  i :  24  —  to  the  end. 


452 


THE    ELY    VOLUME. 


carried  their  surplus  produce  to  market.  In  1874  there  were  the  usual  indus- 
tries of  a  civilized  community  ;  houses  furnished,  and  lighted  up  in  the  even- 
ing;  numerous  native  preachers,  who  were  a  power  for  good ; '  while  thirty- 
schools,  besides  higher  schools  mentioned  elsewhere,  with  many  educated 
women,  were  working  out  a  higher  destiny  for  that  race. 

Major  Malan,  an  English  officer,  who  traversed  the  Zulu  country  in  1874 
and  1875,  says  :  Across  the  Nordsberg  mountains,  on  my  way  to  Umsunduzi,  I 
passed  a  Zulu  Christian  settlement,  whose  well-built  houses,  neatly  thatched  and 
well  arranged,  formed  a  striking  contrast  to  the  heathen  huts  in  the  valley 
below.  God's  Word  and  worship  were  there,  family  prayer  and  domestic 
decency,  where,  but  for  missionary  labor,  had  been  the  degrading  obscenities  of 
heathenism. 

When  our  missionaries  first  went 
to  Western  Asia,  the  nominal  Chris- 
tians were  over-religious,  yet  wholly 
irreligious,  for  their  religion  was  only 
outward  ceremony.  They  held  certain 
doctrines,  not  for  the  sake  of  their  in- 
fluence on  character,  but  with  a  tenac- 
ity proportioned  to  their  variation  from 
those  of  other  churches. 

Dr.  Goodell  says :  ^  There  is  no 
more  moral  character  in  their  prayers 
than  in  their  ablutions.  No  one  ex- 
pects to  find  a  man  more  honest,  more 
hospitable,  more  benevolent,  or  more 
heavenly-minded,  because  he  prays. 
No  one  feels  life  or  property  more 
secure  because  he  is  among  men  who 
pray.  No  one  is  supposed  to  be  less 
selfish  or  impure,  less  covetous  or 
fraudulent,  less  of  a  robber  or  mur- 
derer on  account  of  his  prayers.  In- 
deed, it  is  true  that  immorality  keeps 
pace  with  punctilious  religious  observ- 
ances. They  scruple  neither  at  vice 
nor  violence ;    and  what    Dr.  Goodell 

said  of  nominal  Christians,  is  also  true  of  Moslems.  Dr.  Grant  never  felt 
in  such  danger  among  the  Kurds,  as  when  his  guide,  having  settled  old  scores 
by  going  through  his  prayers  at  the  roadside,  was  all  ready  to  begin  a  new 
account.  If  our  missionaries  had  done  nothing  else,  they  have  done  a  great 
deal  in  introducing  the  idea  into  Western  Asia  that  religion  has  something  to 
do  with  character  and  conduct. 

1  We  introduce  the  Rev.  James  Dube,  one  of  these,  to  the  reader,  in  tlie  accompanying  engraving.     See  Mis- 
tionary  Herald,  1S79,  p.  240. 
-Old  and  New,  p   25,  seq. 


JAMT.S    DUUE,    .\    ZULU    PASTOR. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  453 

The  most  intelligent  among  the  Greeks  acknowledge  the  debt  their  country- 
owes  Dr.  King  for  his  brave  defence  of  religious  freedom.  He  gave  an  intol- 
erant nation  just  ideas  of  religious  liberty.  He  influenced  the  current  of 
national  thought  toward  a  respect  for  individual  rights.  He  introduced  the 
Bible  into  their  schools,  and  pressed  home  its  teachings  on  the  people  ;  and 
now,  while  these  lines  are  penned,  comes  the  news  that  the  minister  of  public 
instruction  in  Athens  has  ordered  the  New  Testament  introduced  as  a  text- 
book in  the  schools.  Surely  the  seed  planted  by  Dr.  King  is  bearing  fruit. 
His  public  defense  under  repeated  prosecution  in  the  courts,  gave  him  a  grand 
opportunity  for  testifying  to  the  truth,  and  he  improved  it  well.  Bravely  did 
he  thus  break  up  the  fallow  ground  and  sow  the  seed  of  a  brighter  future  for 
Greece,  and  though  the  full  harvest  is  not  yet,  it  is  sure  to  come. 

Missions  in  Turkey  have  blessed  both  the  oppressor  and  the  oppressed. 
Fifty  years  ago,  if  a  janizary  wanted  to  try  a  new  sword  he  tested  its  quality 
by  cutting  off  the  head  of  any  Christian  who  might  be  passing  in  the  street.^ 
Or  he  would  lay  a  wager  \vith  his  comrade  that  he  could  hit  the  rayah^  walking 
at  a  distance,  and  shoot  him  down  without  fearing  to  be  called  to  account.  No 
Christian  could  testify  against  a  Moslem,  This  civil  tyranny  —  pardon  the 
expression — had  its  ecclesiastical  counterpart.  Death  was  the  penalty  for 
apostasy  from  Islam.  As  late  as  1843,  an  Armenian,  who  had  repeated  the 
Moslem  creed  and  then  returned  to  his  own  church,  was  beheaded  in  the 
streets  of  Constantinople.  The  demand  of  the  European  powers,  led  by  Sir 
Stratford  Canning,  but  largely  due  to  missionary  influence,  obtained  a  pledge 
from  the  sultan  that  there  should  be  no  more  persecution  for  religious  opinion, 
and  though  religious  freedom  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth,  yet  under  missionary- 
culture  it  grows  even  in  Turkish  soil.  Protestants  are  nov/  a  recognized  com- 
munity, with  chartered  rights  and  a  legal  representative.  Though  extremely 
poor,  many  of  the  missionary  churches  are  self-supporting. 

American  ideas  lift  up  the  different  races  into  higher  intelligence,  and 
induce  the  government  to  grant  them  greater  freedom.  And  this  has  not  been 
the  work  of  merchants,  or  even  diplomats;  but  of  missionaries.  After  the 
Crimean  war,  when  Dr.  Hamlin  and  others  were  so  useful  in  their  philanthropic 
labors,  Turkey  received  her  first  itiagna  charta,  the  Hatti  Hamayoon  ;  and  after 
the  late  war  a  second  one,  guaranteeing  in  Turkey  civil  and  religious  rights 
unknown  as  yet  in  either  Spain  or  Austria,  or  even  in  France.  Both  took  the 
world  by  surprise  ;  but  they  were  clue,  not  so  much  to  treaty-makers  at  Berlin 
as  to  some  who  acted  through  them.  Perhaps  more  credit  is  due  to  the  Amer- 
ican Board  than  to  any  other  body.  The  late  Rev.  J.  P.  Thompson,  a  mutual 
friend  of  Count  Bismarck  and  the  Board,  was  requested  by  its  officers  to  do  his 
utmost  through  the  chancellor  to  secure  such  guarantees.^  It  need  not  be  said 
that  Dr.  Thompson's  work  was  well  clone ;  and  it  is  not  hazarding  too  much  to 
say,  that,  to  this  missionary  movement  in  behalf  of  religious   liberty  we  are 

1  New  and  Old,  pp.  44-45- 

2 The  name  of  the  Christian  population  in  Turkey ;  hterally  "the  flock,"  i.  e.,  fed  for  its  fleece. 

*  Missionary  Herald,  1S78,  pp.  2S6-287. 


454  THE   ELY   VOLUME. 

indebted  for  the  favorable  provisions  of  the  treaty.  At  present  there  is  a  Mos- 
lem reaction  ;  but  its  very  violence  gives  assurance  that  it  is  only  for  a  time, 
and  the  stream  will  only  acquire  greater  force  from  its  temporary  check.  Let 
us  possess  our  souls  in  patience  ;  great  events  mature  slowly,  and  the  moral 
power  emanating  from  an  open  Bible  will  not  stop  short  of  the  moral  renova- 
tion of  the  empire.  Dynasties  may  change,  races  may  be  supplanted  ;  but  the 
kingdom  of  God  shall  move  straight  onward  to  its  goal. 

Ninety-two  Protestant  churches,  with  more  than  six  thousand  members  and 
nearly  twelve  thousand  pupils  in  schools  and  colleges,  under  the  leadership  of 
men  whose  personal  influence  reaches  millions,  constitute  no  mean  power  for 
good  in  Turkey. 

We  cannot,  however,  appreciate  the  good  done  in  Turkey  without  taking 
into  view  its  connection  with  races  outside  its  own  territory.  Not  only  is  it  the 
great  center  of  all  Mohammedan  peoples  —  for  the  sultan  is  the  caliph,  i.  e.,  suc- 
cessor of  Mohammed,  and  appoints  the  sheikh  ul  Islam,  who  is  the  religious 
head  of  Moslems  throughout  the  world  —  but  Turkey  is  also  the  most  favorable 
J>oint  d^appui  for  Russia.  Antagonistic  as  those  empires  are,  nothing  is  done 
in  Turkey  that  is  not  known  in  Russia. 

The  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Armenians  who  occupy  the  northeastern 
frontier  of  Turkey  along  the  borders  of  Russia,  have  close  relations  with  that 
empire.  Bibles  and  religious  books  distributed  among  these  races  on  one  side 
of  the  line,  find  their  way  across.  They  may  be  confiscated  ;  but  even  then 
they  are  not  lost,  for  they  are  thus  brought  into  more  prominent  notice,  and 
often  the  books  themselves  are  sold  by  the  confiscators  to  replenish  their 
purses  by  the  price. 

The  Bulgarians  not  only  occupy  the  western  frontier  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, but  they  are  allied  to  Russia  by  blood,  language,  and  religion.  No  new 
life  can  be  infused  into  them  without  at  once  attracting  the  notice  of  their  co-re- 
ligionists across  the  border ;  and  as  new  blood  infused  into  any  part  of  the 
body  is  speedily  transfused  through  the  whole,  and  passes  into  every  member 
as  a  portion  of  the  life-giving  circulation,  so  influences  exerted  on  the  Bulga- 
rians are  at  once  transmitted  to  Russia,  and  the  effects  reproduced,  it  may  be, 
with  even  greater  power,  and  to  a  larger  extent,  among  the  more  numerous 
population  of  that  empire.^ 

Speaking  of  Bulgaria,  it  is  a  fact  worth  noticing  that  when  its  new  constitu- 
tion was  about  to  be  formed,  the  Zoj-niiza,  our  Bulgarian  periodical  at  Constan- 
tinople, published  translations  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  of 
those  of  several  of  our  States.  These  translations  were  read  extensively  by 
intelligent  Bulgarians;  and  is  it  too  much  to  say  that  the  leaven  of  their  influ 
ence  thus  brought  to  the  notice  of  Bulgarians,  appears  in  a  constitution  more 
thoroughly  in  the  interest  of  freedom  than  any  other  in  Europe  1 

Hagop  Matteosian,  the  civil  head  of  the  Protestants  in  Turkey,  in  reporting 
the  results  of  a  tour  of  observation  in  1870-187 1,  to  the  sultan,  under  whose 
auspices  it  was  made,^  says  :  The  Protestant  community  came  into  existence 
in  1848,  and  now  numbers  twenty-three  thousand  registered  members,  mostly 

'  See  Dr.  Hamlin,  in  Missionary  Herald,  i8So,  pp.  295-297.  -Missionary  Herald,  1872,  pp.  i,z-\%. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  455-, 

Armenians;  nineteen  thousand  of  them  in  Asia  Minor,  and  nineteen  thousand 
four  hundred  and  eleven  in  connection  with  the  missions  of  the  Americam 
Board.  These  occupy  sixteen  districts  and  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  out- 
stations  ;  and  in  two  hundred  and  fifty  places  evangelical  services  are  held! 
every  Sabbath.  While  the  other  religious  bodies  in  the  empire  are  each  a 
nationality  also,  and  therefore  most  bitter  in  their  mutual  animosity,  Protestant- 
ism alone,  having  no  national  character,  and  comprising  in  itself  twelve  different 
races,  is  disposed  to  live  in  harmony  with  all.  A  community  only  a  few  years 
old  cannot  as  yet  boast  many  men  of  learning ;  but  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
adults  can  read,  and  that  indicates  some  progress.  The  social  and  religious 
institutions  introduced  by  Protestant  missions,  require  a  high  degree  of  intel- 
ligence in  the  community,  and  a  liberal  education  in  their  leaders. 

Those  who  have  become  Protestants  in  principle  far  outnumber  the  regis- 
tered members.  The  indirect  influence  of  Protestantism  is  greater  and 
healthier  than  is  apparent.  The  use  of  strong  drink  is  very  rare  among  the 
evangelical  in  Turkey,  and  habitual  drunkenness  hardly  known.  Everywhere 
is  a  great  improvement  in  domestic  relations,  compared  with  the  condition  of 
families  before  they  became  Protestants.  The  healthy  influence  of  Sabbath 
schools,  prayer-meetings,  women's  meetings,  and  the  philanthropic  associations 
that  start  into  existence  with  Protestantism,  is  only  beginning  to  be  felt. 

The  same  person  writing  in  English  to  the  secretary  of  the  Board,  empha- 
sizes the  American  type  of  the  missionary  work  in  Turkey.  From  the  wild 
gorges  of  the  Giaour  Dagh  in  Cilicia  to  the  no  less  rugged  defiles  of  Buhtan, 
on  the  borders  of  Persia,  the  missionary  has  served  his  country  no  less  than 
his  Master.  Even  in  Kurdistan  are  those  who  can  reason  in  Yankee  style, 
with  Yankee  idioms  and  American  illustrations.  Question  the  school-boy  on 
geography  and  you  will  find  he  knows  as  much  of  the  United  States  as  of  Tur- 
key. Question  him  of  social  order,  and  he  will  tell  you  all  men  are  created 
equal.  Indeed,  all  the  diplomatists  of  Europe  united,  cannot  compete  with  the 
silent  influence  of  missionary  schools  and  school-books.  Be  not  surprised  if 
in  a  prayer-meeting  on  the  mountains  of  Asia  Minor  "  Old  Hundred  "  is  sung 
as  heartily  as  at  home. 

Dr.  Hamlin  writes :  An  influence  of  immeasurably  greater  value  than  the 
churches  already  formed,  has  gone  forth  into  communities  not  Protestant, 
and  the  Word  of  God  is  devoutly  studied  by  thousands  who  make  no  change  in 
their  ecclesiastical  relations.  The  change  wrought  in  the  religious  ideas  and 
convictions  of  millions  tells  more  of  the  power  of  the  work  than  any  tabu- 
lated statistics. 

In  1838  there  was  no  newspaper  in  all  Turkey.  Now  there  are  thirty 
dailies  in  Constantinople  alone,  besides  seventy  other  periodicals ;  and  thou- 
sands of  girls  are  now  taught,  where  formerly  their  education  could  not  be  even 
mentioned  without  giving  offense. 

In  1875  ^  converted  Protestant  was  appointed  on  the  imperial  board  of  pub- 
lic instruction.  Rev.  G.  W.  Wood,  D.D.,  speaks  of  broad  avenues,  flag-stone 
sidewalks,  macadamized  roadways,  and  handsome  structures  of  stone  and  brick, 
with  the  houses  numbered,  supplanting  the  old  narrow,  rough  lanes  of  Con- 


456  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

stantinople,  where  horses  and  men  disputed  the  same  pathway.  Railroads  and 
telegraph  wires  bear  witness  to  the  great  change  wrought  in  the  people  them- 
selves. 

Rev.  J.  Y.  Leonard  tells  of  the  change  in  the  old  Armenian  churches 
through  missionary  influences.  Pictures  of  saints  go  from  the  church  walls  to 
the  garret ;  silver  crosses  to  the  crucible  ;  auricular  confession  is  neglected. 
Many  superstitions  are  dying  out,  and  there  is  .a  growing  friendliness  to 
Protestants,  and  efforts  to  imitate  their  popular  education. 

The  improvement  in  domestic  comfort  in  Turkey  through  the  labors  of  our 
missionaries  can  be  learned  better  from  a  comparison  of  the  accompanying 
engravings  than  by  any  description.  The  one  is  an  exact  representation  of  the 
parsonage  in  Kessab,  as  it  was  in  185 1,  built  by  natives  in  native  style,  with 
the  dunghill  on  one  side  of  the  only  door,  the  door  being  six  feet  wide  and  five 
and  a  half  feet  in  height,  admitting  loaded  animals  into  the  stable  under  the 
dwelling,  with  cracks  in  the  floor  overhead  wide  enough  to  let  the  heat  of  the 
animals  up  into  the  dwelling;  and  the  other  is  the  parsonage  of  the  same 
church,  built  in  1871,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  missionary.  It  cost 
only  fifty  dollars  more  than  the  other,  constantly  preaches  to  the  people  of  the 
value  of  a  plan,  draws  them  to  a  higher  level  of  neatness,  and  to  new  ideas 
of  the  sweetness  and  sacredness  of  home.^ 

An  Armenian  said  to  Dr.  E.  E.  Bliss  :  "  Since  you  came  among  us  a  great 
change  has  taken  place  in  our  ideas  of  morals  ;"  and  the  leaven  is  still  working. 
Aspirations  for  liberty,  and  a  manly  standing  up  for  the  right  is  more  common. 

Rev.  H.  N.  Barnum  says  :  "  In  Eastern  Turkey  Protestantism  is  synony- 
mous with  integrity.  In  a  field  larger  than  Massachusetts,  with  five  hundred 
thousand  people  in  twenty-five  hundred  villages,  we  offer  the  Gospel  as  leaven, 
rather  than  as  a  leavened  loaf,  and  find  a  large  success.  The  churches  study 
the  Bible,  and  so  are  established  in  Christian  doctrine.  They  maintain  disci- 
pline better  than  we  do  at  home.  With  great  self-denial  they  build  their 
churches  and  school-houses,  and  do  for  Eastern  Turkey  what  the  Pilgrims  did 
for  America." 

Some  churches  in  Turkey,  with  native  pastors  trained  by  missionaries,  excel 
some  of  our  churches  at  home  in  Christian  activity,  and  the  methods  of  work- 
ing; as  at  Marsovan,  Cassarea,  Harpoot,  and  elsewhere.  Indeed,  an  efficient, 
self-sustaining  system  of  both  evangelization  and  education  has  been  set  in 
operation  by  our  missionaries  in  Turkey,  and  every  year  becomes  more  efficient 
and  fruitful  in  good  results.  As  Dr.  Hamlin  says  :  "  Evangelical  faith  always 
leads  towards  the  highest  culture.  Not  to  support  such  institutions  as  Robert 
College,  or  the  one  at  Aintab,  or  the  more  recent  one  at  Harpoot,  would  be  to 
abandon  the  work  of  evangelization." 

Dr.  Jessup,  in  his  Womeii  of  the  Arabs,  says:  "We  can  hardly  imagine  the 
degradation  in  which  woman  has  lived  in  Syria  for  centuries.  In  the  time  of 
Mohammed  some  tribes  buried  their  female  children  alive."  In  the  Koran  he 
says  of  some  who  affirmed  the  angels  to  be  the  daughters  of  God,  "They 
blasphemously  attribute  daughters  to  God,  yet  wish  them  not  for  themselves." 

'  Rev.  L.  II.  Adams,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1873,  p.  41. 


Iff,.,, J, 


EESSAB    PAKSONAGE. -1851    AND    1871- 


ARMENIAN   WOMEN,  NORTHEASTERN   TURKEY. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATIOr^. 


457 


It  is  said  that  Othman  never  shed  a  tear  till  the  little  daughter  whom  he  was 
burying  alive  reached  up  her  hand  and  wiped  the  dust  of  the  dry  grave  earth 
from  his  beard.  In  some  parts  of  Syria  today  the  murder  of  women  and  girls 
hardly  attracts  notice. 

When  Dr.  Goodell  went  to  Syria  he  could  hear  of  no  woman  able  to  read. 
The  sex  was  deemed  incapable  of  learning.  "  Of  what  use  would  it  be  ?  "  they 
asked.  "  Could  she  light  her  husband's  pipe  any  better.^  or  bring  his  slippers 
any  sooner  ?  "  A  Moslem  in  Tripoli  said  :  "  Educate  a  woman  !  you  might  as 
well  educate  a  cow."  Now,  parents  come  long  distances,  and  from  their  scanty 
incomes  pay  for  the  education  of  their  daughters  in  our  mission  schools. 

A  writer  in  the  London  Quarterly  for  January,  1878,  says  of  these  schools  : 
"  The  girls  are  selected  and  trained  for  special  service  as  teachers,  and  wives 
of  native  pastors.  We  doubt  whether  the  Americans  are  doing  anything  in 
Turkey  so  sure,  sooner  or  later,  to  change  the  whole  character  of  societ}''  as 
what  they  are  doing  in  the  education  of  woman."  Twenty-five  years  ago  the 
school-children  in  Aintab  were  paid  one  para  ^  for  each  lesson  given  to  women 
at  home,  and  in  this  way  nearly  one  thousand  women  learned  to  read  the 
Bible. 

So  far,  we  have  dealt  mainly  with  the  Armenians,  who  have  been  called  the 
Anglo-Saxons  of  Western  Asia.  Their  three  or  four  millions  are  dispersed 
over  Eastern  Europe  and  Asia,  half  of  them  perhaps  in  Turkey,  and  one  hun- 
dred thousand  of  these  in  Constantinople.  They  are  an  intelligent,  enterpris- 
ing race,  and  deserve  a  noble  future.  The  engraving  opposite  shows  the  type 
of  Armenian  women  in  northeastern  Turkey. 

Besides  these  are  five  or  six  millions  of  Bulgarians.  War  desolated  much 
of  the  field  in  1878,  but  the  work  goes  on  again  with  fresh  momentum.  New 
England  piety  and  Puritan  ideas  are  steadily  gaining  ground;  prejudice  and 
persecution  are  passing  away.  The  good  seed  has  there  fallen  into  good 
ground,  and  promises  to  yield  a  hundred  fold. 

Each  of  the  smaller  races  feels,  more  or  less  the  impetus  of  the  movement 
that  promises  to  issue  ere  long  in  the  creation  of  a  new  empire  to  replace  the 
old,  which  decayeth  and  is  ready  to  vanish  away. 

Dr.  Jessup  thus  contrasts  Syria  fifty  years  ago  with  the  Syria  of  today:'-  In 
1826  Beirut  had  a  population  of  eight  thousand.  There  was  not  a  school,  and 
hardly  a  book;  not  a  press,  nor  a  carriage  road,  nor  a  glass  window,  nor  a  set 
of  European  furniture  in  the  land.  Now  it  counts  its  eighty  thousand  inhab- 
itants. A  mile  to  the  west  is  the  Syrian  Protestant  college.  At  an  equal  dis- 
tance on  the  east  is  the  Second  Protestant  church.  The  streets  outside  the 
walls  are  macadamized.  A  French  diligence  runs  to  Damascus.  A  London 
company  supplies  the  city  with  water  from  the  Nahr  el  kelb.^  The  new  houses 
are  beautiful  specimens  of  Oriental  architecture,  with  all  modern  conveniences, 
and  not  furniture  only,  but  even  book-cases,  in  almost  every  house.  There  are 
four  colleges,  five  female  seminaries,  ninety-three  schools  —  one  third  of  them 
Protestant  —  with  two  hundred  and  ninety-five  teachers  and  eight  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  twenty-six  pupils,  nearly  one  iialf  of  them  girls.     The   Mos- 

1  A  mill.  -  Missionary  Herald,  1S79,  pp.  52-53.  ^  Dog  river. 


458  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

!ems  are  opening  schools  for  themselves,  for  girls  as  well  as  boys ;  thus  wheel- 
ing into  line  with  the  column  led  by  Protestant  missionaries,  which  is  marching 
on  to  the  enlightenment  of  Syria,  and  the  disenthralment  of  woman  in  the  East. 
That  Moslems  pay  for  the  education  of  girls  marks  a  new  epoch  of  history. 

Let  us  now  hear  from  the  people  of  Turkey  the  estimation  in  which  our 
missionaries  are  held  among  them.  A  letter  from  the  church  in  Redwan,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Sert  and  Tigris  rivers  in  Kurdistan,  to  the  American  Board, 
requesting  a  missionary  for  that  region,  reads  as  follows  : ' 

Evangelical  and  Soul-Loving  Society,  Boston,  America  : 

We  have  long  enjoyed  your  humane  efforts,  and  the  answers  to  your  earnest 
prayers,  as  the  earth  does  the  spring  rains.  The  good  done  to  our  nation, 
ourselves,  and  children,  stirs  our  hearts  with  deepest  gratitude.  It  will  be 
profitable  on  reaching  heaven  to  give  an  account  of  the  pious  and  self-denying 
missionaries  you  have  sent  us,  and  the  literature  thus  provided  for  us. 

Before  the  throne  we  will  take  the  hands  of  those  of  you  already  there,  and 
saluting  those  who  come  after,  we  will  make  known  our  gratitude,  and  bless 
you.  Yes,  your  work  will  make  you  glad  both  here  and  there.  Sweet  is  the 
Gospel,  and  precious  the  Saviour  whom  you  have  made  known  to  us.  That 
Gospel  has  turned  us  from  death  to  life,  given  us  a  good  hope  and  joy  unspeak- 
able. It  is  our  sweetest  knowledge,  our  greatest  wealth.  Our  Saviour  has  not 
only  saved  us  but  given  us  to  count  it  a  privilege  to  labor  and  pray  for  the  sal- 
vation of  others.  He  has  won  our  love,  and  his  revelation  of  himself  to  us 
forms  our  greatest  joy.     O  precious  Gospel  of  the  grace  of  God. 

These  are  its  fruits  here  in  Kurdistan :  Sixty  Protestant  houses,  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  adherents,  sixty-two  church  members,  one  pastor,  three 
preachers,  one  teacher  in  Redwan,  and  four  schools,  three  of  which  are  taught 
by  the  preachers.  During  the  past  twelve  years  this  poor  people  have  spent 
forty  thousand  piasters "'  for  preacher,  teachers,  and  building,  besides  ten  thou- 
sand piasters  for  the  poor  and  other  objects  of  benevolence.  Here,  and  at  the 
villages,  they  make  every  effort  to  advance  the  knowledge  of  the  Gospel  among 
the  masses ;  but  they  are  unequal  to  the  greatness  of  the  harvest,  which  waits 
for  laborers  more  fit  for  the  work.  If  we  had  had  missionaries  as  in  other 
places,  doubtless  the  results  had  been  far  greater;  but  they  come  here  only 
occasionally.  The  country  is  large  and  populous,  and  greatly  needs  a  mission- 
ary. The  population  is  made  up  of  Moslems,  Yezidees,  Jews,  Syrians,  Roman 
Catholics,  Armenians,  and  Greeks;  all  of  whom  speak  Kurdish.  If  it  is  too 
much  to  give  us  more,  at  least  give  us  one  missionary  to  labor  in  Kurdistan. 
Faith  encourages  us,  and  your  benevolence  gives  hope.  Expectantly  waiting 
and  praying  for  an  answer,  we,  the  committee  of  this  church,  subscribe  our- 
selves. 

Baron  Tomas. 

Bedros  Effendl 

Abraham,  Deacon. 

Kavme  Ablahadian,  Pastor. 

'^  Missionary  Herald,  I'&Zi,'^^.  ix-j-zx^.  -Ji,76a 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  459 

As  the  testimony  of  those  whose  position  would  naturally  make  them  hostile 
to  the  work  is  of  more  force  than  that  of  its  friends,  a  letter  from  a  Moslem  of 
Constantinople  to  an  American  friend  is  copied  from  the  Christian  Age,  of 
London,  April  7,  1880:^ 

"  My  letter  is  already  very  long,  but  I  must  add  some  thoughts  which  have 
crowded  themselves  persistently  on  me  for  the  last  few  days.  These  enter- 
prises of  your  countrymen,  with  what  they,  aided  by  others,  have  done  for  the 
relief  of  suffering  during  the  famine  last  year,  have  convinced  me :  (i)  That 
Christian  philanthropy  is  something  we   Moslems  neither  know  nor  practice. 

(2)  That  the  religion  which  produces  such  fruit  is  adapted  to  the  wants  of  man. 

(3)  That  your  countrymen  are  the  best  friends  of  Turkey,  if  friendship  be 
measured  by  what  it  does.  (4)  That  their  work  in  this  country  is  already  too 
strong  to  be  destroyed  by  any  human  power ;  and  (5)  is  as  sure  to  advance  as 
a  tree  is  sure  to  grow.  It  has  vitality  in  it.  (6)  That  they  work  on  a  principle 
exactly  opposite  to  that  of  our  government.  Our  theory  is  that  the  people  exist 
for  the  government,  the  country  for  the  capital,  and  all  time,  past  and  future, 
must  avert  calamity  from,  or  add  enjoyment  to  the  present.  Our  proverb  says  : 
'  Let  my  enemy  live  a  thousand  years,  so  he  be  a  thousand  miles  away.'  But 
your  countrymen  believe  in  work  for  the  people.  They  make  Constantinople  a 
great  fountain  from  which  streams  flow  to  water  distant  gardens  and  vineyards  ; 
not  a  tank  towards  which  they  flow.  With  them  the  present  is  only  the  start- 
ing-point of  labor  for  a  better  future.  They  are  opening  up  oases  all  over  our 
desert.  When  the  day  shall  come  that  our  people  shall  seek  the  benefit  of 
such  schools  as  your  countrymen  have  founded,  when  our  children  shall  be 
educated  after  their  method  and  in  their  spirit,  when  our  intellectual  and 
moral  life  shall  be  molded  by  the  teachings  of  your  schools  and  press,  and 
actual  religious  freedom  make  it  possible  for  us  to  seek  fearlessly  for  all  the  ele- 
ments of  power  in  the  institutions  your  country  has  given  ours,  then,  indeed, 
will  there  be  occasion  for  universal  rejoicing. 

"Saduk  Ejnebi. 
^'■Constantinople,  joth  of  Ramazan,  I2g2.'" 

And  here  it  is  pleasant  to  record  the  friendly  recognition  of  the  leading 
ecclesiastic  of  England,  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  an  admirable 
charge  recently  given  to  his  clergy,  speaking  of  the  Oriental  Christians  says : 
"No  wide-spread  spiritual  work,  testifying  to  our  common  brotherhood,  has 
yet  been  done  among  them  but  by  the  missionaries  of  the  American  Inde- 
pendents. All  honor  to  these  good  men  for  the  efforts  they  have  steadily  pur- 
sued for  so  many  years  ;  to  the  quiet  efficacy  of  which  testimony  is  borne  by 
the  authorities  of  our  Foreign  Office."  ^ 

Read  in  this  connection  the  following  report  from  the  Harpoot  field  in 
1880  :  Twenty-one  churches  there  contain  more  than  thirteen  hundred  mem- 
bers. The  average  attendance  of  sixty-five  congregations  is  at  least  seven 
thousand,  and  probably  five  sixths  of  this  number  attend  the  Sunday  schools. 
The  whole  number  of  Protestants  is  eight  thousand. 

'^Missionary  Herald,  i8So,  p.  318.  -Do.,  iSSo,  p.  410. 


460  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

The  whole  number  connected  with  the  schools  during  the  year  is  not  less 
than  three  thousand  ;  about  one  half  mere  boys  than  girls.  The  same  year 
the  contributions  of  the  people  for  work  at  home  and  abroad  was  about  $7,300; 
an  increase  of  $2,000  over  1879,  owing  to  the  building  going  on  at  a  number  of 
the  out-stations ;  and  all  this,  notwithstanding  the  low  rate  of  wages,  the  crush- 
ing taxation,  the  general  derangement  of  business,  and  the  famine,  which 
promises  to  return  and  claim  fresh  victims  in  the  winter  of  1880-1881.^ 

Thus  our  missionaries  shape  the  destiny  of  Turkey  ;  and  the  end  is  not  yet. 
Can  Moslem  polygamy  and  its  degradation  of  woman  stand  before  female  edu- 
cation ? 

Not  long  since  Dr.  Jessup,  the  leading  Moslem  skeikh,  the  Russian  consul, 
and  a  Greek  priest  were  walking  together,  when  the  skeikh  put  out  his  hand 
and  stopped  them,  saying,  with  a  merry  twinkle  in  his  eye,  "How  is  this  ?  a 
skeikh,  a  priest,  a  consul,  and  a  missionary  all  together,  and  all  friends !  El 
humd  u  lillah  !  " "-  Well  might  he  say  so,  for  both  he  and  the  priest  could 
remember  when  they  would  not  sit  together,  and  neither  of  them  associate  with 
a  missionar3^^  But  the  leaven  of  God's  truth  is  leavening  the  world.  About 
the  same  time  the  citizens  of  Tripoli  were  greatly  excited  over  the  opening  of 
their  new  street  railway,  by  Midhat  Pasha.  The  beauty  of  the  American  cars 
filled  them  with  wonder.  Had  the  long  labors  of  American  missionaries  in 
Syria  no  connection  with  that  result  ?  And  yet  the  entire  cost  of  the  work  of 
the  Board  in  Turkey,  Syria  included,  up  to  1879,  was  only  about  $5,000,000, 
while  the  subjugation  of  a  handful  of  Modocs  by  our  government  cost  one  hun- 
dred lives  and  $6,000,000.     Do  foreign  missions  pay  ? 

In  Persia  we  iind  a  similar  work.  At  first  confined  to  the  Nestorians,  it 
now  extends  to  the  Armenians,  Jews,  and  Moslems.  A  few  of  these  last  are 
baptized  ;  more  of  them  long  for  religious  liberty,  and  not  a  few  read  the  Bible. 
The  larger  churches  gathered  by  the  mission  are  self-supporting.  On  his 
return  there  in  1S79,  after  eight  years'  absence  in  this  country,  Rev.  J.  H. 
Shedd,  D.D.,  was  struck  with  the  advance  in  dress,  intelligence,  and  manliness 
since  he  first  went  there  in  1S60.  Now,  native  Christians  command  respect, 
and  demand  their  rights  with  a  manliness  formerly  impossible.  The  native 
church  has  outgrown  its  first  foreign  impress,  and  is  developing  in  accordance 
with  the  genius  of  the  people.  In  their  church  work  they  act  out  their  own 
understanding  of  the  Bible,  and  are  not  the  imitators  of  any.  The  Nestorians 
of  the  plain  may  be  counted  as  a  part  of  evangelical  Christendom.  Their 
preachers  are  men  of  learning  and  independent  character,  and  the  leaven  of 
the  Gospel  is  working  with  power  in  that  entire  field.^ 

Many  of  the  outgrowths  of  idolatry  in  India  are  too  well  known  to  need 
description  ;  but  one  on  the  ground  finds  others  in  connection  with  these  that 
are  not  so  familiar.  On  one  page  of  the  'Missionary  Herald  is  a  description  of 
an  institution  called  the  "  Pinjera  Pole,"  in  Bombay. 

'  Rev.  H.  N.  Barnum,  in  Harpoot  News,  January,  iS8i.  ^Praise  be  to  God, 

^Foreign  Missionary,  1880,  p.  469.  *  Do.,  1879. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  46 1 

To  understand  it  better,  we  premise  that  the  Jainas  are  the  Euddhists  of 
India,  and  maintain  that  theirs  is  the  primitive  faith  of  Hindostan,  before  it 
was  corrupted  by  the  Brahmans.  They  believe  in  one  supreme  God,  but  prac- 
tically are  idolaters,  for  they  worship  the  images  of  deified  men.  Near  Sering- 
apatam,  in  one  of  their  most  famous  temples,  is  a  colossal  statue  of  Gautama, 
cut  from  the  solid  rock  of  a  hill,  and  seventy  feet  in  height.^ 

The  Jainas  never  eat  flesh,  nor  destroy  animal  life  for  any  purpose,  but 
regard  its  preservation  as  meritorious.  A  rich  merchant  of  this  class,  at  a 
reported  cost  of  over  $100,000,  purchased  ground  and  erected  buildings  to 
support  superannuated  horses,  oxen,  and  cows.  The  number  of  the  former 
varies  from  fifty  to  a  hundred,  and  the  latter  at  the  time  of  writing  numbered  a 
hundred  and  seventy-five.  Ownerless  dogs,  too,  for  killing  which  the  city  gov- 
ernment paid  a  reward,  found  here  a  safe  asylum  to  the  number  of  two  hun- 
dred. Cats,  monkeys,  and  various  reptiles  also  shared  its  advantages.  Indeed, 
it  was  a  rule  of  the  institution  to  refuse  nothing  that  was  brought.  The 
expenses  were  then-  a  hundred  rupees  a  day,  or  more  than  $16,000  per  annum, 
in  a  city  where  thousands  were  suffering  for  want  of  food. 

On  the  opposite  page  the  same  missionary  —  Rev.  D.  O.  Allen,  D.D. — 
describes  a  performance  called  "garda  buggard  "  in  connection  with  hook- 
swinging,  which  called  together  six  thousand  spectators.  Two  young  people, 
a  man  of  about  eighteen  and  a  woman  a  little  older,  had  each  made  a  vow  to 
Khundoba,  and  were  now  about  to  fulfill  them.  After  giving  sufficient  money 
to  the  servants  of  that  idol  to  secure  their  assistance,  the  chief  of  these  servants 
goes  through  with  certain  rites  that  make  the  idol  take  possession  of  a  man. 
The  latter  now  dishevels  his  long  hair,  paints  his  face,  puts  on  a  broad,  shaggy 
girdle,  fringed  with  small  bells,  and  anklets  with  similar  bells,  and  takes  a  large 
rope  in  his  hands.  Then  various  offerings  are  placed  before  the  idol,  barbar- 
ous music  begins,  prominent  in  which  is  a  furious  beating  of  drums.  The  man 
supposed  to  be  possessed  now  begins  to  leap  and  jump  excitedly,  lashing  now 
one  object  and  now  another  with  his  rope.  After  drinking  the  liquor  that  had 
been  set  before  the  idol,  he  became  more  frantic,  and  demanded  blood  tO' 
drink,  gnashing  his  teeth  and  raging  wildly,  as  the  spectators  supposed  under 
the  inspiration  of  Khundoba.  A  kid  of  a  month  old,  provided  for  this  purpose,, 
was  waved  before  the  idol  and  brought  to  him.  He  clutched  it,  and  holding; 
it  by  the  neck,  his  eyes  fixed  on  it,  his  mouth  open,  and  his  teeth  gnashing,  he 
ran  round  the  temple  accompanied  by  the  music  and  the  priests.  After  going 
round  once,  he  let  the  head  of  the  kid  hang  down,  and  seizing  the  throat  with 
his  teeth,  began  tiger-like  to  suck  its  blood.  Thus,  with  upturned  face,  the  kid 
held  high  with  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  he  pressed  its  throat  to  his 
mouth,  he  went  twice  more  around  the  temple,  till,  having  drained  the  life  of 
his  victim,  the  bloodless  body  was  cast  aside.  The  demon  was  now  propitiated 
and  the  man  became  quiet,  while  the  people  crowded  round,  eager  to  touch  him 
and  so  secure  some  share  in  his  sanctity. 

After  this  was  finished,  the  man  and  woman,  each  in  turn,  had  two  strong 
iron  hooks  inserted  in  the  muscles  of  the  back,  and  were  one  after  the  other 

'J.  W.  Dulles,  Life  in  India,  pp.  255-256;  Missionary  Herald,  1873,  p.  267.  ^1840. 


462  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

drawn  up  some  twenty  feet  in  the  air  by  a  kind  of  well-sweep  arrangement  fixed 
on  a  car.  The  car  was  then  dragged  three  times  round  the  temple  by  the  mul- 
titude, who,  after  each  performance,  pressed  round  as  before,  eager  to  share  a 
little  of  the  supposed  merit  of  the  act.^ 

In  India,  Hindooism  has  divided  its  spiritual  despotism  with  Islam.  "  Sa- 
tan," says  Dr.  H.  M.  Scudder,  "has  had  it  all  his  own  way  here  for  ages. 
Evil  influences  have  increased  in  breadth,  and  depth,  and  power,  from  genera- 
tion to  generation.  The  poison  of  centuries  circulates  through  the  spiritual 
system  of  the  Hindoo.  He  is  sunk  deep  in  vice.  Lies  flow  from  his  lips  like 
water  from  a  fountain.  Few  are  faithful  to  their  marriage  vows,  if,  indeed,  they 
have  any.  The  moral  degradation  is  fearful.  Skepticism  steps  forth  from  the 
ashes  of  superstition.  The  country  groans  under  the  oppression  of  caste,  which 
energizes  opposition  to  the  Gospel."  In  India  slaves  belonged  to  families 
raoi'e  than  to  persons.  Infanticide  was  common.  Their  modes  of  self-torture 
are  too  well  known  to  need  mention.  Woman  was  forbidden  to  read  the 
Vedas.  She  had  no  part  in  worship,  and  was  a  soulless  cipher.  Human  sac- 
rifices were  common  near  Benares,  and  hardly  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  the 
people  could  read.  The  Hindoo  knew  nothing  worth  knowing.  False  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  astronomy  were  held  with  the  tenacity  of  a  false  religion. 
Even  the  Sanskrit  contains  nothing  of  genuine  history.  Its  literature  presents 
nothing  of  geographical  science ;  its  cosmogony  is  driveling  fable,  and  of  natu- 
ral history  it  has  nothing  whatever.  In  every  branch  of  experimental  science 
or  natural  philosophy,  Sanskrit  is  wholly  wanting.^ 

But  the  soldiers  of  the  Lord  of  Hosts  have  not  hesitated  on  account  of 
either  the  numbers  or  the  strength  of  the  enemy.  Thirty  other  missionary 
societies  have  joined  in  the  work.  The  government,  also,  of  late,  has  become 
friendly.  It  fosters  education.  It  forbids  many  Hindoo  vices  and  crimes, 
though  this  also  is  the  fruit  of  labor  performed  in  spite  of  the  old  East  India 
Company.  When  that  forbade  recruits  from  America,  the  lives  of  Messrs. 
Richards,  Meigs,  Poor,  and  Spaulding  were  prolonged  until  that  order  was 
revoked.  Their  work  was  their  vindication.  It  made  their  enemies  their 
friends.  The  highest  officials  learned  to  appreciate,  and  even  eulogize  their 
labors.  Ten  years  ago  English  and  native  Christians  in  India  gave  to  the  mis- 
sionary societies  working  under  their  eyes,  $25,000,  and  the  government  gave 
ten  times  as  much,  year  after  year,  showing  how  the  work  is  appreciated  by 
those  who  witness  its  operations  and  its  fruits.  Even  a  writer  in  the  JVesf- 
minster  Review  says  that  the  results  of  missions  in  India  "constitute  the  bright- 
est page  in  the  whole  history  of  the  work." 

Sir  Bartle  Frere  says  that  the  government  of  India  cannot  but  acknowledge 
its  great  obligation  to  the  benevolent  exertions  of  the  six  hundred  missionaries 
•now  in  India;  that  their  blameless  example  and  self-denying  labors  infuse  new 
•vigor  into  the  stereotyped  life  of  the  great  populations  under  its  rule,  and  pre- 
pare them  to  be  in  every  respect  better  men  and  better  citizens.  While  he 
laments  the  hindrances  occasioned  by  the  inherited  faults  of  the  people,  he 
says  that  "the  wliole  influence  of  missionary  teaching  and  example  is  to  under- 

'  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  pp.  343-344-  =  Allen's  India,  pi\  S9S-S99>  f'om  Calcutta  Review. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  463 

mine  all  Hindoo  absurdities;"  that  "missionary  agencies  in  India  have 
brought  the  Gospel  more  fully  and  freely  to  its  people  than  was  ever  true  before 
of  such  an  area  and  population,"  and  that  "whatever  may  be  in  store  for  the 
Indiajof  the  future,  the  India  of  the  past,  frozen  into  forms  stereotyped  for  cen- 
turies, can  never  be  seen  again." 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  though  rejecting  Christ,  admits  that  "  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  already  pervades  the  whole  atmosphere  of  Indian  society.  We 
breathe,  think,  and  move  in  it.  Native  society  is  being  reformed  under  the 
influence  of  Christian  education."  This  is  the  testimony  of  one  who  is  not 
himself  a  Christian ;  and  facts  sustain  it. 

Lord  Lawrence  said,  in  1871,  that  "great  numbers  of  youth  in  India  had  an 
extraordinary  love  of  learning ;  and  that  their  knowledge  of  western  literature 
destroyed  faith  in  their  own  religion."  As  to  the  credit  due  to  missionaries 
for  the  changes  taking  place  in  India,  he  says  :  "  Notwithstanding  all  that  Eng- 
land has  done  for  the  good  of  India,  the  missionaries  have  done  more  than  all 
other  agencies  combined ; "  and  such  a  testimony  from  such  a  source  has  value. 

The  governor  of  Ceylon,  likewise,  after  personal  inspection  of  flieir  work, 
said,  in  1850  :  "  Those  noble  volunteers  in  the  cause  of  religion  and  education, 
the  American  missionaries,  have  produced  a  marked  improvement  in  their  field 
of  labor." 

Sir  Richard  Temple,  recently  governor  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  who  has 
governed  one  hundred  and  five  millions  of  the  population  of  India,  and  has 
had  acquaintance  with,  or  authentic  information  concerning,  all  the  missionaries 
of  all  the  societies  laboring  in  India  for  the  last  thirty  years,  said  concerning 
them,  in  an  address  at  Birmingham,  June  22,  1880:  "My  testimony  Ms  that 
they  are  most  efiScient  as  pastors  and  evangelists  from  one  end  of  India  to  the 
other.  In  the  work  of  converting  the  heathen  they  show  great  learning  in  all 
that  relates  to  the  native  religions,  and  the  system  of  caste.  They  often  evince 
appreciative  thought  in  dealing  with  educated  natives.  As  teachers  they  are 
most  able  and  effective,  and  although  the  state  educational  institutions  in  India 
are  highly  organized,  missionaries  are  esteemed  on  the  whole  as  the  best 
schoolmasters.  In  Oriental  literature  they  are  distinguished  as  scholars, 
authors,  and  lexicographers,  and  have  done  much  to  spread  the  fame  of  British 
culture  through  the  East.  In  cases  of  oppression  —  and,  in  spite  of  our  excel- 
lent rule,  such  cases  do  occur  sometimes  —  they  are  friends  of  the  oppressed. 
Whenever  native  rights  are  infringed  or  threatened  they  are  always  the  advo- 
cates of  the  voiceless  millions,  and  so  exert  a  salutary  influence  on  the  servants 
of  government.  I  always  listened  with  deference  to  their  representations  on 
matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the  natives.  Their  writings  and  addresses 
are  most  useful  in  enlightening  public  sentiment.  They  are  also  the  active 
friends  of  the  natives  in  times  of  danger.  When  pestilence  is  abroad,  when 
famine  smites  down  millions,  they  are  ever  present  as  ministering  angels. 
They  themselves  help  the  suffering,  and  encourage  those  who  organize  relief. 
The  excellence  and  purity  of  their  lives  shed  a  blessed  light  all  around  them. 
Their  wives  and  daughters  are  foremost  in  every  good  work.      Although  many 

1  Slightly  condensed. 


464  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

of  the  missionaries  possess  talents  which  would  win  fame  in  secular  life,  they 
live  on  the  barest  modicum  of  salary  on  which  educated  men  can  subsist, 
without  hope  of  honor  or  further  reward.  They  do  this  from  loyalty  to  the 
Master  whom  they  serve.  They  do  not  go  home  on  furlough  unless  forced  by 
sickness,  ,and  no  men  have  shown  the  heathen  better  how  the  Christian  ought 
to  die.  Such  conduct  adds  stability  to  British  rule  in  India.  Native  thoughts 
of  our  military  ambition  and  national  aggrandizement  are  mitigated  by  the  jus- 
tice of  our  laws,  our  state  education,  the  spread  of  our  medical  and  sanitary 
science,  and  above  all,  by  our  efforts  to  mitigate  or  avert  famine.  But  beyond 
all  these  I  am  bound  to  mention  the  effects  of  the  example  of  the  life  and 
labors  of  Christian  missionaries."^ 

As  to  missionary  efforts  for  the  elevation  of  woman  in  India,  the  Madras 
Times  said,  twenty  years  ago,  that  the  influence  of  Christian  female  education 
could  hardly  be  overrated.  The  natives  have  changed  their  views  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  to  some  extent  their  practice,  and  the  credit  of  the  change  belongs  to 
Christian  missions.  They  first  established  schools  for  girls.  The  Oodooville 
Seminary  lias  been  to  Ceylon  what  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  has  been  to 
Massachusetts ;  and  its  graduates  as  wives,  mothers,  and  teachers  are  working 
out  the  social  and  moral  regeneration  of  their* sex.  Woman  in  India  has 
learned  from  the  missionary  that  she  has  a  soul ;  and  now  missionary  ladies 
have  free  access  to  the  zenanas,  where  sometimes  Hindoo  women  even  hire 
their  Christian  sisters  to  teach  them. 

The  Indian  report  on  the  census  in  1875  says  :  "The  education  of  woman 
in  India  is  a  recent  development,  due  almost  entirely  to  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tian missionaries."  In  1878,  three  hundred  girls  were  in  our  seminaries  in 
India,  and  sixteen  hundred  in  the  common  schools  of  the  Ceylon  mission  alone. 
Dr.  Anderson  saw  many  graduates  of  the  Oodooville  Seminary  in  their  own 
homes,  and  describes  them  as  intelligent,  thoroughly  Christianized,  evidently 
a  blessing  in  their  own  families  and  in  the  community.  All  that  he  heard  of 
them  augured  well  for  the  future ;  and  their  number  is  increasing.  Social  life, 
he  adds,  cannot  be  elevated  without  the  cooperation  of  woman." 

Christian  homes,  modeled  after  those  of  our  missionaries,  are  multiplying 
in  India,  and  they  are  among  the  greatest  of  the  social  forces. 

The  annual  Repoi't  of  the  Board  for  1877  says  that  work  for  woman  received 
a  new  impulse  from  the  establishment  of  the  Home  in  Madura,  under  Mrs. 
Capron  and  Miss  Sisson.  Fifty  girls  were  taught,  and  they  had  access  to  one 
hundred  houses  for  Bible  reading.  Nearly  three  thousand  cases  had  received 
medical  treatment;  while  thousands  of  women  were  in  the  Sabbath  congrega- 
tions.    The  famine  also  greatly  helped  on  the  work. 

Work  for  woman  in  India  is  becoming  both  interesting  and  extensive.  The 
idea  that  man  alone  is  worthy  of  mental  and  moral  progress,  and  that  woman 
must  abide  in  her  degradation,  is  vanishing,  even  in  Hindostan,  like  the  morn- 
ing mist  before  the  sun.  Till  recently,  even  Christians  could  not  give  their 
wives  and  daughters  their  proper  place ;  but  now  the  opportunity  to  help  them 
goes  beyond  the  power  of  the  missionaries  to  improve  it,  and  the  susceptibility 

'  MissioTtary  Herald,  iSSo,  pp.  4f>3-464.  -  History  of  Missions  to  India,  p.  152. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  465 

of  Hindoo  women  to  divine  truth  is  greater  than  that  of  the  other  sex.  Dur- 
ing 18S0  twelve  hundred  women  in  the  district  of  Madura  were  regularly  taught 
the  way  of  salvation,  and  the  number  of  that  sex  who  have  become  somewhat 
acquainted  with  the  truth  may  be  estimated  at  twenty  thousand.  In  the  city 
of  Madura  alone  Mrs.  Capron  speaks  of  two  hundj'ed  and  seventy-eight  under 
instruction,  and  the  number  who  listen  to  the  reading  of  the  six  Bible  women 
is  estimated  at  fourteen  thousand  nine  hundred  and  two.^ 

It  may  seem  a  small  matter,  yet  to  one  aware  of  the  past  extravagance  of 
the  people  of  India  in  their  weddings,  it  is  a  great  point  gained  when  the 
missionaries  induce  some  of  their  people  to  avoid  incurring  a  debt  for  the 
expenses  of  their  marriage.  One  pastor,  who  was  in  great  straits,  spent  less 
than  two  rupees  for  the  wedding  feast  of  his  daughter,  so  as  to  avoid  a  debt, 
though,  as  he  afterwards  said,  it  cost  him  "pain  greater  than  death."  One  of 
the  girls  of  the  school  in  Bombay  was  about  to  be  married,  and  a  missionary 
lady  offered  to  help  her,  provided  she  incurred  no  debt.  So  bride  and  bride- 
groom were  furnished  with  a  plain  wedding  dress,  and  one  for  daily  use 
besides.  A  modest  dinner  was  provided.  The  girl  made  part  of  her  own 
dress,  and  some  friends  joined  in  procuring  some  simple  furniture  for  kitchen 
and  parlor,  not  forgetting  some  books.  This  was  in  such  contrast  with  the 
vain  show  and  glitter  of  native  weddings,  and  the  inevitable  debt  involved,  that 
the  missionaries  felt  it  was  progress  in  the  right  direction.- 

A  hostile  press  labors  stoutly  to  buttress  the  falling  fabric  of  idolatry  and 
misrepresent  the  Gospel.  Missionaries  are  reviled,  and  native  converts  perse- 
cuted ;  but  the  people  read  the  Bible  and  contrast  the  spirit  of  the  missionaries 
with  that  of  their  opposers.  A  Brahman  compared  them  to  the  mango  tree, 
stoned  as  long  as  any  fruit  remained  on  it,  but  still  bearing  fruit  year  after 
year.  "I  have  watched  them  well,"  said  he,  "and  like  that  tree  they  bear  fruit 
for  the  good  of  others.  Their  Bible  leads  them  to  do  this.  There  is  nothing 
like  it  in  all  our  sacred  books  for  holiness  and  love,  and  they  bring  it  to  us, 
that  we  may  raise  ourselves  by  the  same  power  that  has  made  them  what  they 
are.  They  do  not  force  it  on  us,  as  the  Moslem  does  the  Koran,  but  bring  it 
in  love,  and  bid  us  study  for  ourselves.  One  thing  I  am  sure  of :  oppose  it  as 
we  will,  sooner  or  later  the  Christian  Bible  will  regenerate  this  land." 

Idolatry  is  waning.  New  temples  are  not  built.  In  many  cases  the  temple 
officials  must  buy  in  the  bazaars  the  things  needed  for  their  worship,  for  they 
are  no  longer  given  by  the  worshipers.  In  one  temple  where  two  hundred 
sheep  used  to  be  sacrificed  every  year,  in  1872  only  one  or  two  were  offered.  In 
many  places  idol  festivals  have  been  abandoned.  Of  course  idolatry  will  not 
die  easily  ;  yet  some  power  causes  its  disgusting  rites  to  cease,  and  plants  in 
its  place  the  decencies  of  a  Christian  worship.  A  beneficent  change  is  being 
wrought  in  the  national  character,  or,  as  was  said  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
London  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  in  1S70  :  "The  progress  of  missionary 
labor  through  India  is  the  track  of  a  river  through  a  desert,  and  everything 
liveth  whithersoever  that  river  cometh." 

Though  American  Christians  do  not  give  more  than  $200,000  annually  for 

^  A  nuual  Re/:ort  of  the  Madura  Missioii/or  iSi,o.  -  Rep.  of  the  A  in.  Mar  at  hi  Mission  for  lS8o. 

30 


466  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

the  regeneration  of  India,  yet  the  ninety-four  thousand  belonging  to  the  native 
congregations  in  185 1,  in  186 1  had  become  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine  thou- 
sand, and  in  187 1  more  than  two  hundred  and  eleven  thousand,  and  their  prog- 
ress in  self-support  and  beneficence  was  in  even  greater  proportion. 

If  we  cannot  report  such  marked  results  in  China,  there  are  reasons  for  the 
difference.  The  Board  has  been  criticised  for  not  entering  sooner  so  large 
and  populous  an  empire.  But  our  missionaries  besieged  China  for  years  before 
they  were  allowed  to  enter  her  borders  in  1842  ;  and  now,  though  many  are  at 
work,  there  is  still  much  opposition.  There  is  a  strong  national  dislike  of 
change,  especially  when  introduced  by  outside  barbarians.  Ignorance,  super- 
stition, and,  most  of  all,  vice,  stand  in  the  way  of  progress.  How  can  so  vast 
an  empire,  and  one  so  arrogantly  exclusive,  wheel  at  once  into  line  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  ?  It  is  painful  to  speak  of  another  obstacle,  for  which  a 
Protestant  nation  is  chiefly  responsible.  The  use  of  opium  in  China  is  indeed 
of  long  standing  ;  but  not  till  about  the  time  of  our  Revolution  did  it  begin  to 
assume  its  present  fearful  proportions.  Then  the  East  India  Company  set 
itself  to  work  to  increase  its  income  by  fostering  the  use  of  opium  in  China. 
The  government  prohibited  its  introduction,  and  the  two  vessels  importing  the 
first  cargoes  carried  one  fourteen  and  the  other  thirty-six  guns,  thus  forcing  it 
on  the  Chinese  at  the  mouth  of  the  cannon.  Dr.  Osgood,  of  Fuhchau,  wrote 
in  1872:  The  people  say  to  missionaries,  "You  brought  opium  and  forced  it 
upon  us."  Its  use  increases  every  year.  In  1870  about  sixty-six  million 
pounds  were  imported,  valued  at  $320,000,000.  Dr.  Osgood  estimates  that 
one  hundred  millions  of  Chinese  are  made  wretched  by  its  use.  Dr.  A.  O. 
Treat  said  that  for  every  dollar  England  spent  in  sending  the  Gospel  to  China 
she  sent  $200  in  the  form  of  opium.  Is  it  strange  then  if  its  blighting  influ- 
ence is  felt  in  millions  of  families  that  never  hear  of  the  Gospel  ?  He  estimates 
that  one  half  the  population  suffer  more  or  less  from  the  drug.  Rev.  I.  Pier- 
son  says  :  "  The  church  spends  $600,000  annually  for  the  salvation  of  China  ; 
but  merchants  from  Christian  lands  take  from  her  one  hundred  times  that  sum 
every  year  in  exchange  for  six  thousand  tons  of  a  drug  which  entails  a  curse 
that  cannot  be  described."  At  Fuhchau,  however.  Dr.  Osgood  treated  eight 
hundred  cases  of  opium-smoking  in  two  years,  and  thought  that  ninety  cases  out 
of  one  hundred  may  be  cured.  But  what  is  the  proportion  of  the  cure  to  the 
disease  propagated  by  so-called  Christian  people  for  the  sake  of  gain  ?  Small 
as  it  may  be,  however,  it  shows  the  working  of  Christian  missions  in  promoting 
human  well-being,  in  striking  contraist  with  some  of  the  workings  of  commerce. 
Take  away  the  influence  of  missions  from  commerce  and  what  would  it  be  as  a 
power  for  good  to  heathen  lands  ? 

The  commissioner  of  the  Chinese  government  said,  in  1843:  "If  English 
merchants  would  only  bring  lawful  articles  they  would  reap  an  ample  profit. 
Why,  then,  should  they  persist  in  selling  this  baneful  drug  ?  "  Its  sale  in  1876 
was  in  the  proportion  of  twenty-eight  millions  of  opium  to  twenty  millions  of  cot- 
ton goods,  and  four  millions  of  woolens,  while  China  paid  for  opium  as  much  as 
she  received  for  her  tea  and  silk. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  467 

This  immense  importation  only  stimulates  home  cultivation.  Three  of  the- 
eighteen  provinces  now  redden  with  the  poppy  every  year,  and  a  missionary  im 
Soochow  says  that  in  that  city  opium  shops  during  thirty  years  have  increasedl 
from  five  to  five  thousand.  The  drug  seems  to  have  the  same  fascination  for 
the  Chinese  that  fire-water  has  for  our  Indians.^ 

In  1846,  Rev.  Mr.  Pohlman  estimated  the  number  of  opium  shops  in  Amoy 
at  one  thousand,  and  the  annual  cost  of  the  drug  at  $12,000,000,  while  its  effects 
were  absolutely  appalling. 

A  letter  from  the  province  of  Shensi,  dated  August  14,  1880,  says:  If  any 
would  see  the  evils  of  opium,  let  them  spend  a  week  here,  and  listen  to  the 
daily  histories  of  women  who  try  to  put  an  end  to  their  lives  on  the  most  trivial 
pretexts.  Mr.  King  is  this  moment  called  to  another  case.  One  little  girl  of 
seven  followed  the  example  of  her  seniors,  but  happily  failed  to  succeed. 
Opium  is  sold  in  two  hundred  places  on  this  short  street  /'■^ 

And  here  it  ought  to  be  mentioned  to  the  credit  of  the  Chinese  government, 
that  in  all  its  poverty  and  pressing  need  of  larger  revenue,  it  has  never  con- 
sented to  levy  an  import  tax  on  opium ;  thus  showing  the  sincerity  of  its  oppo- 
sition to  the  introduction  of  the  drug,  and  setting  an  example  to  Christian 
governments  which  derive  a  revenue  from  intoxicating  drinks. 

The  social  and  moral  degradation  of  China  need  not  be  dwelt  on  when  some 
would  close  our  sparsely  peopled  territories  to  the  Chinese,  for  fear  of  pollution. 
The  semi-civilization  of  China  has  not  made  its  people  virtuous ;  government 
has  indeed  some  good  features;  but  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  in  China  is 
neither  national  virtue  nor  national  conscience. 

Rev.  C.  Holcombe  says  that  not  more  than  six  per  cent,  of  adults  can  read 
and  write,  thus  making  the  people  capable  of  receiving  the  puerilities  of  Bud- 
dhism, which  is  not  the  power  for  good  that  some  in  Christian  lands  would  have 
us  suppose.  He  testifies  from  his  own  personal  knowledge  that  it  is  a  cruel 
and  debasing  bondage,  an  unclean  idolatry.  Its  teachings  lead  to  casting  out 
dead  children  to  be  fed  to  dogs.  The  better  classes  reject  it  for  Confucianism. 
So  far  from  honesty  being  the  characteristic  of  officials,  according  to  native 
estimates  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  revenue  is  stolen  by  those  through 
whose  hands  it  passes,  or  more  than  several  times  the  amount  of  all  their  sala- 
ries. He  represents  the  empire  as  a  whited  sepulcher,  full  of  dead  men's  bones 
and  all  uncleanness. 

The  missionaries  slowly  undermine  idolatry  and  introduce  the  renovating 
power  of  the  Gospel  into  the  corrupt  mass  of  the  people.  The  Chinese  appre- 
ciate Christian  science,  and  learn  the  Gospel  for  its  sake,  so  the  Gospel  enters 
to  suppress  vice  and  crime,  a  result  which  all  the  frightful  frequency  and  sever- 
ity of  their  punishments  have  failed  to  effect. 

Though  in  Amoy  the  poor  destroy  one  half  of  their  female  children  at  birth, 
yet  one  missionary  says  that  idolatry  is  sustained  in  China  mainly  by  women  ; 
and  another  affirms  that  the  conversion  of  one  woman  is  worth  that  of  two 
men,  for  she  is  almost  sure  to  bring  in  her  husband  and  children,  and  our  mis- 

1  Rev.  J.  L.  Ewe'.l,  in  lilissionary  Herald,  1880,  pp.  217-218;  also  Rev.  I.  Pierson,  do.,  1877,  pp.  75-78. 
-Missionary  Herald,  iSSi,  p.  96. 


468  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

sionaries  there  have  already  done  much  for  woman.  The  evil  of  her  present 
degradation  is  being  arrested,  and  a  change  of  public  opinion  is  being  brought 
about  that  promises  a  complete  revolution  in  her  position  and  domestic  life. 

We  have  seen  our  missionaries  giving  to  the  Chinese  empire  a  Christian  lit- 
erature. Hitherto  it  has  chiefly  been  foundation  work,  but  it  has  been  making 
itself  gradually  felt.  In  Wylie's  Memorials  of  Protestant  Missionaries  the  list  of 
publications  up  to  1867  contains  two  hundred  and  forty-two  separate  headings; 
and  there  were  over  eight  hundred  different  publications  in  Chinese.  Presses 
have  been  connected  with  American  missions  at  Canton,  Singapore,  Fuhchau, 
Shanghai,  and  Peking.  In  some  of  these  places  the  natives  now  carry  on  the 
work  with  skill  and  profit.  Very  few  Chinese  works  have  been  issued  by 
foreigners  who  were  not  missionaries.  At  our  Centennial  Exposition,  in  1S76, 
one  thousand  and  forty  Chinese  works  were  on  exhibition,  all  the  work  of 
Protestant  missionaries.  Seven  hundred  and  fifty-three  were  in  the  general 
language,  and  the  rest  in  the  dialects.  The  Presbyterian  press  at  Shanghai 
issues  thirty  million  pages  annually.^ 

Rev.  C.  Hartwell  speaks  of  the  Chinese  as  strong,  physically  and  mentally, 
and  though  slow,  yet  ready  to  accept  foreign  ideas  when  they  see  their  value. 
The  government  is  becoming  more  favorable  to  the  residence  of  foreigners  ; 
has  arsenals,  armories,  and  shipyards  under  foreign  superintendence ;  and 
besides  a  naval  and  torpedo  school,  has  also  a  school  of  telegraphy.  It  has 
built  twenty  steamers  at  Fuhchau,  which  are  supplanting  the  old  junks.  The 
'•  China  Merchants'  Steam  Navigation  Company  "  runs  thirty-three  fine  steam- 
ers along  the  coast  and  up  and  down  the  rivers. 

Rev.  J.  W.  Wiley,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  bishop,  who  was  a  missionary  at  Shang- 
hai from  1851  to  1854,  and  revisited  it  in  1877,  thus  describes  the  change : - 
"  Then  Shanghai  was  just  becoming  a  port  of  foreign  trade.  A  few  inferior 
hongs  extended  along  the  river,  which  was  crowded  with  junks  of  all  sizes. 
Now,  as  we  entered  the  river  we  saw  a  huge  fort,  constructed  by  foreign  skill, 
according  to  foreign  ideas.  Further  up  was  an  arsenal,  where  natives,  guided 
by  foreigners,  manufacture  all  kinds  of  fire-arms.  Near  it  is  a  ship-yard,  where 
they  build  steam  and  sailing  vessels,  and  gun-boats.  Two  of  these  last,  built 
entirely  by  Chinese,  lay  here  at  anchor.  Few  of  the  old  cumbersome  junks  are 
to  be  seen  ;  they  have  been  displaced  by  steamships,  many  of  them  owned  by 
a  native  company.  The  harbor  presents  quite  a  foreign  appearance,  with  beau- 
tiful villas  along  the  banks,  and  above  these  a  magnificent  foreign  city,  with  as 
fine  buildings  as  one  would  wish  to  see." 

Dr.  Blodgett  reports  "  that  the  Chinese  government  is  about  to  connect 
Peking  and  Shanghai  by  telegraph,  driven  to  this  step  by  the  necessities  of 
their  foreign  relations. 

Dr.  Wiley  thus  presents  the  religious  contrast  at  Fuhchau  :  "  Twenty-three 
years  ago  there  was  not  one  merchant  here,  the  foreign  trade  being  confined  to 
two  opium  shops  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Now,  I  find  a  large  mercantile  set- 
tlement, full  of  elegant  residences  and  busy  hongs.  I'hen,  there  was  not  a 
native  Christian.     Now,  in  this  city  are  three  large  churches  connected  with 

^  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  in  Presbyterian  Review,  iSSi,  pp.  39,  41  •  -China  and  Japan,  p.  44. 

•>  passionary  Herald,  iSSi,  p.  70. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  469 

our  own  mission,  besides  several  of  other  missions.  Then,  we  had  no  right  to 
go  five  miles  beyond  the  city.  Now,  our  missionaries  and  native  preachers 
have  their  circuits  reaching  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north  and  west,  and  two 
hundred  south  and  east.  Now,  four  thousand  Christians  are  in  the  three  mis- 
sions, and  in  one  assembly  I  met  eighty  native  preachers  and  between  two 
hundred  and  three  hundred  native  Christians,  representing  more  than  two 
thousand  church  members,  ready  to  be  organized  into  a  conference."'  ^ 

Chan  Laisun,  Chinese  commissioner  of  education  in  this  country,  was  a 
former  pupil  of  Rev.  Ira  Tracy.  Yung  Wing,  now  associate  embassador  at 
Washington,  was  educated  by  missionaries  in  China,  brought  to  this  country  by 
Rev.  S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  and  placed  in  Monson  Academy,  where  he  became 
hopefully  converted.  He  graduated  "  with  honors  "  at  Yale  College,  which  has 
also  given  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  He  returned  to  China,  devoted  him- 
self to  education,  and  rose  to  be  a  mandarin  of  high  rank.  It  was  mainly 
through  the  influence  of  these  two  men  that  the  Chinese  government  now  sends 
young  men  to  this  country  for  education.  One  hundred  and  twelve  were  here 
for  this  object  in  1878.  So  do  missions  uplift  China.  What  a  contrast 
between  the  time  when  our  missionaries  were  shut  up  to  the  "thirteen  hono"s" 
at  Canton,  and  today,  When  they  can  reside  in  towns  and  cities  throughout  the 
land,  and  witness  such  results  of  their  labors ! 

These  facts  indicate  that  in  the  march  of  great  social  and  moral  forces  there, 
the  Christian  element  is  prominent  as  a  regenerating  power.  The  temples  in 
North  China,  except  those  of  Confucius,  are  going  to  decay.  And  his  ideas 
retain  their  hold  on  the  people,  not  so  much  as  a  system  of  faith  as  a  help  to 
civil  service.  In  place  of  the  temple  will  rise  ere  long  the  church,  adapted 
to  the  spiritual  wants  of  all. 

The  bishop  of  the  English  church  in  Cliina  wrote,  in  1859,  ^o  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  :  "The  friends  of  missions  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  should 
know  how  much  they  are  indebted  for  the  Christian  element  in  the  late  treaties 
with  China,  to  his  Excellency  W.  B.  Read,  American  embassador,  ably  seconded 
by  his  secretary  of  legation,  S.  W.  Williams,  LL.D.,  and  Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Mar- 
tin, D.D.  Mr.  Read  shows  the  favorable  impression  made  by  missionaries  on 
the  Chinese  when  he  says :  '  While  the  American  negotiations  were  in  progress 
the  imperial  commissioners,  of  their  own  accord,  offered  to  concede  to  mission- 
aries free  access  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  but  I  could  not  allow  the  recognition 
of  a  class.  All  should  enjoy  the  same  privileges,  as  they  now  do.'  So  it  was 
the  favorable  impression  made  by  our  missionaries  that  secured  that  article  in 
the  American  treaty.  And  its  appearance  there  was  made  the  ground  for 
repeating  it  in  the  treaties  of  other  nations  also. 

"  On  leaving  the  country,  Mr.  Read  acknowledged  his  indebtedness  to  mis- 
sionaries for  important  aid  in  securing  the  result  of  his  negotiations,  and  adds : 
'  In  my  despatches  home  I  have  spoken  of  my  high  obligations  to  American 
missionaries,  without  whose. practical  aid  I  could  have  done  little,  and  to  whose 
good  example,  making  a  favorable  impression  on  the  Chinese,  what  is  called 
diplomacy  owes  much.  The  missionary  is  never  in  trouble  here  by  his  own 
act.     He  is  never  importunate  for  aid,  nor  clamorous  for  redress.     He  is  never 

'  China  and  Japan,  p.  223. 


470 


THE     ELY    VOLUME, 


querulous,  and  your  kind  address  shows  that  he  is  ready  to  do  a  public  servant 
more  than  justice  when  his  work  is  done.'  If  such  is  the  character  of  our  mis- 
sionaries, and  they  reproduce  it  in  their  converts,  how  can  they  help  '  shaping 
the  destinies  of  nations  for  good  ?  '  " 

The  article  in  the  treaties  with  China  granting  toleration  to  those  who 
preach,  and  to  those  who  receive,  the  Gospel,  and  allowing  the  public  exercise 
of  their  faith,  is  a  decided  mark  of  progress.  Comparatively  little  persecution 
for  Christ's  sake  has  taken  place  in  China,  yet  three  Protestant  converts  have 
sealed  their  testimony  for  Christ  with  their  blood,  and  others  have  suffered  the 
loss  of  all  things  for  his  sake.  The  reputation  of  the  converts  has  generally 
been  good.  Dr.  S.  W.  Williams  once  said  to  the  Premier  Wansiang  that  he 
had  never  known  any  of  the  Yesu  kiao  ^  convicted  of  crime  by  the  native 
courts,  and  the  premier  replied  that  he  had  never  heard  of  a  single  instance. 
In  the  Shantung  outbreak,  in  1874,  when  Mr.  Corbett  was  attacked,  a  most 
rigorous  examination  failed  to  prove  one  act  of  violence  or  sedition  against  the 
converts,  though  they  were  placed  in  very  aggravating  circumstances. 

The  proceedings  of  the  Shanghai  conference  were  published  in  a  volume  of 
five  hundred  pages.  This  gives  the  statistics  of  twenty-seven  societies  laboring 
in  ten  provinces,  occupying  ninety-two  stations  and  five  hundred  and  thirty-two 
out-stations,  manned  by  four  hundred  and  seventy-three  persons,  or,  omitting 
wives  of  missionaries,  three  hundred  and  one  laborers.  The  presence  of  so 
many  Christian  families  in  a  land  where  the  family  is  so  honored,  and  where 
all  the  previous  ideas  of  Christianity  were  derived  from  Nestorian  and  Papal 
celibates  —  in  that  point  resembling  the  Buddhist  priests  —  is  an  element  of 
power  not  always  appreciated  as  it  ought  to  be.  A  summary  of  their  most 
important  departments  of  labor  is  contained  in  the  following  table  :  ^ 

American.     British.  Continental.  Total. 


day 


Foreign  laborers     . 

Churches         .... 

Churches  self-supporting 

Churches  partly  self-supporting 

Male  communicants 

Female  communicants    . 

Boys  in  thirty-one  boarding  schools 

Boys  in  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven 

Girls  in  thirty-nine  boarding  schools 

Girls  in  eighty-two  day  schools 

Students  in  twenty-one  theological  schools 

Scholars  in  one  hundred  and  fifteen  Sunday 

Ordained  pastors  and  preachers 

Assistant  preachers 

Colporteurs    .... 

Bible  women  .... 

Churches  and  chapels    . 

Hospitals        .... 

Hospital,  in-patients,  1S76 

Hospital,  out-patients,  1S76  . 

Medical  .students    .         , 

Native  contributions,  1876     . 


schools 


schools 


:i: 


150 
II 

"5 

2,183 

347 

1,255 

464 

957 

94 

2,110 

42 


28 

62 

206 

6 

1.390 

47.635 

19 

$4,482 


22S 

156 

7 

149 

4,504 
2,440 

154 

1.47 1 

206 

335 
120 

495 
28 

273 
46 
28 

367 
12 

•  3.905 
41,170 

13 

#5.089 


26 

466 

12 

318 

18 

264 

687 

8,308 

584 

5.207 

146 

647 

26s 

2,991 

124 

794 

15 

1,307 

22 

236 

2,605 

3 

73 

34 

519 

3 

77 

2 

92 

40 

613 

iS 

5.295 

88,805 

I 

33 

$9>S7^ 

1  Jesus  sect ;  the  Chinese  name  for  Protestants. 

2  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  in  Presbyterian  Review,  iSSi,  pp.  46-48. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  47  I 

Ten  of  the  twenty-seven  societies  there  represented  had,  in  1877,  eight 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty  of  the  communicants  then  reported,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  1880  these  same  ten  societies  had  twelve  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-four,  a  gain  of  over  forty-one  per  cent.  At  the  same  rate  the 
whole  twenty-seven  would  have  not  less  than  eighteen  thousand  three  hundred, 
and  the  accessions  of  the  year  1880  promise  to  exceed  anything  known  before.^ 

If  we  pass  over  into  Japan,  the  character  of  the  people,  as  our  missionaries 
found  it,  in  some  respects  was  not  promising.  Many  religious  festivals  were 
noted  for  disgusting  obscenity.  Parents  sold  their  daughters  in  opening 
womanhood  for  the  vilest  purposes.  Public  baths  were  used  promiscuously  by 
both  sexes.  Obscene  pictures  were  freely  exposed  for  sale.  Neither  Buddhism 
nor  Shintooism  promoted  purity  and  righteousness,  while  truth  and  equity  had 
fallen  in  the  streets. 

Protestant  missions  there  date  only  from  1S59,  when,  after  the  fall  of  the 
ShogCin,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  temporal  power,  the  salt  of  divine 
truth,  could  be  thrown  most  effectually  into  the  seething  caldron  of  society.  In 
December,  187 1,  after  onh-  one  year's  residence,  Rev.  J.  D.  Davis  wrote  of  the 
wonderful  changes  wrought  in  that  short  time.  The  first  railroad  had  been 
opened.  The  ends  of  the  empire  were  united  by  telegraph.  The  Yetas  —  the 
pariahs  of  Japan  —  had  been  made  citizens.  The  prohibition  of  promiscuous 
bathing,  of  the  sale  of  vile  pictures,  and  of  the  sale  of  daughters  for  the  pur- 
poses referred  to,  followed  in  rapid  succession,  like  the  broadside  of  a  man-of- 
war. 

As  to  education  in  Japan,  as  early  as  A.  D.  300,  Chinese  scholars  were 
brought  over  to  train  up  men  for  public  stations.  After  that,  Japanese  were 
sent  over  to  be  educated  in  China.  As  early  as  186 1,  a  number  were  sent  to 
Holland  for  education,  but  in  1871  the  department  of  public  instruction  was 
organized.  The  minister  of  education  has  under  him  several  bureaus,  each 
with  its  own  work.  That  of  superintendence  oversees  the  schools ;  another 
has  charge  of  the  business  of  the  schools  with  the  department,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  teachers  ;  that  of  medical  affairs  has  charge  of  the  schools  of  medicine  ; 
that  of  reports  attends  to  statistics,  the  collection  of  information  about  foreign 
schools,  and  the  preparation  of  school-books ;  that  of  finance  sees  to  the  distri- 
bution of  the  annual  appropriations.  Each  school  is  managed  by  a  directoi\ 
who  is  responsible  for  its  success. 

The  empire  is  divided  into  seven  grand  school  districts,  each  with  institu- 
tions for  the  higher  instruction.  These  are  subdivided  into  middle,  and  again 
into  elementary  districts.  There  were  forty-five  thousand  of  these  last  in  1874. 
In  1875  there  were  thirty  thousand  schools  and  two  million  pupils.  The 
sources  of  income  in  1874  were  :  school  fees,  district  rates,  voluntary  offerings, 
government  appropriations,  and  the  interest  of  various  funds ;  amounting  in  all 
to  $3,794,123  in  gold;  with  property  in  buildings,  grounds,  books,  and 
apparatus,  valued  at  $5,740,248.  Normal  schools  have  been  organized  in  each 
grand  district.     The   education   of  woman  was   in  part  provided  for  by  the 

'^  Missionary  Herald,  iSSi,  pp.  95-96. 


472  THE    ELY   VOLUME. 

empress,  who  erected  a  building,  dedicated  in  October,  1875,  for  a  female  nor- 
mal school. 

At  important  centers  are  schools  for  foreign  languages.  In  each  grand  dis- 
trict is  an  English  school. 

A  national  university  was  organized  in  1873.  To  enter,  one  must  have  a 
good  knowledge  of  English,  Japanese,  and  Chinese  ;  must  know  arithmetic, 
geography,  the  history  of  Japan,  and  of  western  nations.  The  course  of 
study  extends  through  six  years,  the  last  three  being  devoted  to  professional 
training.  The  first  three  years  include  languages,  mathematics,  history,  physics, 
natural  history,  political  economy,  and  Latin.  The  special  courses  have  sepa- 
rate colleges,  as  of  law,  engineering,  and  chemical  technology.  There  is  also  a 
school  of  arts  and  manufactures.  The  number  of  students  in  1874  was  three 
hundred  and  forty-nine.     There  is  also  a  military,  naval,  and  medical  college.^ 

More  recent  accounts  give  eight  grand  districts,  thirty-two  middle  districts, 
and  two  hundred  and  ten  academies  in  each,  and  a  total  of  fifty-three  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  sixty  common  schools.  From  each  grand  district  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  boys  are  selected  and  sent  abroad  to  complete  their  studies. 
Thousands  of  English  books  are  imported  and  translated. 

Sunday  has  been  proclaimed  a  day  of  rest,  and  soon  after  the  edicts  against 
Christianity  were  repealed,  the  Buddhist  temples  were  secularized,  and  their 
bells,  many  of  them,  exported  for  old  bronze.  The  first  church  was  organized 
March,  1872,  with  nine  members;  and  now  twelve  of  the  seventeen  churches  in 
connection  with  our  own  mission  are  self-sustaining. 

Rev.  M.  L.  Gordon,  of  Osaka,  asks.  Why  send  the  Gospel  to  Japan?  and 
answers  thus  :  "Not  to  civilize  its  people,  though  it  elevates  their  civilization; 
not  to  give  them  western  science,  nor  agriculture,  mining,  and  engineering, 
though  Christian  men  are  their  best  teachers  in  these  things ;  not  to  give  them 
railroads  and  arsenals,  mints  and  post  offices,  these  they  have  already  received 
from  us  ;  not  to  teach  politeness  to  the  politest  people  on  the  globe,  though  the 
Gospel  will  add  sincerity  and  disinterestedness  to  their  politeness ;  not  merely 
to  improve  their  morals;  but  to  bring  them  back  to  God.  As  blind  Yamina- 
moto  said  :  '  I  love  your  railroads  and  the  like,  but  more  than  them  all,  my 
country  needs  the  hearts  of  its  people  to  be  made  new.'  "  And  so  when  we 
hear  of  three  hundred  young  men  in  the  training-school  in  Kioto,  already 
repeating  the  Gospel  story  in  fifty  places  in  that  city  ;  when  we  read  of  three 
churches  there,  part  of  them  already  self-sustaining ;  when  we  find  the  girls' 
school  there  already  full,  and  stations  in  the  suburbs  budding  into  churches  ; 
when  native  pastors  themselves  organize  new  churches,  and  ordain  pastors 
over  them  with  a  wisdom  and  care  truly  admirable;  when  at  Kobe,  where  ten 
years  ago  no  Christian  could  be  found,  now  ten  churches  are  organized  for 
aggressive  work, —  we  feel  that  the  future  of  Japan  is  assured,  and  that  it  will  not 
need  many  years  to  furnisli  material  for  a  much  fuller  account  of  the  influence 
of  missions  in  shaping  the  destiny  of  Japan. 

The  pastors  have  increased  to  ten,  and  set  to  their  people  an  example  in 
self-denial,  some  accepting  for  salaries  one  fifth,  or  even  one  tenth,  what  they 

^  Missionary  I/crald,  1S77,  pp.  10S-112. 


NATIONAL    REGENERATION.  473 

might  receive  in  government  service.  There  were  laboring  in  Japan,  in  1879, 
ten  missionary  societies  from  America,  and  six  from  Great  Britain,  if  the  Can- 
ada Methodist  mission  may  be  counted  one  of  these,  otherwise,  there  are  eleven 
from  America  and  five  from  our  mother  country,  and  in  connection  with  them 
all  one  hundred  and  seventeen  missionaries,  seventy-seven  of  them  ordained, 
with  sixty-four^  churches  and  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  one"  members." 

Edward  Irving  cites  England  as  an  instance  of  the  power  of  the  Gospel  to 
regenerate  the  most  brutalized  of  men.  Before  it  came,  he  says,  "  She  had  no 
art  but  the  art  of  war,  no  literature  save  her  songs,  and  little  government  of 
law.  Torn  by  intestine  feuds,  she  was  either  in  vassalage  or  misrule.  Her 
soil  niggard,  her  climate  stern,  she  was  a  desert  of  misty  lakes  and  hoary 
mountains ;  yet  no  sooner  did  the  breath  of  the  living  oracles  breathe  on  her, 
than  '  the  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  became  glad,  and  the  desert  blos- 
somed like  the  rose.'  Through  that  same  truth  missions  bring  out  the  thinking 
man  from  the  human  animal,  like  metal  from  the  ore,  and  the  missionary  vil- 
lage dwells  amid  the  surrounding  wastes  of  idolatry  like  the  tabernacle  of  God 
in  the  wilderness  of  sin."  Had  England  driven  Christianity  from  her  coast, 
never  could  she  have  attained  her  present  position  in  commerce,  art,  and  litera- 
ture ;  and  still  the  foundation  that  bears  these  up  is  the  Gospel.  Nations  pros- 
per in  proportion  as  men  regard  the  welfare  of  each  other  as  of  equal  value 
with  their  own.  Islam  and  Popery  never  yield  this  fruit ;  but  in  the  missionary 
field  the  Gospel  has  often  done  more  towards  it,  in  a  few  years,  than  all  other 
means  combined  in  many  generations. 

Our  missionaries  go  abroad  to  impart  all  that  is  good  in  our  Christian  civil- 
ization to  other  lands.  In  diffusing  our  ideas  of  the  true  office  of  government 
they  secure  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  kindle  a  spirit  of  patriotism  where 
previously  it  was  unknown.  In  disseminating  our  ideas  of  human  rights  they 
throw  new  safeguards  around  property,  and  reveal  the  sacredness  of  human 
life.  They  carry  our  free  popular  education  to  quicken  intellectual  life ;  bring 
out  to  view  the  inherent  evil  of  vice,  slavery,  and  polygamy ;  elevate  men's 
ideas  of  comfort,  and  so  promote  industry ;  they  lift  up  woman  from  her  degra- 
dation to  her  true  place  in  the  family ;  and  so  work  out  a  nobler  destiny  for 
man  wherever  they  go,  even  in  this  present  life. 

'  Page  59  says  sixty-seven.  -The  editor  says  (p.  71)  three  thousand  five  hundred. 

^Missionary  Herald,  1881,  p.  71. 


XXII. 
PHILANTHROPY. 

FAMINE  RELIEF. 

In  writing  of  the  temporal  benefits  of  foreign  missions  in  tlie  year  of  grace 
1880,  it  would  be  unpardonable  to  overlook  the  thousands  of  lives  that  have 
been  saved  from  that  most  lingering  death,  a  death  by  starvation.  The  terri- 
ble famines  that  within  the  last  few  years  have  destroyed  so  many  in  distant 
parts  of  the  earth,  would  never  have  been  heard  of  by  many  but  for  our  mis- 
sionaries, who,  living  in  daily  contact  with  the  sufferers,  made  known  their  dis- 
tress and  implored  relief.  Twice  has  the  scourge  devastated  Persia  •  once  in 
1871,  and  again  in  1880.  Turkey  has  suffered  as  often;  first  in  1874,  and 
now,  even  while  the  pen  traces  these  lines.  India  has  not  fallen  behind, 
either  in  the  number  of  her  victims  or  the  severity  of  her  distress,  and  in  1878 
a  famine  among  the  teeming  millions  of  China,  appalled  us  by  the  magnitude 
of  the  calamity  that  swept  whole  provinces  literally  with  the  besom  of  destruc- 
tion. In  all  these  cases  the  appeals  of  our  missionaries  did  not  fall  on  unwill- 
ing ears.  Large  sums  were  contributed  by  those  who  had  confidence  in  their 
statements,  and  also  in  their  integrity  and  discretion  in  the  distribution  of  the 
funds.  Men  would  not  have  given  so  freely  had  they  questioned  either,  and  if 
any  doubted  whether  they  could  give  to  this  object,  and  at  the  same  time 
contribute  to  the  spiritual  work,  the  fact  that  every  cent  they  gave  opened  the 
door  wider  for  the  entrance  of  the  Gospel,  led  them  joyfully  to  deny  them- 
selves in  order  thus  to  benefit  both  the  bodies  and  souls  of  their  fellow-men. 

The  same  confidence  in  our  missionaries  led  merchants  and  others  in  lands 
desolated  by  famine,  who  saw  the  need  of  relief  and  the  way  in  which  it  was 
given,  to  supplement  our  contributions  with  their  own  ;  and  though  no  one 
claims  that  we  might  not  have  done  more,  and  rescued  a  larger  number  from 
the  grave,  yet  the  fact  that  the  sufferers  themselves  appreciated  the  kindness, 
and  that  the  missionary  work  was  never  so  prosperous  as  in  those  communities 
that  suffered  the  most,  and  immediately  after  they  received  help  from  mission- 
aries when  their  own  co-religionists  had  left  them  to  perish,  bears  witness  to 
the  manner  and  spirit  of  the  work  better  'than  any  parade  of  the  sums  dis- 
bursed. And  all  was  done  without  one  cent  of  expense  either  in  the  collection 
(474) 


PHILANTHROPY. 


475 


and  transmission  of  the  funds,  or  of  their  distribution   among  the  sufferers, 
though  that  involved  long  journeys  and  much  exhausting  toil 

In  the  famine  of  1878  in  China,  some  of  our  missionaries  went  from  house 
to  house  snatching  men  from  the  jaws  of  death,  and  now  they  are  invited  to 
preach  the  Gospel  that  prompted  such  beneficence.  In  one  or  two  places  men 
actually  bowed  down  and  worshiped  them  ;  and  from  one  temple  the  idols 
were  removed  by  their  worshipers,  and  the  building  given  for  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel.^ 

That  these  general  statements  may  be  appreciated,  look  at  a  few  facts  as 
reported  by  our  missionaries.  In  Honan  men  were  living  on  a  cake  made  of 
the  sorghum  plant,  seeds,  stalk,  root  and  all  ground  together,  enclosing  a  ball 
of  stewed  willow  leaves.^  Children  a  year  old  ate  ground  cotton-seed  cake,  an 
article  generally  used  as  top-dressing  for  land.  Old  men  chewed  the  chaff  of 
hayseed,  ground  with  dried  willow  leaves  to  give  it  a  relish.  Elm  bark  was 
ground  with  broom  seed  and  chaff  meal  to  make  it  tenacious  enough  to  cook. 
Some  houses  were  torn  clown,  that  the  timbers  might  be  sold  for  bread,  and 
others  were  filled  with  the  starving  and  dying,  while  the  road  sides  were 
,  strewed  with  the  unburied  dead."  Let  that  suffice  for  a  glimpse  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people  of  three  provinces — Honan,  Shansi,  and  Shensi  —  esti- 
mated at  not  far  from  fifty  millions. 

As  it  will  both  exhibit  the  nature  of  the  suffering  in  another  field  and  the 
character  of  the  relief  afforded  by  our  missionaries,  let  us  look  in  on  Mrs. 
Sarah  B.  Capron  in  her  work  at  Madura.  A  woman  of  the  weaver  caste  had  a 
husband  and  seven  children.  When  Mrs.  Capron  first  saw  her,  four  of  the 
children  had  died  of  starvation  •  everything  in  the  house  had  gone ;  and  at 
length  the  house  itself  had  been  sold,  and  they  were  living  in  a  shed  belonging 
to  a  relative.  One  morning  she  brought  a  little  girl  five  years  old,  laid  her  on 
the  floor,  and  sat  down  as  one  would  sit  beside  the  dead,  speechless.  The 
child,  fearfully  bloated,  did  not  even  open  its  eyes.  Says  Mrs.  Capron  :  "  I 
laid  my  hand  on  her  head  and  said,  '  Now  tell  me  all  about  it.'  She  did  not 
look  up,  but  said  :  'One  child  died  last  night.  They  carried  it  away.  We  had 
no  money.  I  had  heard  of  you.  I  thought,  "  She  won't  know  me,  and  will  not 
help  me,"  but  I  have  come.'  '  Has  the  child  no  father  ? '  '  He  is  nearly  as 
sick  as  this  child.  He  said :  "  Tell  the  lady  that  I  am  sure  if  I  could  only  get 
food  I  would  get  well." '  The  mother  was  emaciated  to  the  last  degree,  with 
scarce  a  shred  of  clothing  left,  though  her  manner  showed  she  belonged  to  the 
better  class.  I  told  her  frankly  that  her  child  could  not  live,  gave  her  cloth- 
ing, rice,  and  money,  and  promised  her  that  as  long  as  I  had  anything  she 
should  share  it. 

'■  Next  morning  she  brought  another  child;  not  a  tear  in  her  eye.  I  dared 
not  ask  a  question.  She  laid  down  a  girl  eight  years  old,  and  said  :  '  She  died 
this  morning,  as  you  said,  and  they  carried  her  away  without  a  funeral,  and 
she  so  fair.  Why  do  we  suft'er  so  ? '  '  Why  did  you  not  tell  me  of  this  one 
yesterday  ? '  'I  could  not  bring  two,  and  I  thought  there  was  more  chance  for 
the  other ;  there  is  none  for  this  one.      I  only  bring  her  to  show  you  that  I  tell 

1  Missionary  Herald,  1879,  pp.  138-141.  3  Dq.,  1878,  p.  Si.  ^  £)q^  ,878,  p.  266. 


476  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

the  truth.'  '  Have  you  any  more  left  ? '  '  My  husband  and  a  boy  thirteeni 
years  old.' 

"  I  determined  if  care,  food,  and  medicine  could  save  them  it  should  be 
done,  and  yet  even  now  I  had  ten  others  from  the  same  caste,  each  with  three 
or  four  children,  and  her  own  special  tale  of  woe.  Next  morning  she  came 
again,  and,  poising  her  arms  as  if  carrying  a  child,  said :  '  My  arms  are  empty 
now.  She  died  this  morning.  At  midnight  she  called,  "  Mother,"  and  I  said 
"  My  child  ; "  but  it  was  dreadful  to  have  no  oil  for  a  light  when  your  child  is 
dying.  If  we  had  known  about  you  before,  she  might  have  lived.  It  was  only 
food  we  needed.  I  hope  3'ou  will  forgive  me,  but  I  would  like  a  funeral  for 
her.'  '  What  would  you  like .? '  '  The  cloth  you  gave  will  do.  I  should  like  to 
buy  fuel  for  the  pyre  ;  nothing  more.'  It  required  thirty  cents.  I  gave  it,  and 
not  till  then  did  she  shed  a  tear.  Recovering  herself  a  little,  she  looked  up 
gratefully,  and  said  :  '  You  don't  know  how  I  wanted  this,  and  how  little  I 
expected  you  to  give  it  for  the  dead,  when  there  was  not  enough  for  the  living.' 

"  Today  she,  her  husband,  and  son  were  here.  He  owns  a  loom  and 
weaves  diligently  for  me,  I  furnishing  the  thread.  The  mother  has  needed 
constant  care,  but  is  doing  well.  The  son  has  had  a  long  fever,  and  is  still 
frail."  1 

This  is  only  one  leaf  out  of  a  long  chapter  of  which  no  friend  of  missions 
need  ever  feel  ashamed. 

Rev.  R.  M.  Cole,  of  Erzrum,  Turkey,  in  a  letter  dated  September  11,  1880, 
gives  a  sad  account  of  privation  along  the  headwaters  of  the  Eastern  Euphra- 
tes.^ Though  $4,230  had  been  distributed  in  eighty-nine  villages  among  nine 
thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety  persons,  yet  that  was  soon  consumed,  and 
of  the  crops  sometimes  a  quarter  was  stolen  before  it  was  ripe  enough  to  reap, 
little  children  at  night  devouring  the  raw  grain  like  cattle,  in  spite  of  the  guards 
that  were  set  to  watch  it.  It  speaks  volumes  for  our  missionaries  that  Mr. 
Cole  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Ottoman  commission,  made  the  depositary 
of  its  funds,  and  even  the  governor-general  of  Erzrum  was  required  to  pay  over 
to  him  the  moneys  sent  by  Turks  from  other  parts  of  the  empire. 

It  was  a  striking  fact,  also,  that  of  the  twenty  thousand  who  died  during  the 
famine,  forty  of  the  robber  Kurds  died  to  one  Christian,  seventy-five  per  cent, 
of  their  flocks  having  perished.  Some  of  the  native  Christians  remonstrated 
against  feeding  men  so  ready  to  slay  the  followers  of  Christ ;  but  the  mission- 
aries held  firmly  to  the  principle  of  giving  to  all  alike  according  to  their  need.* 


IVAR. 

Though  no  Christian  nation  has  yet  reached  the  point  where  it  learns  war 
no  more,  heathen  tribes  are  more  frequently  at  war.  Slighter  provocations 
bring  it  about.  It  is  prosecuted  with  more  ferocity,  and  without  those  ameni- 
ties that  mitigate  its  horrors  in  Christian  lands.  In  this  respect  missionaries 
occupy  a  position  that,  gives  them  unusual  opportunities  for  doing  good. 
Sometimes  they  are  able  to  prevent  a  conflict,  and  even  when  they  cannot  do 

'^  Life  and  Light,  1S7S,  pp.  199-201.  ^Murad  Chai.  ^  Missiotiary  Herald,  1880,  pp.  502-504. 


PHILANTHROPY.  477 

that,  they  may  succeed  in  divesting  it  of  some  of  its  savageness,  or  diminish 
the  number  of  its  victims. 

Instances  of  this  kind  have  occurred  within  the  personal  observation  of  the 
writer.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  when  Badir  Khan  Bey  led  his  Kurds 
against  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  he  promised  Dr.  Grant  that  Tiary  would  be 
spared  for  his  sake,  and  though  Mar  Shimon  did  not  put  much  faith  in  the 
promise,  yet  it  was  kept  to  the  letter.  While  other  districts  were  laid  waste, 
that  was  passed  by  ;  and  not  till  the  men  of  Tiary  made  an  unadvised  and 
foolhardy  attack  on  the  Kurdish  garrison,  was  the  valley  of  Ashitha  laid 
waste. 

In  the  following  spring,  when  the  Druses  attacked  the  Maronites  of  Abeih, 
Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson,  at  no  little  personal  risk,  effected  a  cessation  of  hostilities 
between  the  Maronites  in  the  strong  castle  of  one  of  their  leaders,  and  the 
Druses,  who  would  soon  have  starved  them  out  or  stormed  their  stronghold. 
Nor  did  he  cease  his  good  offices  till  he  saw  them  safe  on  their  way  to  Beirut 
under  the  protection  of  the  British  consul-general. 

It  was  a  curious  illustration  of  the  power  of  missionaries  for  good,  that  in  a 
later  war  between  the  same  parties  in  the  same  locality,  the  house  of  Dr, 
Calhoun  was  filled  for  six  months  with  the  silver  ornaments  and  other  precious 
things  of  the  Maronites,  left  there  without  either  receipt  or  written  pledge  of 
any  sort,  to  save  them  from  the  Druses  ;  and  no  sooner  did  the  appearance  of 
French  ships  of  war  in  the  harbor  of  Beirut  embolden  their  owners  to  take 
them  away,  than  the  Druse  women  hastened  to  place  their  valuables  in  the 
same  place  of  safety,  fearing  the  retribution  which  might  follow.  They  who 
thus  equally  command  the  confidence  of  opposite  parties  in  a  civil  war,  cannot 
but  greatly  alleviate  its  horrors,  and  be  sources  of  great  temporal  blessings  to 
all  around  them. 

A  Zulu  chief  came  one  morning  to  the  house  of  Rev.  N.  Adams,  M.D.,  very 
much  excited  by  the  aggressions  of  white  men,  and  breathing  out  rebellion 
against  the  government.  The  good  doctor  called  him  in  and  listened  patiently 
to  his  grievances,  then  calmly  advised  him  to  seek  redress  in  a  better  way. 
The  chief  thanked  him,  and  went  away  in  a  very  different  spirit  from  that  in. 
which  he  came.  The  colonists  at  Natal  did  not  know  how  much  they  were 
indebted  to  Dr.  Adams  for  their  safety ;  but  Sir  Theophilus  Shcnstone,  long 
secretary  for  native  affairs  in  the  colony,  knew  of  so  many  such  incidents,  that 
he  once  said,  in  the  hearing  of  Rev.  J.  Tyler,  that  he  attributed  the  unbroken, 
peace  which  had  continued  there  for  nearly  thirty  years,  in  a  great  measure  to 
the  influence  of  the  missionaries.  "  I  think  more  of  missionaries  than  of 
soldiers  to  keep  savages  quiet,"  said  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland,  governor  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1844,  when  he  told  Rev.  A.  Grout  to  go  back  to  the 
work  from  which  the  Board  had  recalled  him  on  account  of  the  then  existing 
war.  He  did  go  back,  and  was  supported  for  a  time  by  the  government,  who 
knew  that  that  was  the  cheapest  way  to  keep  the  Zulus  quiet. ^ 

Even  at  this  moment  of  writing,  the  evening  paper"  contains  the  following 
telegram  from  Teheran,  Persia :  "The   fugitives  from   Oroomiah  report  that 

'  Rev.  J.  Tyler,  in  New  York  Observer,  July  15,  1880.  2  November  i,  1S80. 


478  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

Sheikh  Abdullah  —  the  chief  of  the  invading  Kurds  —  sent  notice  to  the  Amer- 
ican missionaries  in  that  town,  requesting  them  to  raise  the  American  flag 
above  their  premises,  that  they  may  be  respected  when  the  city  is  assaulted  by 
the  Kurds." 

[The  author  had  just  finished  correcting  the  proof-sheets  of  this  chapter, 
when,  on  leaving  the  office,  he  met  Rev.  Mr.  Tyler  on  the  stairs,  and  naturally 
thanked  him  for  the  fact  mentioned  above.  Mr.  Tyler  replied,  "  That  is  only 
one  fact  among  many.  When  I  was  leaving  South  Africa,  Mr.  Williams,  a 
magistrate  in  Natal,  wrote  me  a  letter  of  thanks  for  the  good  order  maintained 
among  the  natives  in  my  field  during  the  twenty-two  years  of  my  stay  among 
them;  'for  nothing,'  said  he,  'but  missionary  influence  could  produce  such 
results.'"] 


A  brief  notice  of  suttee  in  India  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  a  volume  whose 
object  is  to  recommend  missions  on  the  ground  of  their  secular  benefits. 

A  suttee  is  the  burning  of  the  living  widow  on  the  funeral  pile  of  her  dead 
husband.  The  Rig  Veda  says :  "  O  fire,  let  women  with  bodies  anointed, 
eyes  covered  with  collyrium,  and  free  from  tears,  enter  thee,  that  they  may  be 
united  with  excellent  husbands,  be  sinless,  and  jewels  among  women."  Other 
sacred  books  say:  "The  woman  who  ascends  the  funeral  pile  of  her  husband 
will  spend  as  many  years  with  him  in  heaven  as  there  are  hairs  on  the  human 
body.  She  purifies  the  family  of  her  father,  her  mother,  and  her  husband. 
There  is  no  virtue  greater  than  this.  As  long  as  a  woman  declines  burning 
herself,  like  a  faithful  wife,  in  the  same  fire  with  her  deceased  lord,  so  long 
shall  she  be  born  again  in  the  body  of  some  female  animal  ;  but  every  woman 
who  does  this,  shall  remain  in  Paradise  with  her  husband  thirty-five  millions 
of  years.  If  the  husband  die  at  a  distance,  let  her  take  his  slippers,  and  bind- 
ing them  on  her  breast,  enter  a  separate  fire."  The  practice,  then,  is  of  very 
earlv  origin,  for  the  Vedas  were  written  at  least  1300  B.  C,  and  eight  of  the 
widows  of  Krishna,  one  of  their  favorite  demigods,  are  said  to  have  burned 
themselves  on  his  funeral  pile.  The  inexpressibly  forlorn  and  despised  condi- 
tion of  widows  in  India  may  have  had  more  power  to  reconcile  women  to  this 
horrible  fate,  than  all  these  promises  of  their  sacred  books.  No  Hindoo  gov- 
ernment has  ever  been  known  to  hinder  the  suttee.  Indeed,  it  prevailed  most 
among  kings,  Brahmans,  and  the  upper  classes.  The  Mohammedan  Emperor 
Akbar  forbade  it  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Dr.  Carey  was  the  first  to  search  out 
the  extent  of  the  practice  in  Bengal,  and  he  found  that  four  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  widows  were  burned  alive  within  thirty  miles  of  Calcutta  in  1803.  In 
:i8i8  the  number  officially  reported  in  Bengal  was  eight  hundred  and  thirty- 
mine,  and  during  twelve  years  ^  seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  in 
Bengal  only.  There  is  no  way  of  ascertaining  the  number  in  the  whole  coun- 
try.    They  have  been  estimated  at  three  thousand  annually. 

In  1 8 13  the  East  India  Company  interfered  so  far  as  to  learn  whether  the 
act  of  the  widow  was  perfectly  voluntary.     This,  while  it  did  not  much  diminish 

1 1S15-1826. 


PHILANTHROPY.  479 

the  number,  threw  the  shield  of  the  government  over  the  sacrifice.  In  1829,  Lord 
William  Bentinck  enacted  in  Bengal  that  any  participating  in  the  act  should 
be  punishable  for  murder,  and  from  that  time  the  abolition  of  the  suttee  was 
inserted  as  an  article  in  treaties  with  native  tribes.  Thus  the  practice  which 
had  existed  for  three  thousand  years  virtually  ceased.  It  was  one  of  the  worst 
features  of  this  cruelty  that  girls  who  had  not  yet  become  old  enough  to  live 
with  their  husbands  —  they  are  often  married  at  seven  years  of  age  —  furnished 
victims  for  the  suttee.  Polygamy  also  increased  the  number.  Instances  are 
on  record  where  as  many  as  twenty-five  perished  on  one  funeral  pile.^ 

Now,  while  we  are  thankful  that  the  providence  of  God  sent  a  government 
to  India  which,  even  at  so  late  an  hour,  put  an  end  to  these  holocausts,  the 
question  arises,  would  it  have  been  done  even  then,  but  for  the  efforts  of  mis- 
sionaries, who  took  the  lead  in  bringing  the  horrid  facts  to  public  notice,  and 
preached  against  them  in  the  vernacular,  while  they  protested  in  vigorous  Eng- 
lish against  the  sanction  given  to  them  by  a  Christian  government  ? 

But  while  the  slower  and  more  thorough  process  of  diffusing  the  Gospel  was 
in  this  case  anticipated  by  the  strong  hand  of  power,  it  may  well  be  questioned 
whether,  should  the  Gospel  be  removed,  the  return  of  these  horrors  could  be 
prevented  even  now  in  India.  Fifty  years  ago  a  society  was  formed  of  influen- 
tial native  gentlemen  in  Calcutta,  to  defend  this  practice,  and  they  established 
a  periodical  for  that  purpose;  but  through  the  growing  power  of  the  Gospel 
there,  both  the  society  and  its  paper  have  disappeared  ;  and  it  is  only  that 
same  Gospel  that  renders  the  re-establishment  of  such  a  society  impossible  in 
that  city  today. 

CASTE. 

The  matter  of  caste,  however,  brings  out  the  beneficent  operations  of  mis- 
sions more  clearly.  Caste  is  a  Portuguese  term,  used  to  denote  distinctions  in 
Hindoo  society,  which  they  designate  by  the  terms  varna,"  gati,  or  jathi,  and 
other  words.  In  Colchis  and  Iberia  the  people  were  divided  into  four  classes, 
whose  rank  and  office  were  unchangeable.  Jemshid  made  the  same  division  of 
the  people  in  Persia;  but  these  distinctions  made  by  law  could  be  also  uomade 
by  the  same  power.  ■  In  India  the  division  of  the  people  into  castes  is  regarded 
as  the  work  of  the  Creator,  and,  therefore,  unalterable.  An  orthodox  Hindoo 
no  more  regards  different  castes  as  belonging  to  the  same  race  than  he  regards 
cows  and  horses  as  the  same  species.  It  seems  to  have  been  an  institution 
ordained  by  the  Brahmans  for  their  own  aggrandizement;  only  they  did  not 
venture  so  far  in  the  Vedas  (1300  B.  C.)  as  they  did  afterwards  in  the  Institutes 
of  Menu  (900  B.  C.)  These  teach  that  Brahma  produced  the  Brahmans  from 
his  mouth,  the  Kshatryas '"'  from  his  arms  or  shoulders,  the  Vaishnas^  from 
his  thighs,  and  the  Soodras  ^  from  his  feet. 

Brahmans  were  to  be  honored  more  than  kings.  The  most  exalted  Indian 
sovereign,  if  not  a  Brahman,  could  not  eat  with  them.  "  Whatever  crime  a 
Brahman  might  commit,  his  person  and  property  were  not  to  be  injured;  but 

1 D.  O.  Allen's  India,  pp.  416-419.  "  Color.  ^  Soldiers.  *  Merchants  and  farmers. 

^  Lowest  caste. 


480  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

whoever  struck  one  of  them,  even  with  a  blade  of  grass,  would  become  an 
inferior  quadruped  for  twenty-one  transmigrations."  The  Kshatryas  and 
Vaishnas  are  now  regarded  as  extinct,  and  instead  of  them  have  risen  almost 
as  many  different  castes  as  there  are  occupations.  The  divisions  of  caste  vary 
in  different  parts  of  India;  generally  men  of  the  same  trade  belong  to  the  same 
caste.  A  volume  on  caste,  published  in  Bombay  in  1S27,  described  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  castes  in  that  Presidency. 

There  is  much  difference  in  the  personal  appearance  of  different  castes, 
though  often  the  dress  is  requisite  to  form  a  correct  opinion  of  the  caste  of  an 
individual.  The  higher  castes  are  generally  lighter  in  complexion,  but  some 
Brahmans  are  very  dark,  and  some  Mangs  light.  The  Soodras  were  regarded 
as  so  inferior  that  whoever  among  them  committed  to  memory  any  part  of  the 
sacred  books  was  to  be  put  to  death.  If  he  read  them  to  one  of  a  higher 
caste,  boiling  oil  was  to  be  poured  into  kis  mouth,  or  into  his  ears  if  he  even 
listened  to  them,  and  their  punishments  for  ordinary  crimes  were  more  severe 
than  those  appointed  to  others.  The  Brahman  may  seize  the  goods  of  a 
Soodra,  and  whatever  he  acquires  by  labor  or  inheritance  beyond  a  certain 
amount.  As  a  high  caste  is  not  obtained  by  virtue,  so,  in  practice  at  least,  it  is 
not  lost  by  vice.  The  Brahman  murderer  or  adulterer  is  no  whit  less  a  Brah- 
man, nor  abates  one  jot  of  his  demand  for  reverence. 

It  is  needless  to  add  that  the  practical  operation  of  caste  does  not  promote 
human  well-being.  When  a  bricklayer  had  fallen  from  a  great  height  and  was 
seriously  injured,  his  fellow-workmen  refused  to  bring  him  water  because  they 
were  not  of  the  same  caste  ;  and  a  sepoy  of  high  caste  blew  out  his  brains 
because  he  had  lost  caste  through  some  water  thrown  on  him  by  a  servant  in 
the  hospital,  to  recover  him  from  a  fainting  fit.  When  a  fire  in  Madras  threat- 
ened a  general  conflagration,  the  Brahmans  forbade  the  use  of  the  neighboring 
wells,  lest  the  approach  of  some  one  of  lower  caste  should  pollute  them ; 
and  Christians  have  been  forbidden  to  use  water  from  the  public  tank  for  the 
same  reason. 

The  loss  of  caste  involves,  according  to  Hindoo  law,  the  loss  of  all  social 
and  civil  rights.  Family  ties  are  sundered ;  property  goes  to  one's  heirs  ;  the 
person  is  treated  as  already  dead,  and  even  special  funeral  rites  are  performed ; 
nor  could  one  obtain  redress  from  friends  or  government,  so  long  as  the  pro- 
ceedings were  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  caste.  Naraput  Singh  lived  in 
Bengal  like  a  nabob ;  but  the  moment  he  was  baptized,  his  relatives  seized  on 
his  property  of  $40,000,  and  he  supported  his  family  by  labor,  for  which  he 
received  five  dollars  per  month.  And  this  is  only  one  case  out  of  many  in  con- 
nection with  every  mission  in  India. 

A  writer  in  the  Encydopcedia  Britannica '  says  :  "  Protestant  missionaries  are 
unable  to  offer  in  the  British  society  of  India  a  sympathizing  and  protecting 
caste  in  place  of  that  which  it  costs  the  convert  so  much  to  leave."  It  may 
not  be  uncharitable  to  infer  that  the  writer  would  not  afford  them  much  sympa- 
thy, for  we  infer  that  the  man  who  could  state  that  "  at  the  present  day  the 
progress  of  Protestant  missions  amounts  almost  to  nothing,"  and  in  the  next 

>  Sub  voce,  caste. 


PHILANTHROPY.  481 

sentence  state  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Mullens,  that  missionary  labor  "had 
produced  a  native  Christian  community  of  o?ily  two  hundred  and  eighty  thou- 
sand  six  hundred,"  has  not  much  sympathy  for  either  Protestant  missionaries; 
or  their  converts.  That  word  "only  "in  such  a  connection  shows  the  animus 
of  the  writer,  and  we  are  not  surprised  at  his  quasi  endorsement  of  the  Abbe 
Dubois,  who  considered  the  institution  of  caste  the  happiest  effort  of  Hindoo 
legislation,  and  that  India  was  indebted  to  it  for  her  deliverance  from  the  bar- 
barism that  once  filled  almost  the  whole  of  Europe. 

When  caste  is  lost  it  can  be  recovered  only  at  a  great  cost.  A  Brahman 
who  had  fiesh  and  brandy  forced  into  his  mouth,  after  three  years  spent  $40,000 
in  a  vain  attempt  to  be  restored,  and  it  was  only  an  expenditure  of  $100,000 
that  at  last  secured  success.  Even  then,  sundry  ceremonial  ablutions  and  dis- 
gusting penances,  such  as  drinking  a  mixture  of  the  five  products  of  the  cow, 
were  necessary  to  restoration.  Others,  whom  Tippoo  Sahib  forced  to  eat  beef, 
in  his  efforts  to  compel  them  to  become  Mohammedans,  after  his  overthrow 
found  that  nothing  could  atone  for  the  horrible  guilt  of  eating  the  flesh  of  the 
sacred  cow. 

Such  things  show  how  deep-rooted  was  the  institution  of  caste  in  India.  So 
inexorable  w-ere  its  demands  that  Gregory  XV  sanctioned  the  practice  of  its 
rules  in  the  papal  churches  of  India.  Even  the  celebrated  missionary,  C.  F. 
Schwartz,  tolerated  it  in  the  churches  he  established,  and  Bishop  Heber  did 
the  same  ;  but  it  is  thoroughly  discountenanced  by  all  the  missions  under  the 
care  of  the  American  Board.  Both  in  India  and  Ceylon  they  always  required 
a  renunciation  of  caste  just  as  much  as  of  idolatry,  in  order  to  baptism.  No 
changes  were  ever  made  in  the  seats  or  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  All  sat  on  the  same  mats  and  drank  from  the  same  cup.  Caste  has 
not  been  recognized  in  any  way;  and  when  this  was  found  not  sufficient  —  for 
native  Christians  would  do  all  this,  and  still,  in  social  life  prefer  to  go  without 
food  rather  than  eat  it  when  cooked  by  a  person  of  inferior  caste  —  then  they 
instituted  social  feasts,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Agapae,  so  as  thoroughly 
to  destroy  all  caste  distinction.  At  first  they  found  difficulty ;  but  soon  those 
who  had  left,  returned,  heartily  willing  to  renounce  their  prejudices  and  recog- 
nize the  common  humanity  of  all. 

The  rules  of  the  Arcot  mission  say  :  ^  "  Whereas  caste  is  an  essential  part  of 
heathenism,  and  its  existence  in  the  church  saps  the  foundation  of  Christian 
unity ;  and  whereas  drinking  from  the  same  sacramental  cup  does  not  afford 
sufficient  evidence  of  its  renunciation ;  and  whereas  our  Agapae,  though  break- 
ing down  some  of  its  barriers,  do  not  always  furnish  sufficient  proof  of  its 
abandonment ;  therefore, 

"  Resolved  (i).  That  we  adopt  as  a  fundamental  law  of  this  mission,  that  the 
entire  renunciation  of  caste  be  as  indispensable  to  church  membership  as  the 
abandonment  of  idolatry. 

"(2)  That  unrestricted  social  intercourse  among  Christians,  evinced  by 
friendly  visits,  and  by  eating  and  drinking  in  each  other's  houses,  is  the  only 
satisfactory    proof    of   its  relinquishment;   and  that  any  one   who   does   not 

1  Abridged. 


482  THE    ELY   VOLUME, 

cheerfully  conform  to  this  cannot  become  or  continue  a  member  of  any  of  our 
churches." 

Such  strenuous  opposition  to  it  in  the  churches  shows  the  vitality  of  the  evil 
encountered,  as  well  as  the  uncompromising  spirit  in  which  it  is  met ;  and  with 
this  leaven  leavening  the  churches  of  India,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  their 
enlargement  proportioned  to  their  faithfulness. 

Other  missions  of  the  Board  in  India  took  similar  ground.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  transcribe  them  all.  Let  this  stand  as  an  expression  of  the  spirit  of 
them  all. 

Other  influences  go  to  undermine  the  structure  of  caste  in  society.  Not 
the  least  of  them  is  the  acknowledged  excellence  of  Christian  character  in 
native  converts,  and  the  influence  of  a  more  pronounced  favor  shown  to  Chris- 
tian institutions  by  the  government  of  India.  The  railroads  now  in  operation 
there,  the  close  contact  they  involve  between  different  castes,  and  the  general 
advance  of  intelligence,  all  cooperate  to  the  same  end. 

It  gives  a  hint  of  the  difficulty  of  the  work,  however,  that  not  till  1836  did 
the  same  Sir  William  Bentinck,  who  dealt  the  death-blow  to  suttee  in  1829, 
venture  to  enact —  not  the  abolition  of  caste — but  "that  the  laws  of  Hindoos, 
Moslems,  or  other  religions,  shall  not  deprive  any  one  of  property  to  which  but 
for  the  operation  of  such  laws  they  would  be  entitled,"  The  name  of  caste 
was  not  even  mentioned,  though  it  was  at  that  the  blow  was  aimed.  In  1850 
the  Marquis  of  Dalhousie  enacted  that  any  law  affecting  the  right  of  inheritance 
through  excommunication,  or  being  deprived  of  caste,  shall  cease  to  be  enforced 
in  the  courts  of  the  East  India  Company.  This  stirred  up  great  commotion ; 
and  a  memorial  was  even  sent  against  it  to  the  Houses  of  Parliament  in  England ; 
but  though  introduced  by  Lord  Monteagle  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  advo- 
cated by  Lord  EUenborough,  it  failed  of  success,  and  caste,  in  the  good  provi- 
dence of  God,  bids  fair  to  be  removed  from  among  the  hindrances  to  the 
regeneration  of  India  ;  while  not  the  smallest  of  the  influences  at  work  for  its 
removal,  is  the  oneness  of  all  who  are  in  Christ,  and  the  brotherhood  of  man  as 
set  forth  in  that  unity  of  Christians,  and  in  the  preaching  of  that  divine  redemp- 
tion made  alike  for  all.^ 

POLYGAMY. 

Polygamy  is  both  an  effect  and  a  cause  of  the  degradation  of  woman.  It  is 
an  effect,  because  no  one  could  even  think  of  such  a  thing  till  lust  or  laziness 
had  destroyed  true  regard  for  woman.  Either  the  mind  must  be  blinded  to  her 
interest,  or  the  heart  hardened  against  it,  before  such  a  wrong  could  be  inflicted. 
It  is  a  cause,  because  it  perpetuates  the  wrong,  nor  perpetuates  it  only,  but 
ever  digs  deeper  the  pit  of  shame  and  suffering  for  its  unhappy  victims.  We 
never  find  polygamy  apart  from  wretchedness  in  the  sex  which  ought  to  be  the 
object  of  tenderest  love.  It  is  not  only  that  another  comes  to  steal  away  the 
love  that  of  right  was  hers  ;  that  she  is  left  to  show  kindness  and  wait  in  vain  for 
a  return  of  kindness  ;  or  that  a  rival  supplants  her  in  the  possession  of  that 
which  is  dearest  to  woman ;  but  love  itself  is  degraded  into  lust,  and  the  home 

■  D.  O.  Allen's  India,  p.  473. 


PHILANTHROPY.  483 

which  ought  to  be  the  sunniest  spot  on  earth,  becomes  the  center  of  all  that  is 
hateful  and  foul,  provoking  and  exasperating.  There  are  no  places  in  this 
fallen  world  so  full  of  cursing,  bitterness,  and  all  uncleanness,  as  polygamous 
homes.  Those  who  have  never  seen  them  know  nothing  of  the  misery  their 
walls  enclose. 

But  the  most  important  question  is  :  How  shall  it  be  removed  ?  Has  a 
nation  of  polygamists  ever  voluntarily  renounced  polygamy  ?  They  may  have 
found  it  a  cup  of  bitterness ;  but  did  they  ever  throw  it  away  of  their  own 
motion  aside  from  the  influence  of  the  Gospel  ?  Even  the  Jewish  church  did 
not  do  this,  as  Justin  Martyr  testifies  to  Jewish  polygamy  in  his  day. 

It  is  difficult  even  for  a  Christian  government  to  pass  enactments  against 
the  polygamy  of  a  conquered  province;  not  only  because  of  the  amount  of 
opposition  to  be  encountered,  but  because  of  the  amount  of  suffering  involved 
to  those  already  sustaining  that  relation.  Neither  in  India  nor  South  Africa 
has  England  ventured  to  break  this  yoke  from  off  the  neck  of  woman.  In  the 
former  country  a  legal  divorce  from  a  polygamous  marriage  cannot  be  obtained  ; 
and  in  the  latter  we  have  seen  how  British  law  forbade  the  missionary  to  shel- 
ter the  hunted  victim  of  an  infamous  polygamy.^ 

If,  then,  there  is  no  hope  of  the  removal  of  this  evil  by  the  people,  and  gov- 
ernment feels  constrained  to  pursue  such  a  course,  whence  shall  deliverance 
come,  if  not  through  them  who  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature .''  And  if  it 
comes  in  connection  with  them  it  is  not  from  them,  but  only  through  them  as 
channels  of  the  grace  of  Christ.  It  is  not  personal  opinions  set  up  by 
them  ;  but  it  is  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,  brought  in  contact  with  families,  that 
lifts  them  out  of  the  horrible  pit,  and  puts  a  new  song  into  their  mouth.  How 
then  has  it  been  in  our  missions  in  countries  where  polygamy  exists  .'' 

The  Arcot  mission  in  India  says,  tersely  :  "  Polygamy  has  not  existed  and 
will  not  be  allowed  to  exist  in  any  of  our  churches." 

The  Madura  mission  never  received  to  the  church  any  one  living  with  more 
than  one  wife;  and  laid  down  the  principle  "  that  as  polygamy  is  contrary  to 
the  original  design  of  God  in  the  marriage  relation,  and  opposed  to  all  the 
teachings  of  Christ ;  and  as  there  is  no  evidence  that  apostles  ever  received 
polygamists  into  the  churches,  no  polygamist  should  be  received  till  he  enters 
into  solemn  covenant  that  he  will  henceforth  be  the  husband  of  only  one  wife." 
They  add :  "  Although  the  government  of  the  country  recognizes  polygamy  as 
legal,  and  in  some  cases  there  may  be  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  legal  divorce, 
yet  no  practical  difficulty  will  arise  from  requiring  a  convert  to  live  apart  from 
all  excepting  one  wife,  while  he  supports  those  who  may  have  been  his  wives, 
and  their  children.  Even  in  an  extreme  case  it  would  be  better  for  one  to  be 
kept  out  of  the  church  than  that  it  should  be  tainted  with  this  great  evil." 

The  Marathi  mission  reports  :  The  difficulty  of  this  subject  arises  from  the 
Hindoo  law,  which  makes  the  marriage  of  the  second  wife  while  the  first  is  liv- 
ing as  legal  as  the  original  marriage.  This  law  being  recognized  as  valid  by 
the  English  government,  it  is  impossible  for  a  polygamist  in  certain  cases  to 
obtain  a  legal  divorce.     When  it  can  be  obtained,  it  should  always  be  required 

1  See  p.  203. 


484  THE    ELY    VOLUME. 

before  admission  to  the  churcli;  and  even  when  it  cannot,  it  is  not  expedient 
to  adnfiit  any  to  the  church  without  a  written  pledge  that  they  will  no  longer 
cohabit  with  more  than  one  wife,  and  will,  if  needful,  support  those  put  away 
so  long  as  they  lead  virtuous  lives.  Then  they  will  be  free  from  the  guilt  of 
polygamy,  and  proper  candidates  for  admission  to  the  church. 

No  polygamist  has  been  received  by  any  other  mission  in  India,  nor  is 
there  any  danger  that  they  ever  will  be.^ 

Among  the  Zulus  the  evil  prevails  in  its  lowest  and  most  revolting  forms. 
Bishop  Colenso  having  declared  his  purpose  not  to  interfere  with  the  married 
life  of  the  Zulus,  and  having  reflected  on  the  practice  of  American  and  other 
missionaries  to  the  contrary,  a  public  discussion  followed,  not  greatly  to  the 
advantage  of  the  bishop,  some  of  the  clergy  of  his  own  church  coming  out 
against  him.  A  number  of  pamphlets  were  published  during  the  debate,  and 
no  one  need  be  ashamed  of  the  part  taken  in  it  by  our  missionaries. 

These  things  show  whence  the  emancipation  of  woman  from  such  bondage 
really  comes.  Not  from  progress  in  polygamous  communities,  or  from  the  acts 
of  government,  but  from  the  living  Christ  in  his  living  Word,  ministered  by 
those  whom  he  sends  to  be  the  channels  of  his  heavenly  grace. 

^See  Dr.  Anderson's  Memorial  Volume,  p.  297;  and  conference  of  deputations  with  the  missions. 


APPENDIX   I. 
HOME  LITERATURE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  BOARD. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  ITS    MISSIONARIES    TO    THE  "JOURNAL    OF   THE   AMERICAN 

ORIENTAL  society:' 

Rev.  D.  O.  Allen,  Bombay.  State  and  Prospects  of  the  English  Language  in  India.  IV, 
263-275. 

Rev.  O.  P.  Allen,  Harpoot.  Letter  describing  ancient  ruins  north  of  Diarbekir.  IX,  xv 
at  end  of  volume. 

Rev.  W.  C.  Bryant,  Zulus.     The  Zulu  Language.     I,  385-396. 

Rev.  E.  Burgess,  Ahmednuggur.  Translation  of  the  Surya  Siddhanta;  a  text-book  of 
Hindoo  astronomy,  with  notes  and  appendix.  VI,  141-498.  357  pp.,  Svo.  The  Origin  of 
the  Lunar  Division  of  the  Zodiac  in  the  Nakshatra  System  of  the  Hindoos.  VIII,  309-334; 
also  Ixvii.  On  the  Chronology  of  Bunsen,  Ixxxiii;  on  Chinese  Chronology,  IX,  xviii ;  and 
on  Pre-Historic  Nations,  liv. 

Rev.  A.  Bushnell,  Gaboon  River.     V,  264;  VIII,  Ixiv  and  Ixxxii. 
^.     Rev.  S.  H.  Calhoun,  Mount  Lebanon.     On  the  Cedars.     IX,  x.     Baalbec.     Do.,  do. 

H.  A.  De  Forest,  M.D.,  Mount  Lebanon.  A  Tour  in  Mount  Lebanon  and  East  of  Lake 
Huleh.  II,  237-247.  Ruins  in  the  Bukaa.  Ill,  349-366.  Phenician  Inscription  referred 
to.     V,  229. 

Rev.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight,  D.D.,  Constantinople.  Catalogue  of  Armenian  works  previous  to 
the  seventeenth  century.  Ill,  243-2SS.  Orthography  of  Armenian  and  Turkish  Proper 
Names.  IV,  11S-121.  Translation  of  Firman  given  by  the  Sultan  Abd  ul  Mejeed  to  the 
Protestants.     443.     Armenian  Traditions  about  Ararat.     V,  190. 

Rev.  Lewis  Grout,  Zulus.  Zulu  and  Other  Dialects  of  South  Africa.  I,  399-433. 
Their  Phonology  and  Orthography.  111,423-468;  V,  263.  Their  Prepositions,  Conjunctions, 
and  other  particles.  VI,  129-140.  Ethnology  of  South  Africa.  VII,  Ivii.  On  the  Hottentot 
and  Zingian  Tongues.     VIII,  Ixvii. 

Rev.  Cyrus  Hamlin,  D.D.,  Constantinople.  On  the  Language  of  the  Gvpsies.  Translated 
from  the  Greek  of  Paspati.     VII,  143-270. 

Rev.  Henry  C.  Hoisington,  Ceylon.  Syllabus  of  the  Siva  Gnana  Potham,  a  sacred  book  of 
the  Hindoos.  II,  137-154.  Law  of  the  Tattavam.  A  synopsis  of  the  mystical  philosophy  of 
the  Hindoos.  Translated  from  the  Tamil.  IV,  1-30.  Siva  Gnana  Potham  —  Instruction  in 
the  knowledge  of  God.  Translated  from  the  Tamil,  with  introduction  and  notes.  31-102. 
Siva  Pirakasam,  Light  of  Sivan.     Translation  with  notes.     127-244. 

Mr.  P.  R.  Hunt,  of  Madras.     On  Native  Presses  in  India.     II,  340. 

Rev.  J.  Y.  Leonard,  Amasia.     Greek  Inscriptions  from  Ancient  Pontus.     IX,  xlvii. 

Rev.  Plenry  Lobdell,  M.D.,  Mosul.  Discoveries  at  Koyunjik.  IV,  472-4S0.  Two 
Assyrian  Cylinders.     V,  191.     Letters.     267-270. 

Rev.  W.  A.  Macy,  Canton.  Modes  of  Using  the  Telegraph  for  Chinese.  Ill,  197-207. 
On  S.  W.  Williams'  Chinese  Dictionary.     VI,  566-571. 

Rev.  D.  \V.  Marsh,  Mosul.     On  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh.     VII,  xlvii. 

Rev.  J.  Perkins,  D.D.,  Persia.     Tour  from  Oroomiah  to  Mosul  and  Nineveh.     II,  71-119. 

(485) 


486  APPENDIX, 

Life  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Translated  from  the  Syriac.  IV,  359-440.  Letter.  VL  574; 
and  VIII,  Hi.  Revelation  of  Paul.  Translated  from  the  Syriac.  VUI,  183-212.  Letter. 
IX,  Ivii. 

A.  T.  Pratt,  M.D.,  Marash.  Armeno-Turkish  Alphabet.  VIII,  374-376.  Locality  of  the 
legend  of  the  Seven  Sleepers,     liii.     Letter.     IX,  l.xxvi. 

Rev.  S.  A.  Rhea,  Persia.     Kurdish  Grammar  and  Vocabulary.     IX,  Ivii  and  li.x. 

Rev.  E.  Riggs,  D.D.     On  the  Inverted  Construction  of  Modern  Armenian.     VI,  565. 

Rev.  W.  G.  Schauftler,  D.D.,  Constantinople.  Shabbathai  Zevi  and  his  Followers.  II, 
1-26. 

Rev.  A.  Smith,  M.D.,  Aintab.     Geography  of  Central  Kurdistan.     II,  61-68, 

Rev.  E.  Smith,  D.D.,  Beirut.     Treatise  on  Arab  Music.     I,  17 1-2 17. 

Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard,  Persia.     Modern  Syriac  Grammar.     V,  i-iSo  h.     Letter.     V,  272. 

Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.  D.,  Beirut.     Sidon  Inscription.     V,  230-425.     Letter.     426. 

Rev.  W.  Trac}',  Pasumalie,  Madura.  Coins,  and  Ancient  Tombs  with  Contents.  IX, 
xliv-xlvi. 

Rev.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  M.D.,  Beirut.  Present  Condition  of  Medical  Profession  in  Syria. 
I,  559-591-     Referred  to,  V,  2^9, 

Rev,  H.  J.  Van  Lennep,  Smyrna.  The  Niobe  of  Mount  Sipylus.  IX,  xvi.  Archaeology 
of  Asia  Minor.     Ix. 

Rev.  E.  Webb,  Dindigul.  Tamil  poetry  and  music.  V,  271,  and  VII,  v.  Scythian  Affini- 
ties of  the  Dravidian  Languages.     VII,  271-298,  and  xliv. 

S.  Wells  Williams,  LL.D.  On  Japanese  Syllables.  II,  55-60.  On  Dealings  between 
China  and  the  Western  Powers.     VII,  vii.     Letter.     IX,  xxviii. 

Rev.  J.  Leighton  Wilson,  D.D.,  Western  Africa.  Comparative  Vocabularies  of  Negro 
Dialects  of  Africa.  I,  337-354-  Vocabularies  of  Negro  Dialects  of  Southern  Africa.  355- 
359  (and  nine  large  tables). 

Rev.  A.  H.  Wright,  M.D.,  Persia.     Letters.     V,  262  and  423. 


THEIR  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  THE  ''  BIBLIOTHECA   SACRA." 
Rev.  Lucien  H.  Adams,  Adana.     Letter  in  favor  of  Oorfa  as  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.     XXXII, 

375-377- 

Rev.  E.  Burgess,  D.D.,  Ahmednuggur.  Sacred  Traditions  in  the  East.  XV,  S44-S76. 
The  Chronology  of  Bunsen.     XXIV,  744-770. 

Rev.  Lemuel  Bissell,  Austria.  The  First  Book  of  Esdras.  XXXIV,  209-22S.  Eschatol- 
ogy  of  Old  Testament  Apocrypha.     XXXVI,  320-341. 

Rev,  S.  H.  Calhoun,  D.D.,  Mount  Lebanon.     The  Cedars.     XIV,  200-202. 

Henry  A.  De  Forest,  M.D.  Contributions  to  the  Climatology  of  Palestine.  I,  221-224. 
Inscriptions  at  Abila,  V,  86-89 ;  at  Apamea,  91 ;  at  El  Bara,  V,  675;  at  Salamiyeh,  VI,  388; 
at  ed  Deisuniyeh,  389 ;  at  Judeithah  and  Kasr  Wady,  390. 

Rev.  E.  M.  Dodd,  Turkey.     Notes  on  the  Geography  of  Macedonia.     XI,  S30-836. 

Rev.  Lewis  Grout,  South  Africa.     Notice  of  Zulu  Land.     XXIII,  176. 

Rev,  David  Green,  Secretary  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  Knowledge  and  Faith  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Saints  Respecting  the  Messiah.     XIV,  166-199.     The  Gift  of  Tongues.     XXII,  99-126, 

Rev.  Cyrus  Hamlin,  D.D.,  Constantinople.     The  Slavic  Races  and  Panslavism.     XXXIV, 

158-167- 

Rev.  H.  R.  Hoisington,  Ceylon.     India  as  a  Missionary  field.     IX,  237-258. 

Rev.  H.  A.  Homes,  Constantinople.     The  Produce  of  the  Vineyard  in  the  East.     V,  2S3- 

295- 

Rev.  George  F.  Herrick,  Marsovan.  Christianity  and  Islamism.  XXIII,  406-434. 
Prophecy  as  Related  to  the  Eastern  Question,  XXVII,  360-383.  The  Authority  of  Faith. 
XXVI,  268-290.  The  Power  of  Islam.  XXXII,  362-375.  A  Study  in  BiBlical  Biography. 
XXXVII,  209-220. 

Rev.  W.  W.  Howland,  Ceylon.     Caste  in  Ceylon.     XI,  470-4S9. 

G.  C.  Hurtcr.     Fountain  in  the  Rock  at  Sinai.     XXII,  154-156. 


APPENDIX. 


487 


Rev.  Jonas  King,  Athens.  Review  of  his  "  Exposition  of  an  Apostolical  Church."  VIII 
378-383- 

Rev.  Daniel  Ladd,  Smyrna.  Exposition  of  Hebrews  ix:8.  XIV,  46-61. 
^^^^Rev.  Thomas  Laurie,  Turkey.  Visit  to  Sheikh  Adi  and  Khorsabad.  V,  148-171.  Orien- 
tal Illustrations  of  Scripture.  VI,  396-401.  Assyrian  Inscriptions  and  the  Bible.  XIV,  147- 
165.  Translation  of  Meshakah  on  Skepticism,  with  notice  of  the  author.  XV,  693-726. 
Wine  at  the  Lord's  Supper.  XXVI,  163-1S3.  Mount  Lebanon.  541-571,  and  673-713. 
"Identification  of  Pisgah  "  reviewed.  XXXIII,  132-153.  Review  of  Dr.  H.  J.  Van  Lennep's 
"  Bible  Illustrations  from  Bible  Lands."     XXXVI,  534-560,  and  647-665. 

Rev.  Henry  Lobdell,  IM.D.,   Mosul.     Letter  on  Jonah's  Gourd,  XII,  396-39S.     Notes  on 
^  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon.     XIV,  229-257. 

Rev.  Benjamin  C.  Meigs,  Ceylon.     See  W.  W.  Howland.     XI,  470-4S9. 
^-^    Rev.   Justin  Perkins,   D.D.,    Persia.     Letter.      IX,  229-231.     Towns  near  Mosul.     642- 
644.     Amadia,  XXII,  150-154.     Elkoosh.    681-6S4. 

Rev.  Andrew  T.  Pratt,  M.D.,  Aintab.     Letter.     XIII,  665-666. 

Rev.  Daniel  Poor,  Ceylon.     See  W.  W.  Howland.     XI,  470-489. 

Rev.  Elias  Riggs,  D.D.,  LL.D.     Review  of  his  Chaldee  Manual.     XV,  692. 

Rev.  Benjamin  Schneider,  Turkey.     Tombs  in  Oorfa.     XIX,  849-S50. 

Rev.  David  C.  Scudder,  India.  Sketch  of  Hindoo  Philosophy.  XVIII,  535-595  and  673- 
724. 

Rev.  Eli  Smith,  D.D.,  Beirut.     Number  for  February,  1843,  contains  contributions  to  the 
^  Geography  of  Palestine,  from  Dr.  Smith  and  Dr.  Wolcott.     1-88.     Wines  of  Mount  Leba- 
non.    Ill,  3S5-389.      Turkish  Toleration.      390-397.      Lieutenant  Dale.     V,  770.      Natural 
Bridge  over  the  Litany.     VI,  372-374.     Kedesh  and  the  Huleh.    ZlA-Jll-     Book  of  Gene- 
sis.    IX,  430.     Journey  in  Palestine  with  Dr.  E.  Robinson.     X,  113-151. 

Rev.  Leander  Thompson,  Beirut.     Sects  in  Syria.     XIV,  525-537. 

Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.,  Beirut.  Sources  of  Jordan  and  vicinity.  HI,  184-207.  An- 
■^^tiquities  in  Northern  Syria.  IV,  403-409.  Do.  in  Safeeta,  Tortosa,  Ruad  Markub,  Jebilee, 
and  Latakia.  V,  243-262.  Suadea,  Seleucia,  Antioch,  Jebel  el  Aala,  Jebel  Simon,  Aleppo. 
447-4S0.  Urim,  Keftin,  Jebel  el  Aala,  Bshindelayeh,  Edlip,  Riha,  Jebel  Arbayeen,  El 
Bara,  Hamah,  Apamea,  Sheizar,  Kedes,  Riblah,  Hermel,  Mar  Marone,  etc.,  663-700.  From 
Beirut  to  Damascus.  760-764.  The  Awaj.  VI,  366-369.  Inscriptions.  3S6-391. 
Hasbeya  and  vicinity.  X,  13S-141.  Galilee.  XII,  822-833.  The  Natural  Basis  of  our 
.Spiritual  Language.      XXXI,    136-158;    and  XXXII,    19-35;    "^^^  XXXIII,  401-424;  and 

XXXIV,  139-157. 

Rev.  Ira  Tracy,  China.  Life,  Character,  Writings,  Doctrines,  and  Influence  of  Confucius. 
Ill,  284-300. 

Rev.  George  B.  Whiting,  Syria.     Antiquities  of  Jerusalem.     V,  94-97. 

S.  Wells  Williams,  LL.D.,  China.      Proper  Translation  of  the  words  God  and  Spirit. 

XXXV,  732-778. 

Rev.  J.  Leighton  Wilson,  D.D.,  Gaboon  River.  Languages  of  Western  Africa.  IV,  745- 
772.     Papal  Missions  in  Congo.     IX,  1 10-135. 

Rev.  Samuel  Wolcott,  D.D.,  Syria.  See  Eli  Smith.  February,  1843.  1-8S.  Maps  of 
Palestine.  II,  5S5-590.  Coast  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Mount  Lebanon.  HI,  39S-403.  Topog- 
raphy of  Jerusalem.     XXIII,  6S4-695  ;  and  XXIV,  116-140;  and  XXVII,  565-569. 

Rev.  S.  A.  Worcester,  Cherokees.  Comparison  of  Jeremiah  xxiii:5,  6,  with  xxxiii :  14- 
16.     XV,  12S-131. 


THEIR  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  THE    " NEJV  ENGLANDERV 

Rev.  W.  Aitchison,  China.     Review  of  the  Memoir  of.     XXV,  394-399. 

Rev.  D.  O.  Allen,  D.D.  Review  of  "India,  Ancient  and  Modern."  XV,  39-60.  Missions 
in  India.    XIX,  365-385. 

Rev.  R.  Anderson,  D.D.,  LL.D.  Review  of  "  Hawaiian  Islands  "  by  Rev.  W.  I.  Buding- 
ton.    XXIV,  365-388.     Review  of  "  History  of  Missions  to  the  Oriental  Churches,"  by  Prof. 


488  APPENDIX. 

A.  P.  Peabody.  XXXII,  243-26S.  Review  of  all  his  histories,  by  Pres.  S.  C.  Bartlett. 
XXXVI,  132-151. 

S.  G.  W.  Benjamin,  son  of  Rev.  N.  Benjamin,  of  Constantinople.  Portuguese  in  India. 
XXIV,  461-480.     Review  of  "  Turk  and  Greek."     XXVII,  406  and  407. 

Rev.  E.  M.  Bliss,  Constantinople.     The  Eastern  Church.     XXXVI,  568-596. 

Rev.  William  Clark,  Turkey.  Armenian  History.  XXII,  507-529,  and  672-691.  Kurd- 
ish Tribes  of  Western  Asia.     XXIII,  28-49. 

Rev.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight,  Constantinople.     Review  of  "  Christianitv  Revived  in  the  East." 

IX,  153- 

Asahel  Grant,  M.D.,  Nestorians.     Review  of  "Memoir  of,  by  Rev.  A.  C.   Lathrop."     V, 

335.     Review  of  "  Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,"  by  Rev.  J.  L.  Diman.     XI,  440- 

456. 

Rev.  Lewis  Grout,  South  Africa.     Review  of  Debate  on  Polygamy  with  Bishop  Colenso. 
XVI,  407-433.     Review  of  "Zulu  Land."     XXIV,  409-411. 
^   Rev.  T.  Laurie.     The  Wines  of  the  Bible.     XXXIX,  366-378. 

Rev.  H.  Lobdell,  M.D.,  Mosul.     Review  of  Memoir  of.     XVIII,  237-239. 
^    Rev.  J.  Perkins,  Oroomiah.     Review  of  "Eight  Years  in  Persia."     I,  285-292.     Review  of 
"  Persian  Flower."     XII,  169. 

Rev.  Benjamin  Schneider,  Turkey.  Review  of  the  Memoir  of  his  sons,  James  H.  and 
Edward  M.  Schneider,  by  Rev.  I.  N.  Tarbox.     XXVII,  201. 

Rev.  D.  C.  Scudder,  India.     Review  of  Memoir  of,  by  H.  E.  Scudder.     XXIV,  597-59S. 
^    Rev.  D.  T.  Stoddard.     Review  of  Memoir  of.     XVI,  874-892. 

W.  H.  Thomson,  M.D.,  son  of  Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.  Maronites  and  Druses. 
XIX,  32-50.     Pre-Islamic  Arabs.     XXI,  3S5-405. 

Rev.  T.  C.  Trowbridge,  Turkej".  Physical  Geography  of  Turkey.  XXXI,  401-422.  Ar- 
menia and  the  Armenians.     XXXIII,  1-15. 

Mrs.  Mary  E.  Van  Lennep.     Review  of  Memoir  of.     VI,  344-356. 

Rev.  F.  DeW.  Ward,  India.     Review  of  "  India  and  the  Hindoos."     IX,  154. 

S.Wells  Williams,  LL.D.,  China.  Review  of  "The  Middle  Kingdom."  VII,  215-229. 
primers  and  Juvenile  Books  among  the  Chinese.  XXXVII,  297-310.  Afghanistan  and  the 
English.  XXXVIIl,  95-113.  Female  Education  and  Authors  in  China,  with  translation  of 
Girl's  Primer.     XXXVIIl,  184-200.     Our  Treaties  with  China.     XXXVIIl,  301-324. 


MEMOIRS  OF  ITS  MISSIONARIES. 

Memoirs  of  American  Missionaries.  Edited  by  Rev.  Harmon  Loomis.  i2mo,  pp.  367. 
Boston:  Pierce  &  Parker.  1S33.  This  gives  (1)  an  account  of  the  Society  of  Inquiry,  Andover 
Theological  Seminary;  (2)  Brief  notices  of  sixty  missionaries  who  went  out  from  it;  (3)  Let- 
ters from  them  ;  and  (4)  Dissertations  written  by  them  while  in  the  seminary. 

American  INIissionary  Memorial.  By  H.  W.  Pierson.  8vo,  pp.  504.  New  York:  Harper 
&  Brothers.  1853.  This  contains  sketches  of  eleven  missionaries  and  five  wives  of  mission 
aries. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  D.  Abeel,  missionary  to  China.  By  Rev.  G.  R.  Williamson.  i2mo.  pp 
315.     New  York:  Carters.     184S. 

Memorial  of  Rev.  H.  M.  Adams,  missionary  to  Western  Africa.  By  Rev.  A.  Bushnell 
i8mo,  pp.  69.     Boston  :  Massachusetts  Sabbath  .School  Society.     1859. 

Memoir  of  Mrs.  Myra  W.  Allen,  missionary  at  Bombay.  By  Cyrus  Mann.  iSmo,  pp.  256, 
Boston:  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Society.     1834. 

Five  Years  in  China,  or  Life  of  Rev.  W.  Aitchison.  By  Rev.  C.  P.  Bush.  i8mo,  pp.  2S4 
Philadelphia:  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication.     1S65. 

Memoirs  and  Sermons  of  Rev.  W.  J.  Armstrong,  Secretary  of  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions.     By  Rev.  II.  Read.     New  York:  M.  W.  Dodd.     pp.411.     1853 

Life  of  Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman,  missionary  to  China.  By  his  widow,  Mrs.  E.  J.  G.  Bridgman 
T2mo,  pp.  296.     New  York  :  A.  D.  F.  Randolph.     1864. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  E.  Cornelius,  Secretary  of  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  By  Rev.  Prof.  B.  B.  Edwards 
i2mo,  pp.  360.     Boston:  Perkins  &  Marvin.     1833. 


x 


APPENDIX.  489 

Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  B.  Dwight  and  Mrs.  Judith  S.  Grant.  i2mo,  pp.  323.  New 
York:  M.  W.  Dodd.     1840. 

Memoir  of  Jeremiah  Evarts,  Esq.,  Secretary  of  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions.     By  Rev.  E.  G.  Tracy.    8vo,  pp.  448.     Boston.     1845. 

^-^  Memorial  of  Mrs.  S.  H.  Everett  and  Mrs.  H.  M.  Hamlin,  missionaries  at  Gonstantinople; 
or  "The  Missionary  Sisters."  By  Mrs.  M.  G.  Benjamin.  i2mo,  pp.  335.  Boston:  American 
Tract  Society,     i860. 

Woman  and  Her  Saviour  in  Persia;  being  the  missionary  life  of  Miss  Fidelia  Fisk.  By 
Rev.  T.  Laurie.  i2mo,  pp.  303.  Boston:  Gould  &  Lincoln.  1863.  Reprinted  in  London: 
J.  Nesbit  &  Co.     1863. 

Faith  Working  by  Love.  A  Memoir  of  Miss  Fidelia  Fisk.  By  Rev.  U.  T.  Fisk.  i2mo, 
'pp.416.     Boston:  Congregational  Publishing  Society.     1868. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  Pliny  Fisk,  missionary  to  Palestine.  By  Rev.  A.  Bond.  i2mo,  pp.  437. 
Boston:  Crocker  &  Brewster.     1828. 

FOity  Years  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  Memoirs  of  Rev.  W.  Goodell,  D.D.  By  Rev.  E.  D. 
G.  Prime,  D.D.     Large  i2mo,  pp.  4S9.     New  York  :  R.  Carter  &  Brothers.     1876. 

Memoir  of  A.  Grant,  M.D.,  missionary  to  the  Nestorians.  By  Rev.  A.  C.  Lathrop.  i8mo, 
pp.  216.     New  York:  M.  W.  Dodd.     1847. 

Dr.  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians.  By  Rev.  T.  Laurie.  i2mo,  pp.  418.  Boston: 
Gould  &  Lincoln.     1853.     Reprinted  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  by  Johnstone  Sc  Hunter. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  Gordon  Hall,  missionary  to  India.  By  Rev.  H.  Bardwell.  i2mo,  pp.  260. 
Andover:  Flagg,  Gould  &  Newman.     1S34. 

Light  on  the  Dark  River.  Memoir  of  Mrs.  Henrietta  A.  L.  Hamlin,  missionary  in  Turkey. 
By  Mrs.  M.  W.  Lawrence.     i2mo,  pp.  321.     Boston:  Ticknor,  Reed  &  Fields.     1854. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  A.  Judson,  D.D.  By  Rev.  F.  Wayland,  D.D.  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp.  544 
and  522.     Boston  :  Phillips,  Sampson  &  Co.     1853. 

Memoir  of  Mrs.  A.  H.  Judson,  missionary  to  India  (Burmah).  By  Rev.  J.  D.  Knowles. 
Boston:  Gould  &  Lincoln.     1829  and  1S56.  .     , 

Jonas  King,  missionary  to  Syria  and  Greece.  By  F.  E.  H.  H.  New  York :  American 
Tract  Society.     lamo,  pp.  372.     1879. 

^^  Memoir  of  Rev.  H.  Lobdeli,  M.D.,  missionary  at  Mosul.  By  Prof.  W.  S.  Tyler,  D.D. 
l2mo,  pp.  414.     Boston:  American  Tract  Society.     1859. 

The  Martyr  of  Sumatra.  Memoir  of  Rev.  H.  Lyman.  By  his  sister.  i2mo,  pp.  437.  New 
York:  R.  Carter  &  Brothers.     1856. 

Memoirs  of  Rev.  S.  J.  Mills.  By  Rev.  G.  Spring,  D.D.  pp.  247.  New  York.  1S29. 
Also  improved  edition,  1829,  edited  by  Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman  and  C.  W.  Allen,     pp.  259. 

Memoirs  of  Rev.  S.  Munson  and  Rev.  H.  Lyman,  missionaries  to  Sumatra.  By  Rev.  W. 
Thompson.     i2mo,  pp.  196.     New  York  :  D.  Appleton  &  Co.     1839. 

Memoir  of  Mrs.  Harriet  Newell,  missionary  to  India.  By  Rev.  L.  Woods,  D.D.  i8mo, 
pp.258.     Boston:  S.T.Armstrong.     1S14.     Eighth  edition,  1818. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  L.  Parsons,  missionary  to  Palestine.  By  Rev.  D.  O.  Morton.  i2mo,  pp. 
431.     Poultne)-,  Vermont :  Smith  &  Shute.     1S24. 

Memoir  of  Judith  G.  Perkins,  of  Oroomiah,  Persia.  By  Rev.  J.  Perkins,  D.D.  iSmo,  pp. 
224.     Boston :  J.  P.  Jewett  &  Co.     1853. 

The  Tennesseean  in  Persia.  Life  of  Rev.  S.  A.  Rhea.  By  Rev.  D.  W.  Marsh.  i2mo, 
pp.381.     Philadelphia:  Presbyterian  Publication  Committee.     1S69. 

Mary  and  I.  Forty  Years  with  the  Sioux.  By  Rev.  S.  R.  Riggs,  D.D.,  LL.D.  i2mo,  pp. 
40S.     Chicago:  W.G.Holmes.     1880. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  D.  C.  Scudder,  missionary  in  India.  By  his  brother,  PI.  E.  Scud- 
der.     i2mo,  pp.  402.     New  York:  Hurd  &  Houghton.     1864. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  John  Scudder,  M.D.,  missionary  in  India.  By  Rev.  J.  B.  Waterbury,  D.D. 
i2mo,  pp.  307.     New  York  :  Harper  &  Brothers.     1870. 

Missionary  Patriots.  The  Sons  of  Rev.  B.  Schneider,  D.D.  By  Rev.  I.  N.  Tarbox,  D.D. 
i6mo,  pp.  357.     Boston  :  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Society.     1S67. 

Memoir  of  Mrs.  S.  L.  Smith,  missionary  to  Sj'ria.     By  Rev    E.  W.  Hooker,  D.D.     i2mo. 


49°  APPENDIX. 

pp.407.  Boston:  Perkins  &  Marvin.  1839.  Third  edition,  pp.  396.  New  York :  American 
Tract  Society.     1845. 

Memorials  of  Charles  Stoddard.  By  his  daughter,  Mrs.  M.  S.  Johnson.  i2mo,  pp.  525. 
Boston:  Congregational  Publishing  Society.     1875. 

Memoir  of  Rev.  D.  T.  vStoddard,  missionary  to  the  Nestorians.  By  Rev.  J.  P.  Thompson, 
D.D.     i2mo,  pp.  422.     New  York:  Sheldon,  Blakeman  &  Co. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  D.  Temple,  missionary  to  Turkey.  By  his  son,  Rev.  D.  H.  Tem- 
ple.    i2mo,  pp.  492.     Boston  :  Congregational  Board  of  Publication.     1855. 

Memoir  of  Lucy  G.  Thurston,  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  By  Mrs.  Cummings.  iSmo,  pp. 
233.     New  York :  Dayton  &  Newman.     1842. 

Sermons  and  Memoir  of  Rev.  R.  Tinker,  missionary  to  the  Sandwich  Islands.  By  Rev. 
M.  P.  L.  Thompson,  D.D.     i2mo,  pp.  421.     Buffalo,  New  York.     1856. 

Memoir  of  Mrs.  Mary  E.  Van  Lennep,  missionary  in  Turkey.  By  her  mother,  Mrs.  Joel 
Hawes.     i2mo,  pp.  372.     Hartford:  Belknap  &  Hamersley,  1847  ;  and  New  York.     i860. 

Memoir  of  Mrs.  H.  W.  L.  Winslow,  missionary  to  Ceylon.  By  Rev.  M.  Winslow.  i2mo, 
pp.  408.     New  York :  Leavitt,  Lord  &  Co.     1835. 

Remains  of  Mrs.  C.  Winslow,  of  the  Mission  to  Ceylon.  By  Rev.  J.  B.  Waterbury,  D.D. 
i8mo,  pp.  357.     Boston:  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Society.     1851. 

Memoir  of  C.  L.  Winslow.     i8mo,  pp.  108.     Boston:  W.Pierce.     1834. 

Life  and  Labors  of  Rev.  S.  Worcester,  D.D.,  Secretary  of  the  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions.  By  his  son.  Rev.  S.  M.  Worcester,  D.D.  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp. 
408  and  488.     Boston:  Crocker  &  Brewster.     1852. 


MEMOIRS  OF  NATIVE    CON  VERTS. 

John  Arch,  a  Cherokee  Indian.  By  R.  Anderson,  D.D.  i8mo,  pp.  33.  Boston  :  Massa- 
chusetts Sabbath  School  Society.     Second  edition.     1S32. 

Babajee,  a  converted  Brahman.  By  Rev.  H.  Read.  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp.  264  and  275. 
New  York:  Leavitt,  Lord  &  Co.     1836. 

Bartimeus,  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  By  Rev.  H.  Bingham.  i8mo,  pp.  58.  New  York: 
American  Tract  Society. 

Catharine  Brown,  of  the  Cherokee  nation.  By  Rev.  R.  Anderson,  D.D.  i8mo,  pp.  144. 
Boston  :  Crocker  &  Brewster.     1824.     Third  edition,  1828. 

Pious  Nestorians.  By  members  of  the  Nestorian  Mission.  i2mo,  pp.  284.  Boston: 
Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Society.     1857. 

Henry  Obookiah,  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  iSmo, pp.  126.  Philadelphia:  American  Sun- 
day School  Union.     1829. 

Little  Osage  Captive.  By  Rev.  E.  Cornelius.  iSmo,  pp.  72.  Boston :  Massachusetts 
Sabbath  School  Society.     Second  edition.     1S32. 

Ram  Krishna  Punt,  the  Boy  of  Bengal.  By  Rev.  E.  Webb.  Square  8vo,  pp.  40.  Presby- 
terian Publication  Committee.     1866.  . 

The  Martyr  of  Lebanon.  A  memoir  of  Asaad  Esh  Shidiak.  By  Rev.  Isaac  Bird.  i6mo, 
pp.208.     Boston :  American  Tract  Society.     1S64. 


HISTORICAL    WORKS. 

Rev.  David  Oliver  Allen,  D.D.     India,  Ancient  and  Modern,  Geographical,  Historical, 
Political,  Social,  and  Religious.     8vo,  pp.  618.     Boston  :  J.  P.  Jeyvett.     1S56. 
Rev.  Rufus  Anderson,  D.D. : 

1.  Memorial  volume  of  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions.     Svo,  pp.  462.     Boston :  Missionary  House.     1861. 

2.  The  Hawaiian  Islands,  their  Progress  and  Condition  under  Missionary  Labors.     i2mo, 
pp.450.     Boston :  Gould  «&  Lincoln.     1864. 

3.  Foreign  Missions,  their  Relations  and  Claims.     i2mo  and  Svo,  pp.  373.     Giving   an 


APPENDIX. 


491 


account  of  Apostolic  missions,  early  Irish  missions,  Romish  missions,  and  modern  evangelical 
missions.     New  York:  C.  Scribner  &  Co.     1869. 

4.  History  of  the  Missions  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  to  the  Oriental  Churches.  Two  vols., 
i2mo  and  Svo,  pp.  426  and  532.     Boston  :  Congregational  Publishing  Society.     1872. 

5.  History  of  the  Missions  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 
to  India.     i2mo  and  Svo,  pp.  443.     Boston:  Congregational  Publishing  Society.     1874. 

6.  History  of  the  Mission  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  to  the  Sandwich  Islands.  i2mo  and  Svo, 
pp.  408.     Boston:  Missionary  House,  1S70;  and  Congregational  Publishing  Society,  1874. 

Rev.  Hiram  Bingham.  The  Civil,  Religious,  and  Political  History  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands.     Svo,  pp.  616.     Hartford:  Hezekiah  Huntington.     1847. 

Bible  Work  in  Bible  Lands.     By  Rev.  Isaac  Bird.     pp.  432.     Philadelphia.     1S72. 

Rev.  Sheldon  Dibble.  History  of  the  Mission  to  the  Sandwich  Islands.  i2mo,  pp.  268. 
New  York:  Taylor  &  Dodd.     1839. 

Rev.  Justus  Doolittle.  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese,  with  some  account  of  their  Religious, 
Governmental,  Educational,  and  Business  Customs  and  Opinions.  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp.  459 
and  490.     New  York  :  Harper  &  Brothers.     1865. 

Rev.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight,  D.D.     Christianity  Revived  in  the  East.     A  narrative  of  the  work 
'^'^ of  God  among  the  Armenians  of  Turkey.     i2mo,  pp.   290.     New  York:  Baker  &  Scribner. 
1850.      Same,   republished  in  London,  1854,  as  Christianity  in  Turkey,  or  The  Protestant 
Reformation  of  the  Armenian  Church. 

Rev.  J.  R.  Eckard.  Ten  Years  in  Ceylon.  A  personal  narrative  of  residence  there,  pp. 
254.     Philadelphia :  Perkins  &  Purves.     1844. 

Rev.  Lewis  Grout.     Zulu  Land,  or  Life  Among  the  Zulu  Kafirs,  South  Africa.     i2mo,  pp. 
351.     Philadelphia  :  Presbyterian  Publication  Committee.     1864. 
^.^      Rev.  Cyrus  Hamlin,  D.D.     Among  the  Turks.     i2mo,  pp.  378.     New  York:  R.  Carter  & 
Brothers.     1878. 

Mrs.  K.  C.  Lloyd.     Christian  Work  in  Zulu  Land,  or  the  Seed  and  the  Sheaves.     i2mo, 
paper.     New  York  :  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co.     1870.     Second  edition,  enlarged,  pp.  88  and  7. 
^     The  Life  and  Religion  of  Mohammed,  as  contained  in  the  Sheeah  Traditions  of  the  Hyat 
ul  Kuloob.     Translated  from  the  Persian,  by  Rev.  James  L.  Merrick,    pp.  483.     Boston :  Phil- 
lips, Sampson  &  Co.     18150. 

Miss  Melinda  Rankin.  Twenty  Years  among  the  Mexicans.  i6mo,  pp.  199.  Cincinnati  i 
Chase  &  Halh     1875. 

Rev.  Hollis  Read.  Incha  and  its  People,  Ancient  and  Modern.  i2mo,  pp.  3S4.  Colum- 
bus, Ohio:  J.  &  H.  Miller.  1S59.  He  wrote,  also,  "The  Hand  of  God  in  History."'  Two 
vols.,  i2mo.  Hartford:  Robbins  &  Co.  1S49.  Two  editions  were  sold  in  London.  In  1859 
he  published  "  The  Palace  of  the  Great  King.''  New  York :  E.  B.  Treat.  Also  republished 
in  London.  In  1862  "  The  Coming  Crisis  of  the  World,"  by  the  same  publisher.  A  prize, 
essay  on  "  Commerce  and  Christianity,"  appeared  at  Philadelphia.  Still  another  volume,  en- 
titled "  The  Negro  Question  Solved."  New  York :  E.  B.  Treat.  And  "  The  Devil  in  History,, 
or  the  Footprints  of  Satan."    Svo.     From  the  same  press.     1875. 

Rev.  Stephen  R.  Riggs.  Tahkoo  Wahkan,  or  The  Gospel  among  the  Dakotas.  iSmo,  pp. 
491.     Boston:  Congregational  Sabbath  School  and  Publishing  Society.     1S69. 

Rev.  Joseph  Tracy,  D.D.  History  of  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions up  to  1841.  Svo,  pp.  452.  Worcester,  Mass.,  1840;  and  New  York:  M.  W.  Dodd.  1842. 
/^  Rev.  C.  H.  Wheeler.  Ten  Years  on  the  Euphrates,  or  Primitive  Missionary  Policy  Illus- 
trated. i6mo,  pp.  330.  Boston  :  American  Tract  Society.  1868.  Letters  from  Eden.  i6mo, 
pp.  432.  Boston :  American  Tract  Society.  186S.  Grace  Illustrated.  i6mo,  pp.  313.  Bos- 
ton :  Congregational  Publishing  Society.     1S76. 

S.  Wells  Williams,  LL.D.  The  Middle  Kingdom.  A  Survey  of  the  Geography,  Govern- 
ment, Education,  Social  Life,  Arts,  Religion,  etc.,  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  i2mo,  two  vols., 
pp.  590  and  614.     New  York :  Wiley  &  Putnam.     184S. 

Rev.  John  Leighton  Wilson.  Western  Africa.  Its  History,  Condition,  and  Prospects. 
i2mo,  pp.  527.     New  York :  Harper  &  Brothers.     1856. 


492  APPENDIX. 

Rev.  Myron  Winslow,  D.D.  A  Sketch  of  Missions.     i2mo,  pp.  432.     Andovcr:  Flagg  & 
Gould.     1819. 

Hints  on  Missions  to  India.  i6mo,  pp.  236.     New  York:  M.  W.  Dodd.     1856. 


TRAVELS  AND   MISCELLANY. 

Rev.  D.  Abeel.  Journal  of  a  Residence  in  China  and  Neighboring  Countries.  i2mo,  pp. 
398.     New  York  :  Leavitt,  Lord  &  Co.     1834. 

Missionary  Convention  at  Jerusalem.     New  York.     1S38. 

Rev.  R.  Anderson,  D.D.,  LL.D.  Observations  upon  the  Peloponnesus  and  Greek  Islands. 
i2mo,  pp.  334.     Boston  :  Crocker  &  Brewster.     1830. 

Henry  Ballantine.  Night  Marches  Through  Persia.  i2mo,  pp.  267.  Boston  :  Lee  &  Shep- 
ard.     1879. 

S.  G.  W.  Benjamin.     The  Turk  and  the  Greek,  or  Creeds,  Races,  Society,  and  Scenery  in 
'^Turkey  and  Gi^eece.     i6mo,  pp.  268.     New  York:  Kurd  &  Houghton.     1868. 

Rev.  H.  Bingham,  Jr.     Story  of  the  "  Morning  Star."     i6mo,  pp.  72.     Boston.     iSb6. 

Rev.  E.  C.  Bissell,  D.D.  Austria.  The  Historic  Origin  of  the  Bible.  i2mo,  pp.  432. 
New  York :  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co.  1873.  The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  with 
Introduction,  Translation,  and  Notes.     Royal  8vo.     New  York:  C.  Scribner's  Sons.     1S80. 

Rev.  G.  Bowen,  Bombay.  Religious  Readings  for  Every  Day  in  the  Year.  i2mo.  Phila- 
delphia :  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication. 

Rev.  Josiah  Brewer.  Residence  at  Constantinople  in  1S27.  i2mo,  pp.  372.  New  Haven: 
Durrie  &  Peck.     1830. 

Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman,  D.D.  Letters  to  Children.  Boston.  1S34.  Letters  on  China. 
pp.  124.     Boston.     1840. 

Mrs.  Eliza  J.  G.  Bridgman.  Daughters  of  China.  Sketches  of  Domestic  Life  there. 
l8mo,  pp.  234.     New  York:  Carter  &  Brothers.     1853. 

Rev.  E.  Burgess,  D.D.,  India.  What  is  Truth?  Antiquity  and  Unity  of  the  Race.  i2mo, 
pp.424.     Boston:  I.  P.  Warren.     1871. 

Rev.  Titus  Coan.  Adventures  in  Patagonia.  i2mo,  pp.  319.  New  York:  Dodd,  Mead 
&  Co.     1880. 

Rev.  Sheldon  Dibble,  Sandwich  Islands.  Thoughts  on  Missions.  New  York :  American 
Tract  Society. 

Rev.  J.  W.  Dulles.  Life  in  India,  Madras,  the  Neilgherries,  and  Calcutta.  i2mo,  pp.  528. 
Philadelphia:  American  Sunday  School  Union.     1855. 

Rev.  Henry  O.  Dwight.  Turkish  Life  in  War  Time.  i2mo,  pp.  428.  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons.     1S81. 

Rev.  William  Ellis.  The  American  Mission  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Svo,  pp.  108. 
London :  Jackson,  Walford  &  Hodder.     1866. 

Jeremiah  Evarts,  Secretary  of  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  Essays  on  the  Present  Crisis  in  the  Condi- 
tion of  the  North  American  Indians,     pp.  112.     Boston  :  Perkins  &  Marvin.     1829. 

Rev.  S.  B.  Fairbanks.  List  of  Birds  of  Western  India.  In  Government  Gazetteer,  and 
in  a  separate  volume. 

Fidelia  FiskJCyRecollections  of  Mary  Lyon.  i2mo,  pp.  333.  Boston:  American  Tract  So- 
ciety. 1866.  Memorial  Volume  of  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary.  i2mo,  pp.  174.  South  Had- 
ley.     1862. 

Rev.  W.  Goodell,  D.D.,  Turkey.  The  Old  and  New,  or  Changes  of  Thirty  Years  in  the 
East.     i2mo,  pp.  240.     New  York:  M.  W.  Dodd.     1853. 

A.  Grant,  M.D.  The  Nestorians,  or  the  Lost  Tribes.  i2mo, pp.  3S5.  New  York:  Harper 
,&  Brothers,  1841 ;  London:  J.  Murray,  1841. 

Rev.  H.  H.  Jessup,  D.D.  The  Women  of  the  Arabs.  i2mo,  pp.  369.  New  York:  Dodd 
.&  Mead.  1873.  Syrian  Home  Life.  i2mo,  pp.  366.  New  York:  Dodd  &  Mead.  1S74. 
The  Mohammedan  Missionary  Problem,  pp.  138.  Philadelphia:  Presbyterian  Board  of  Pub- 
lication.    1879. 

Rev.  J.  King,  D.D.     The  Oriental  Churches  and  the  Latin. 


APPENDIX. 


493 


^       Rev.  T.  Laurie,  D.D.     Glimpses  of  Christ.     i2mo,  pp.   264.     Boston:  Gould  &  Lincoln, 
1869;  and  Congregational  Publishing  Society. 

Rev.  S.  B.  Munger.     The  Conquest  of  India  by  the  Church,     pp.  388.     Boston.     1845. 

Rev.  S.  Parker.  Exploring  Tour  Beyond  the  Rocl^y  Mountains.  i2mo,  pp.  371.  Ithaca, 
New  York.     1S38.     Third  edition.    40S  pp.     1842. 

P.  Parker,  M.D.  Journal  from  Singapore  to  Japan  and  Lewchew.  pp.  75.  London. 
1S3S.  Hospitals  in  China,  pp.  32.  London  and  Glasgow.  1S42.  Reports  of  Ophthalmic 
Hospital  in  Canton,  several  years. 

Rev.  M.  P.  Parmelee.  Life  Scenes  among  the  Mountains  of  Ararat.  iSmo,  pp.  265.  Bos- 
ton:  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Society.     1S6S. 

Rev.  J.  Perkins,  D.D.  Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia.  Svo,  ])p.  512.  Andover  : 
Allen,  Morrill  &  Wardwell.  1843.  Missionary  Life  in  Persia.  i6mo,  pp.  256.  Boston: 
American  Tract  Society.     1861  and  1868. 

Rev.  W.  Ramsay.  Journal  of  a  Missionary  Tour  in  India,  pp.  367.  Philadelphia:  J. 
Wetham.  1836. 
^^  Rev.  E.  Riggs,  LL.D.,  Constantinople.  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language.  Revised  edi- 
tion, 8  vo,  pp.  152.  New  York:  A.  D.  F.  Randolph;  and  London  :  .Sampson,  Low  &  Co.  1S58. 
Suggested  Emendations  of  the  Authorized  English  Version  of  Old  Testament.  i2mo,  pp.  130. 
Andover:  W.  F.  Draper.     1S73. 

Rev.  W.  G.  Schauffler,  D.D.  Meditations  on  the  Last  Days  of  Christ.  i2mo,  pp.  3S0. 
Boston.     1S37.     Do.     i2mo,  pp.  439.     Boston :  J.  P.  Jewett.     1853. 

Mrs.  Eliza  C.  A.  Schneider.     Letters  from  Broosa,  Asia  Minor.     i2nio,  pp.  210.     Cham- 
iT     bersburg,  Pennsylvania.     1846.     Including  appendix,  246  pages. 

Rev.  John  Scudder,  M.D.,  Ceylon.  Letters  from  the  East.  Boston.  1833.  Letters  to 
Sunday  .School  Children.  Tales  about  the  Heathen.  The  Redeemer's  Last  Command,  pp. 
112.     New  York:  American  Tract  Society.     1S46. 

Pres.  J.  H.  Seelye.  The  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life.  Lectures  to  Educated  Hindoos 
i2mo,  pp.  146.     Boston:  Congregational  Publishing  Society.     1873. 

Rev.  E.   Smith,  D.D.     Sermons  and  Addresses.     i8mo.      Boston.      1833.      Biblical  Re 

■^'^  searches  in  Palestine,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Petraea  in   1S38.     By  E.   Robinson  and  E. 

Smith.     Three  vols.,  Svo,  pp.  571,  679  and  721,  including  appendix  of  210  pages.     Boston: 

Crocker  &  Brewster,  1841 ;  New  York:  J.  Leavitt ;  London:  J.  Murray;  Halle:  Waisenhaus- 

buchhandlung,  1841.     Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  and  the  Adjacent  Regions  in  1852.     By 

E.  Robinson,  E.  Smith,  and  others.     8vo,  pp.  664.      Boston:  Crocker  &  Brewster;  London 
John  Murray;  Berlin:  G.  Reimer.     1S56.     Researches  of  Rev.  E.  Smith  and  Rev.  H.  G.  O. 
Dwight  in  Armenia,  etc.     Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp.  328,  34S.     Boston:  Crocker  &  Brewster.     1833. 
Republished  in  London. 

Rev.  C.  S.  Stewart.  Journal  of  a  Residence  at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  1823-1S25.  i2mo, 
pp.407.  London:  Fisher  &  Jackson,  1828;  and  Boston:  Weeks,  Jordan  &  Co.,  1S39.  pp. 
348.  Visit  to  the  South  Seas  in  the  United  States  ship  "  Vincennes."  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp. 
357  and  360.     New  York:  J.  P.  Haven.     1S31. 

Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson,  D.D.  The  Land  and  the  Book,  or  Biblical  Illustrations  drawn 
from  the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Scenery  of  the  Holy  Land.  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp.  557  and 
614.  New  York:  Harper  &  Brothers ;  Edinburgh  and  London  :  T.Nelson.  1859.  Also  first 
volume  of  the  same  re-written,  entitled  "  Southern  Palestine  and  Jerusalem."  Large  Svo,  pp. 
592.  By  same  publishers  in  New  York,  London,  and  Edinburgh.  iSSo.  Two  more  volumes 
are  to  follow. 

Rev.  C.  C.  Tracy,  Turkey.  Myra.  iSmo,  pp.  89.  Boston:  Congregational  Publishing 
Society.     1877. 

Rev.  T.  C.  Trowbridge.     Occasional  Papers  on  Turkey.     8vo,  pp.  75.     New  York:  A.  D. 

F.  Randolph  &  Co.     1874. 

Rev.  H.  J.  Van  Lennep.  Travels  in  Asia  Minor.  Two  vols.,  i2mo,  pp.  343  and  325. 
New  York :  A.  O.  Van  Lennep.  1870.  Also  in  London.  Bible  Lands,  their  Modern  Cus- 
toms and  Manners,  illustrative  of  Scripture.  Svo,  pp.  832.  New  York :  Harper  &  Brothers. 
1875- 


494 


APPENDIX. 


Rev.  W.  Warren,  Agent  of  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  These  for  Those;  Our  Indebtedness  to 
Foreign  Missions.  i6mo,  pp.  410.  Portland,  Maine :  Hoyt,  Fogg  &  Breed.  1S70.  Twelve 
Years  with  the  Children.     i6mo,  pp.  325.     Portland  :  Hoyt  &  Fogg.     1S69. 

Rev.  E.  Webb,  India.  Hindoo  Life.  Square  8vo,  pp.  64.  Philadelphia :  Presbyterian 
Publication  Committee ;  and  New  York  :  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co.     1866. 

Maria  J.  West.  The  Romance  of  Missions,  or  Inside  Views  of  Life  and  Labor  in  the 
Land  of  Ararat.     i2mo,  pp.  710.     New  York:  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co.     1875. 

Rev.  C.  H.  Wheeler.  Little  Children  in  Eden.  iSmo,  pp.  157.  Portland:  Hoyt,  Fogg 
&  Dunham. 

Mrs.  S.  A.  Wheeler.  Daughters  of  Armenia.  i6mo,  pp.  157.  New  York:  American 
Tract  Society.     1877. 

S.  Wells  Williams,  LL.D.  A  Chinese  Commercial  Guide.  Hong  Kong.  1S63.  Five 
editions.     Anglo-Chinese  Calendar.     Eight  vols.,  from  1S47-1855. 

Rev.  M.  Winslow,  D.D.  Hints  on  Missions  to  India.  i8mo,  pp.  236.  New  York  :  M.  W. 
Dodd.     1S56. 


APPENDIX    II. 


LIST  OF  THE  PUBLICATIOXS  OF  THE  SEVERAL  MISSIONS  OF  THE  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  IN 
THE  LANGUAGES  OF  THE  COUNTRIES  WHERE  THEY  ARE  SITUATED. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  this  list  complete,  but  the  catalogue  of  some  of  the 
missions  is  still  far  from  perfection.  It  has  been  found  impossible  to  reduce  all  to  a  uniform 
style,  without  sacrificing  some  valuable  items  that  could  not  be  obtained  concerning  all  alike. 
The  list  was  held  open  for  improvement  to  the  last  moment,  and  every  available  source  of 
information  has  been  diligently  improved.  It  is  hoped  that  those  missionaries  who  find  the 
work  of  their  missions  inadequately  set  forth,  will  furnish  the  material  for  doing  them  more 
ample  justice,  for  it  is  only  their  failure  to  communicate  the  facts  that  has  necessitated  the 
imperfection  of  the  report. 

MPONGWE   AND   COGNATE   LANGUAGES. 
Scriptures. 

Language.         Size. 

Gospel  of  Matthew Grebo  i2mo 

"      "        "  Mpongvve  " 

"       "   John Grebo,  also  "  " 

"      "   Mark "       "    Dikele 

Genesis,  part  of  Exodus,  Proverbs  and  Acts      .     Mpongwe  " 

Gospels  of  John  and  Mark "  i6mo 

"   Luke    

Epistles  of  St.  Paul "  izmo 

Epistles  of  James,  Peter,  John,  Jude,  and  Apoc- 
alypse      "  "  1S69 

Other   Works. 

Peep  of  Day Mpongwe      i2mo       1852 

Grammatical  Analysis  of  the  Grebo  Language,  by  J.  L.  Wilson    .     .     1S3S 

Dictionary  of  the  same,  in  two  parts,  by  J.  L.  Wilson 1S39 

Grebo  Reader.     Part  I.     With  Notes  and  Dictionary  for  Beginners. 

By  J.  L.  Wilson 1S41 

Grammar,  with  Vocabularies.     Mpongwe.     Svo 1S47 

Grammar.     Bakele.    Svo 1S54 

Colloquial  sentences.     Also  extracts  from  the  New  Testament. 
Grammatical  Tables. 


Date. 

Place. 

1S38 

Cape  Palmas 

1850 

Gaboon  River 

1852 

New  York 

1855 

Gaboon  River 

1859 

New  York 

1864 

No  date 

1867 

New  York 

Gaboon  River 
Cape  Palmas 


New  York 


ZULU. 


Size. 


Book  of  Psalms i2mo 

Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark. 

Epistle  to  the  Romans  ....  Svo 

Acts  of  the  Apostles      ....  Svo 

Gospel  of  John i2mo 

Genesis i2mo 

New  Testament i2mo 

Bible  now  ready  and  probably  published  in  1S81. 


Date. 
1S50 

1S54 
iSS9 
1S60 
1S63 
1S65 


Place. 
Natal 


D'urban 
New  York 
Natal 

(495) 


496 


APPENDIX. 


Religious   Books. 
Size.  Date. 

Daily  Food i6mo 

Hymn  Book i6mo  1S64 

Ecclesiastical  History     .... 

Tract  Primer i6mo  1S61 

Catechism. 

Bible  Question-Book. 

Secular  Books. 

Dictionary Royal  Svo,  460  pp.     1S57 

Grammar Royal  Svo,  400  pp.     1859 

The  Morning  Star  (monthly)  .     .     4to         (commenced)  1861 

Geography i2mo  1862 

The  Torchlight  (periodical)    .     . 

Arithmetic 

Outlines  of  History 

Spelling-Books i6mo  Several  editions 


Place. 
New  York 

Natal    ■ 

New  York 


Cape  Town 

London 

Natal 


Translator. 


S.  B.  Stone 
Mrs.  A.  Grout 


Rev.  J.  L.  Dohne 
Rev.  L.  Grout 

Rev.  L.  Grout 

J.  C.  Bryant 

Mrs.  A.  Grout 


ARABIC. 

The  catalogue  of  Arabic  issues  of  the  Mission  Press  at  Beirut,  for  January,  1S79,  's  a  neat 
pamphlet  of  twenty-eight  pages.     It  is  divided  into  eleven  chapters. 

Chapter  I  is  devoted  to  Editions  of  the  Bible  and  Parts  of  the  Bible,  and  contains :  An  Svo 
voweled  Bible;  a  reference  Svo  (Beirut:  1865);  plain  Svo  (New  York:  1867.  pp.  1633);  a 
i2mo  and  a  i6mo  Bible;  New  Testament  and  Psalms,  voweled  (New  York:- 1867.  pp.  507)5 
the  same  in  smaller  type ;  the  New  Testament  in  six  different  editions,  one  voweled  (Beirut : 
1862),  and  two  with  references,  also  Svo  (Beirut:  1864),  i2mo  (Beirut:  i860,  pp.624);  the 
Gospels  and  Acts,  i6mo,  voweled,  each  Gospel  separately  voweled,  two  sizes,  third  font  and 
small  cap. ;  Gospel  of  John,  English  and  Arabic,  also  French  and  Arabic,  also  Turkish  and 
Arabic,  in  parallel  columns  ;  Psalms,  voweled  and  plain:  Proverbs,  voweled. 

(Z\\.z.'^\.&x  W  coxvX2\x\'!,  Educational  and  Scientific  IVorhs,  >uch  as:  A  Primer;  An  Illustrated 
Primer;  Reading-Book;  Advanced  Reading-Book ;  Analysis  of  English  Sentences ;  Ajrumieh 
(Primary  Arabic  Grammar) ;  Arabic  Conjugations ;  Yazijy's  Grammar ;  Ibn  Akil's  Grammar ; 
Commentary  on  Examples  in  Ibn  Akil ;  Yazijy's  Rhetoric  (1S55.  i2mo) ;  also  his  Logic; 
Dr.  Van  Dyck's  Prosody  (1857.  Svo);  Mrs.  Hallock's  Primary  Geography;  Berbari's  Geog- 
raphy; Dr.  Van  Dyck's  large  Geography  (1S52.  i2mo)  ;  set  of  colored  wall  maps;  Miss  Ever- 
ett's Mental  Arithmetic;  Berbari's  Arithmetic  ;  Bistany's  large  Arithmetic  (1S4S.  i2mo);  Dr. 
Van  Dyck's  Algebra  (1S53.  Svo);  Dr.  Van  Dyck's  Euclid  (1857.  Svo) ;  also  his  Trigonome- 
try, Logarithms,  and  Physical  Diagnosis;  Dr.  Post's  Botany;  also  Physiology  and  Surgery; 
Dr.  Van  Dyck's  Chemistry;  Dr.  Lewis's  Chemical  Analysis;  Dr.  Wortabet's  Anatomy;  also 
his  Physiology,  and  Atlas  of  Physiology;  Dr.  Bliss's  Mental  Philosophy;  Razi  on  Small  Pox 
and  Measles,  edited  by  Dr.  Van  Dyck;  Shidoody's  Natural  Philosophy;  two  works  on  Music, 
one  of  them  by  Dr.  Lewis;  Dr.  Post's  Natural  History;  Sarkis'  English  and  Arabic  Vocabu- 
lary (1S63.  i2mo);  Porter's  Latin  Grammar  in  Arabic ;  also  his  Latin  Reader  and  Vocabu- 
lary; Nopel's  French  and  Arabic  Vocabulary;  Miss  Everett's  Primary  Astronomy;  Dr.  Van 
Dyck's  Higher  Astronomy;  Loomis's  Meteorology. 

Chapter  III,  of  JVor/cs  ott  Poetry,  contains :  Naseef  el  Yazejy's  Poems;  El  Hariri;  Poetry 
of  El  Farid ;  Sarkis'  Ancient  Arabic  Proverbs. 

Chapter  IV  is  of  J/istory,  and  contains:  Mosheim's  Church  History;  Abcarius'  History; 
Josephus  (abridged  and  translated) ;  Sarkis'  Ancient  History  ;  also  his  Life  of  Alexander  the 
Great ;  History  of  Jerusalem;  Tract  on  Bees  ;  History  of  Mount  Lebanon  (1859.     Svo). 

Chapter  V  contains  Religious  Works :  Dr.  Dennis'  Evidences  of  Christianity ;  Dr.  Post's  Arabic 
Concordance ;  Sarkis'  Key  to  Technical  Words  in  Arabic  Bible ;  Dr.  E.  Smith  on  the  Holy 
Spirit  (1863.  i2mo);  S.  II.  Calhoun's  Scripture  Help  (1869.  Svo);  also  his  Harinuny  of  the  Gos- 


APPENDIX. 


497 


pels  and  Life  of  Christ ;  Wortabet's  Commentary  on  Hebrews;  Edwards'  History  of  Redemp- 
tion ;  Bogatsky's  Golden  Treasury  ;  Daily  Prayers ;  Consolation  for  Mourners  ;  Year  with  St. 
Paul;  Daily  Food;  Watts' Catechism ;  Brown's  Catechism ;  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism;, 
same  with  proofs  (1S45.  i^mo);  three  Child's  Question-Books;  Four  Tracts;  Dr.  Newton's^ 
Best  Things,  illustrated ;  and  his  Rays  of  the  Sun  of  Righteousness ;  Training  of  Children ; 
Duties  of  Children  ;  Instructive  Anecdotes  ;  Schneider's  History  of  Ceremonies ;  Whiting  on 
Intemperance;  Thomson's  Sacramental  Catechism;  Hassoon's  Chronology  of  the  Gospels, 
and  metrical  version  of  Job;  Solomon's  Song,  and  Ecclesiastes ;  Hymn  and  Tune  Book; 
Hymns  alone;  Psalms  and  Hymns,  two  sizes;  Versified  Psalms;  Children's  Hymns;  Three 
Tracts;  Ferhat  on  Preaching;  The  Second  Coming  of  Christ;  Prayer  and  Fasting  ;  The  Sin- 
ner's Friend;  Dairyman's  Daughter  ;  Chrysostom  on  Reading  the  Bible. 

Chapter  VI,  Works  Published  at  the  Expense  of  the  American  Tract  Society:  Line  upon 
Line  (1S66.  i2mo);  Peep  of  Day  (1S62.  i2mo);  Precept  upon  Precept ;  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
Parts  I  and  II.     Thomas  a  Kempis  (1S42.     i2mo) ;  History  of  Reformation.     Two  vols. 

Chapter  VII,  Works  Published  at  the  Expense  of  the  London  Religious  Tract  Society:  An- 
notated Paragraph  New  Testament;  Keith  on  Prophecy;  Glories  of  the  Cross;  Early  3lnd 
Late;  Henry  and  his  Bearer;  Gambling;  Ten  Tracts;  Faithful  Promiser;  Come  to  Jesus; 
Four  packages  of  Bible  Stories;  Six  Tracts;  The  Inquisition;  The  Holy  War  (Bunyan) ; 
Stories  from  Church  History;  Two  Tracts;  Alexander's  Evidences  (1851.  i2mo);  Sunday 
School  Question-Book ;  Burder's  Village  Sermons ;  Philosophy  of  the  Plan  of  Salvation ; 
James'  Anxious  Enquirer;  packages  of  colored  Bible  pictures;  colored  reward  cards;  Blanche 
Gamond  ;  The  Young  Cottager;  The  Negro  Servant;  The  Deity  of  Christ;  Christ  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

Chapter  VIII,  Sermons  on  Essentials  of  Religion :  On  Faith  and  Works,  on  Glorying  in 
the  Cross  (McLaurin) ;  Image  Worship ;  Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God  (Edwards) ; 
Little  Foxes  (Van  Dyck) ;  Justification ;  Knowledge  Puffeth  Up  (Dr.  Post) ;  The  Knowledge 
of  Christ  (Dr.  Dennis) ;  The  Truth  of  the  Bible;  On  Prayer;  "Grow  in  the  Knowledge  of 
Jesus  Christ ;  "  "The  Opening  of  Thy  Word  giveth  Light;  "  The  Spiritual  Family. 

Chapter  IX,  Controversy :  Scripture  Proofs  of  Doctrines;  Nevins  on  Popery  (1844.  i2mo), 
edited  by  Rev.  G.  B.  Whiting;  Haurani's  Reply;  Mishakah  on  Popery,  and  his  Reply  to  Pap- 
ists (1864.  i2mo);  Rev.  Isaac  Bird's  Thirteen  Letters  (1S49.  i2mo);  Mishakah  on  Reason  in 
Religion;  Nofel  Effendi's  Reply;  On  Transubstantiation ;  The  Appeal  of  the  Bible  Christians 
to  the  Intelligent  (1852.     i2mo),  by  Michael  Mishakah. 

Chapter  X,  Miscellany:  Morning  Star  Journal;  Cedars  of  Lebanon,  illustrated,  by  Dr. 
H.  H.  Jessup  (folio);  Lilies  of  the  Field,  by  Dr.  H.  H.  Jessup;  Nusairean  Religion,  by  a 
Nusairy  (1863.  i2mo);  Robinson  Crusoe ;  Law  of  Nations,  by  Nofel  Effendi ;  bound  volumes 
of  the  weekly  "  Neshra  "  (publication) ;  Ann's  Arts  and  Sciences ;  Sheikh  Yusef  el  Aseer  on 
"Inheritance;"  Origin  of  Learning,  by  Nofel  Effendi;  also  his  Progress  of  Learning,  and 
History  of  Religions;  On  Cookery;  Asaad  esh  Shidiak;  Biblical  Interpretation,  by  Dr.  Den- 
nis; Chemistry  of  the  Water  and  the  Air;  Elements  of  Geology. 

The  last  division  contained  a  few  books  then  in  press,  which  are  here  sorted  out  under 
their  appropriate  headings.  Other  Arabic  works  have  issued  from  our  presses  in  Malta  and 
Beirut,  but  these  are  the  most  important.  The  list  is  one  of  which  no  mission  need  be 
ashamed,  and  no  people  can  peruse  such  a  literature  without  profit. 

32 


498 


APPENDIX. 


MODERN   GREEK.* 


Printed  at  Malta. 

Pages. 

Dairyman's  Daughter 30 

Negro  Servant 32 

To  Seamen  (Payson) 20 

On  Redemption 54 

Sixteen  Sermons 48 

Progress  of  Sin 16 

A  Dialogue.     16.     On  Eternity.     14  .     .  30 

John  the  Baptist 28 

The  Young  Cottager  t 88 

The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain    ...  76 

William  Kelly 34 

On  Regeneration 24 

Life  of  Abraham.!     Second  edition.     36 

and  40.     By  B.  Schneider 76 

Three  Tracts.    8,  4  and  4 16 

Vivian's  Dialogues 48 

Two  Old  Men.  36.  Woman  of  Valais.  24.  60 

The  Woodcutter 24 

The  Danger  of  Neglecting  Christ    ...  36 

Three  Letters  of  J.  Newton 40 

Three  Tracts.     16  each 48 

The  Force  of  Truth.     By  T.  Scott       .     .  164 

Prayers  for  the  Week 70 

Three  Tracts.     12,  12  and  16      ....  40 

Selections  from  Chrysostom 26 

To  Seamen 20 

On  Contentment 24 

The  Danger  of  Delay 26 

An  Exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer    .     .  12 

The  Poor  Watchmaker 48 

Two  Tracts.     20  and  28 48 

King  Edward  VI 20 

The  History  of  a  Bible 28 

The  Love  of  Money 36 

A  Mother's  Catechism 56 

The  Liberated  Negro 76 

The  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man  .     .  168 

Henry  and  his  Bearer  t 76 

The  Touchstone.     Flavel 112 

Baxter's  Saint's  Rest.     1824.     i2mo    .     .113 

Three  Tracts.     26,  36  and  42      ....  104 
The  Life  of  Joseph. t     Two  editions.     60 

and  94.     By  B.  Schneider 154 

Porteus's  Evidences  t 112 

Andrew  Dunn 146 

'ilic  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches  t      .  48 

On  Idolatry 12 

The  Authenticity  of  the  Bible  t  ....  96 

On  Inspiration  of  the  Bible  t      ....  36 

Watts'  Catechism  t 24 

Two  Tracts.     28  and  34 62 

The  Pilgrim's  Progress 350 

*  Missionnrj/  Herald,  183S,  p.  38. 


Pages. 

The  Life  of  Moses.t     By  B.  Schneider    .  36 

"       "     "  Samuel,  t         "             "            .  24 

"       "      "  Esther.t          "             "            .  20 

"       "      "  Daniel.t          "             "            .  36 

Selections  from  Old  Testament  ....  84 

The  Life  of  David.t     By  B.  Schneider    .  56 
"       "      "  Elijah,  t 

"       "      "  Elisha.t         "             "             .  40 

The  Scripture  Compend.     (Niketo]:)los)  .  48 
"           "           Help.t     Bickersteth. 

Abridged 48 

Outline  of  Old  Testament  t         ....  144 

"  New          "        t 48 

"        "  Acts  of  Apostles  t      ....  52 
The   Conversion   of    Paul.t      Lyttleton. 

Two  editions.     84  and  124       ....  208 
The  Life  of  the  Virgin  Mary       .     .          .20 

The  Priest  and  Catechumen 12 

The  Decalogue  t 20 

The  Child's  Book  on  the  Soul.     Trans- 
lated by  B.  Schneider. 
The  Philanthropist.     i2mo. 

A  Spelling-Book 72 

British  System  of  Educa'n.    1S27.     [2mo  1S8 

Alphabetarion  t 132 

The  Child's  Assistant  t 60 

Adams'  Arithmetic  t •  248 

Pinnock's  Catechism  of  Greek  History    .  136 

A  Greek  Reader  t 156 

The  Little  Philosopher  t 72 

Worcester's  History  of  Greece  t      ...  60 

"                "        of  Romet    ....  92 

"                "         of  France  t      ...  60 

"                "         of  England  t  ...  84 

Peter  Parley's  Geography  t 112 

A  History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands!  .     .  84 

A  Dialogue  on  Grammar 72 

The  Child's  Arithmetic 48 

An  Ecclesiastical  History 26 

Lessons  for  Children.     Niketoplos      .     .  24 

The  Lottery 36 

A  Spelling-Book 270 

A  Greek  Grammar  t       loS 

Printed  «t  Smyrna. 

The  Way  to  be  Saved 12 

The  Nature  of  Faith 28 

The  Scriptural  Teacher it6 

An  Answer  to  a  Greek  writer     ....  32 

Questions  on  Pentateuch 88 

Woodbridge's  Geography 296 

The   Repository   of   Useful   Knowledge. 
A  periodical. 

t  Reprinted  at  Smyrna. 


BIBLE    HOUSE,  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


APPENDIX, 


499 


ITALIAN,  PRINTED    AT   MALTA.* 


Pages. 

Prayers  for  the  Week 56 

The  Dairyman's  Daughter 32 

Three  tracts.     4,  8  and  12 24 

W.  Kelly.     32.     Bishop  Cranmer.     32     .  64 

John  the  Baptist.     12.     Peter.     44      .     .  56 

Joseph.     64.     Virgin  Mary.     12      ...  76 

Four  tracts.     8  each 32 

12     "           48 

Three    "       16     "          48 

The  Force  of  Truth.     Scott 116 

The  Novelty  of  Popery 32 

Andrew  Dunn 80 

The  Bible  Above  all  Price 24 

A  Short  Method  with  Deists       ....  24 

The  Young  Cottager 72 

The  Negro  Servant 32 

The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain    ...  28 


Pages. 

A  Sailor's  Dialogue 18 

Israel.     20.     On  Regeneration.     20    .     .  '  40 

The  Poor  Watchmaker 24 

A  Catechism  for  Jews 60 

The  Two  Old  Men 24 

The  End  of  Time 20 

The  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man    .     .  78 

Henry  and  his  Bearer 52 

The  Proofs  that  Christ  is  Come      ...  48 

A  Mother's  Catechism 42 

Bishop  Poi'teus'  Evidences 96 

The  Recaptured  Negro 48 

On  the  Inspiration  of  the  Bible  .     .     .     .  24 

"     "    Authenticity  of  the  Bible     ...  60 

The  Sabbath  for  Man 28 

On  the  Worship  of  Images 28 


The  Child's  Best  Portion 

Henry  and  his  Bearer 68 

The  Lord's  Prayer 24 

Dinah  Dowdney 44 

Christ  the  Way 24 

The  Young  Cottager. 


ARMENO-TURKISH,  PRINTED   AT   MALTA. 

Pages. 
.      .      .      .      20 


New  Testament     .     .     . 
The  Way  to  be  Saved. 
Village  in  the  Mountains. 
Scripture  Help. 
Several  tracts. 


55^ 


The  following  list  of  Scriptures  are  for  sale  at  the  Bible  House  in  Constantinople,  of  which 
a  view  is  given  on  the  opposite  page.  Most  of  them  were  either  translated  or  edited  by  mis- 
sionaries of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M. : 


SCRIPTURES. 

Pages. 

Bible.     Royal   8vo.     With  references. 

E.  Riggs  and  others.     Smyrna:  1853  1169 

Bible.     8vo.     With  references     .     .     .  11 53 

"         i2mo      . 1324 

New  Testament.  i2mo.  With  refer- 
ences. E.  Riggs  and  others.  Smyr- 
na :   1849 891 

New  Testament.  Svo.  With  refer- 
ences        274 

New  Testament.  32mo.  With  refer- 
ences     .     .     .     .     • S42 

New  Testament  (ancient).     32mo     .     .  706 

"              "                "             i2mo     .     .  708 
"              "           With  Psalms.     32mo. 

With  references 1039 

New  Testament.     i2mo 314 

Svo 678 


ARMENIAN. 

New  Testament.     With  Psalms.    Svo 

Matthew.     i2mo 

Mark.     i2mo . 

Luke.         "         


John.         «         

Psalms.     Svo.     New  York :  1S65     .     . 

"  i6mo 

"  Pocket.  24mo.  Smyrna  :  1S54 
Psalms  and  Proverbs 

"       (ancient).     i6mo.     New  York: 

iS6s 

Psalms  (ancient).     i2mo 

Proverbs.     32mo.     Smyrna:  1852    .     . 

Gospels  and  Acts.     Ararat  dialect  .     . 

New  Testament.     Ancient  and  modern 

dialect    


S70 
44 
25 
42 

3- 
192 
281 

197 

277 

255 

265 

80 

443 

S6i 


*  Missionary  Herald,  183S,  p.  40. 


500 


APPENDIX. 


SCRIPTURES.     ARMENO-TURKISH. 
Paqes.     t 


Bible.     Royal  8vo.     With  references. 

"  i2mo. 

Old  Testament.     i2mo.     W.    Goodell       1200 

"  "  i6mo.       "  '• 

Smyrna:    1841,    1842.       Two    vols. 

1296  and  927. 
New  Testament.     Royal  8vo.      With 

references.      Revised   by   E.  Riggs. 

Constantinople:  1856. 
New  Testament.     i2mo S70 


New  Testament.     i6mo.     W.  Goodell. 

Smyrna:  1S43 

New  Testament.     32mo 

Psalms.     i6mo.     Smyrna:  1S40 

Proverbs  . 

Matthew 

Mark 

Luke 

John 


Pages. 

764 

778 

284 

90 


SCRIPTURES.     TURKISH.     (Arabic  Character.) 


Pages. 

Bible.     Svo 1302 

New  Testament.     i2mo 637 

"             "              32mo 621 

Gospels  and  Acts.     i2mo 345 

Matthew.     i2mo 82 

Sermon  on  the  Mount.     For  the  blind. 
Matthew.     Two  vols.         "      "         " 

Mark 52 

Luke 86 

John 66 

Acts 8d 


Matthew.     Turkish  and  English 
"  "  "     Italian 

"  "  "     French 

Psalms.     i6mo 

321110 

Proverbs.     32mo    .... 

Psalms  and  Proverbs.     32mo 

Isaiah 

Pentateuch.     i2mo.     Smyrna 

New  Testament.     Kiirdish 

Gospels.  " 


^47 


66 

loS 

S3 


Pages. 

152 

/52 

'274 

187 

68 

-55 
107 

624 

398 


SCRIPTURES.     GRECO-TURKISH. 


Pacre 


Bible.     Royal  8vo.     With  references   .     1229 
New  Test.  "      "  "  "  .       30 


SCRIPTURES.     GREEK 


New  Testament.     24mo 
Psalms 


Bible.     8vo.     With  references 


Pages. 
•  1253 
...  1 102 
1230 

New  Testament.     i2mo.     With  refer- 
ences        555 

New  Testament.     i2mo 479 

32mo 429 

Gospels  and  Acts.     i2mo 233 

New   Testament.     i2mo.     Greek   and 

English.     Parallel  columns       .     .     .  652 

New   Testament.     i2mo.     Greek   and 

French.     Parallel  columns  ....  6^2 


New   Testament.     i2mo.     Greek    and 
German.     Parallel  columns      .     .     . 

Matthew 

Mark 

Luke 

John 

Acts 

Three  Books  of  Moses 

Psalms.     32mo 

"  .Athens  edition 

New  Testament  (ancient) 


791 
299 


652 

56 

35 

59 

44 

57 

283 

216 

316 

564 


SCRIPTURES.     BULGARIAN. 
Pages. 


Bible.     Royal  8vo.     With  references. 

E.  Riggs.     Constantinople:  1871 
New  Test.     i2mo.     With  reference 


32mo 


With  Psalms 


8vo 


New  Testament.     Slavic.     Svo 


1054 
647 
5'4 
53' 

707 
607 
607 


New  Test,     With  Slavic.     In -parallel 

columns.     Svo 

Genesis 

"  With  Proverbs 

Psalms.     r2mo 

"  24mo 

32mo 

Proverbs   


Pages. 

I2I4 

1 88 
291 
201 


176 
103 


APPENDIX. 


501 


SCRIPTURES.       HEBREW-SPANISH. 

Translated  by  W,  G.  Schauffler,  D.D.  Pages 

Genesis.     Hebrew  and  Turkish.    8vo  88       Old  Testament. 

Old    Testament.      Hebrew,   and    He- 
brew-Spanish.    8vo.     Two  vols.  .     .  23S0 

Pentateuch.      Hebrew,    and    Hebrew- 
Spanish.     8vo 594 

Psalms.     Hebrew,  and    Hebrew-Span- 
ish       168 

Old  Testament.    Hebrew-Spanish    .     .  1190 

New  Testament 664 

Matthew.     Hebrew-Spanish    ....  81 

Psalms.     Hebrew-Spanish 215 


Pages. 

Hebrew  and  German     1384 

"  "      French      1022 

"  "     English     1384 


Other  Books  by  W.  G.  Schauffler. 

Hebrew  Grammar.     8vo.     1854  .     .     . 
"         Lexicon.  "        1855  •     •     • 

Hebrew-Spanish  Vocabulary. 
Natural  Hist,  and  Geography  of  Bible. 
Translation  of  McCaul's  Old  Paths. 


1S3 
448 


PERIODICALS. 


Avedaper.     Armenian.     1855  and  onwards. 
"  For  children.     Armenian.     1872 

and  onwards. 

Avedaper.     Armeno-Turkish.     1865  and  on- 
wards. 

Avedaper.     For  children.     Armeno-Turkish. 
1872  and  onwards. 


Magazine  of  Knowledge.     Armenian. 
Zornitza.     Bulgarian.     1866  and  onwards. 
Angeliophorus.       Greco-Turkish.       Monthly 

and  weekly. 
Manadero    (Wellspring).       Hebrew-Spanish. 

4to.     Monthly.     1855,  etc. 


A  list  of  books  published  at  our  presses  in  Turkey  had  been,  with  much  labor,  written  and 
rewritten,  as  emendations  required ;  but  a  few  days  after  it  was  completed,  the  following  list 
came  to  hand,  copied  from  the  original  records  of  the  press,  by  Mrs.  Isabella  H.  Bliss,  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  as  it  is  so  much  more  full  and  reliable,  it  is  very  gladly  substituted  for  the 
other.  Most  of  the  hymn-books  and  hymn  and  tune  books  were  prepared  by  Dr.  E.  Riggs. 
Mrs.  Mary  L.  Dwight  prepared  the  Scripture  text-book.  Some  of  the  Greek  books  have  been 
struck  out  of  Mrs.  Bliss'  list,  that  have  been  already  noticed  as  printed  at  Malta,  and  others 
have  been  added  which  seem  to  have  been  printed  at  Athens. 


THE  PRINTING  FROM  1839  TO    1853  WAS  DONE    AT    SMYRNA,  AND    FROM    1853    TO    1881 

AT   CONSTANTINOPLE. 


Many  of  the  books  and  tracts  included  in  the  following  list  have  been  reprinted  a  number 
of  times,  some  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  editions.  In  the  list  mention  is  made  generally  of 
onlv  the  first  edition. 


Armenian.  Size.  Pages.  Year. 

Child's  Book  on  Repentance    i6mo  264  1839 


Light  of  the  Soul     .     .     . 

" 

42     " 

Sermon  on  the  Mount 

i2mo 

16  1840 

Claims  of  the  Papacy  .     . 

i6mo 

n   " 

Mother  at  Home     .     .     . 

" 

292   " 

Dairyman's  Daughter  .     . 

1 2mo 

48  1841 

Tract  on  Infidelity  .     .     . 

•' 

16  " 

What   is    it    to    Believe    in 

Christ? 

" 

8     " 

Armenian.  Size.  Pages.  Year. 

Eternity i2mo      4  1841 

Jones'  Catechism     ....  "     204     " 

Life  of  Joseph i6mo  336     " 

Mary  Lothrop "       96     " 

Joy  in  Heaven  over  the  Pen- 
itent      "       28     " 

Worcester's  Astronomy   .     .  "      104     " 

Pilgrim's  Progress  ....  i2mo  S54  1842 

Tract  on  Good  Works     .    .  i6mo    44     " 


502 


APPENDIX. 


PRINTING   DONE   AT   SMYRNA   AND   CONSTANTINOPLE.  —  Continued. 


Armenian. 

What  must  I  do .-'.... 

The  World  to  Come   .     .     . 

Guide  to  Salvation      .     .     . 

Five  Wounds  of  Conscience 

D'Aubigne's  Reformation. 
Vol.  I •     . 

Balbaith's  Confession       .     . 

Spelling-Book     .     ...     .     . 

Progress  of  Sin 

Sin  no  Trifle 

Payson's  Thoughts      .     .     . 

Abercombie's  Mental  Cult- 
ure      

Three  Conversations  .     .     . 

The  Two  Lambs     .... 

Sermons.     Monthly     .     .     . 

Friendly  Letter  to  Sufferers 
by  the  Fire 

Essay  on  Baptism  .     .     .     r 

Assembly's  Catechism,  with 
reference 

English  Grammar  .... 

Ans.  of  Evang.  Armenians  . 

Treatise  on  Lord's  Supper  . 

Protestant  Confessions    .     . 

Scripture  Texts  (tickets) 

Rule  of  Faith 

Whately's  Evidences  .     .     . 

Concordance 

D'Aubigne's  Reformation. 
Vol.  II 

Scripture  Text-Book  .     .     . 

Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit 

British  Martyrology     .     .     . 

Upham's  Int.  Philosophy     . 

Hymns 

Apology  of  the  Evangelicals 

Village  in  the  Mountains 

Well-Spent  Day      .... 

Spelling-Book 

Doddridge's  Rise  and  Prog- 
ress      

Night  of  Toil 

Tract  Primer 

Confession  and  Absolution 

Children  Invited  to  Christ  . 

What  has  the  Pope  to  do 
with  the  Armenian  Church 

Life  of  Zwingle 

Important  Questions  .     .     . 

Am  I  a  Christian  ?       ... 

Flavel     on     Keeping     the 
Heart 


Size.  Pages.  Year. 
l6mo      24   1842 


12    1843 


Svo 

992 

1844 

1 2  mo 

49 
60 

a 

i6mo 

24 
16 

« 

24mo 

180 

84 
98 

52 

" 

Svo 

284 

IS45 

j6 


1 6mo 

lOI 

" 

8vo 

272 

1S46 

i2mo 

104 
84 

" 

i6mo 

26s 

" 

64  mo 

56 

" 

1 2mo 

364 

1S47 

i6mo  190     " 
Svo      604  184S 


"  608 

" 

i2mo  622 

" 

"   173 

1850 

"   222 

" 

Svo   80S 

" 

i6mo  55 

" 

Svo    46 

1851 

i2mo  ^6 

" 

60 


" 

449 

1852 

i6mo 

377 

" 

1 2  mo 

loS 

101 

« 

i6mo 

Id 

" 

i2mo 

44 
74 
28 

54 

1853 

Size.   Pages. 


Armenian. 

Lucilla 

Church  Member's  Guide 

Cause  and  Cure  of  Infidelity 

Protestantism  Not  a  New 
Religion 

Exposition  of  an  Apostolical 
Church 

Twenty-two  Reasons  for  At- 
tending Church   .... 

Psalm  and  Hymn  Book   .     . 

Theology 

Daily  Meditations  .... 

Church  Music Svo 

The  Happy  Escape     .     .     .     i6mo 


105 
167 


44 


48 


Year. 
1854 


20 
300 
508 


i6mo 

Svo 

T  6mo  1 60 
44 
3- 


i2mo 
i6mo 


180 


First  Step 24mo       8 

Great  Truths i2mo  iii 

Reading-Book  for  Children      Svo      34S 

Arithmetic i2mo  230 

Saint's  Rest   .... 

Anxious  Inquirer    .     . 

Elements  of  Moral  Science       i2n 

Repentance  Explained     .     .         " 

Reply  to  Archbishop  Matteos        " 

Self-Examination.     Tract     .         " 

Hymn  and  Tune  Book  for 
Children Svo 

Biblical  Catechism 

Brotherly  Love.     Tract 

Suggestions  to  S.  S.  Teach- 
ers      32mo 

Suggestions  to  S.  S.  Scholars         " 

Canonical  Books     ....     i2mo 

Praying  Mother       ....     i6mo 

Why  Not  Talk  of  Christ,  etc. 

Evidences    of    Christianity 

(Hopkins) " 

Hymns  and  Music  .... 

Armenian  Grammar    .     .     . 

Commentary  on  Matthew 
and  Mark 

Tract  on  Future  Punishment 

Prayers  for  Private  and  Fam- 
ily Use i6mo  146 

Dictionary  of  Geograj^hical 

Names 1 2nio 

Hymn,  "Come  to  Jesus"     .     Svo 

Const'n  of  Harpoot  Union  .     i2mo 

Letter  to  Pastors  of  Harpoot 
Union " 

Letter  to  Church  Members 

of  Harpoot  Union   ...         "        12 

Letter  to   Congregation   of 

Harpoot  Union  ....     32mo     93 


472 

i6mo  318 

i2mo  244 

"        76 

"      13S 

44 

40 
48 
16 

64 
64 
40 
16 
16 


1S55 


1S56 

1857 
1S58 

1859 


1S60 


1861 
1S62 


"  462 
Svo  24 
i2mo  243 

"      2S6 
iS 


56 

4 

10 


1S63 
1864 

1865 


16  1866 


APPENDIX. 


503 


PRINTING    DONE   AT   SMYRNA   AND   CONSTANTINOPLE.  —  Continued. 


Armenian. 

Size.  Pages. 

Year. 

Sunday  School  Hymn-Book 

i6mo 

134 

1867 

Letter  to  the  Churches     .     . 

4to 

4 

" 

Alphabetical  Cards      .     .     . 

" 

8 

" 

S.  S.  Hymn  and  Tune  Book 

Svo 

128 

186S 

Dr.  Clark's    Letter    to    the 

Churches 

4to 

2 

" 

Week  of  Prayer  Circular 

" 

I 

" 

Intellectual  Philosophy. 

Second  edition    .... 

Svo 

800 

1869 

Intellectual  Philosophy. 

Third  part  (on  the  Will)  . 

" 

312 

" 

Hymn-Book 

i6mo 

426 

" 

Hymns  and  Prayers     .     .     . 

" 

192 

" 

Pastor  Simon's  Letter     .     . 

1 2  mo 

36 

" 

Rules  for  Holy  Living     .     . 

i6mo 

4 

" 

Pastor  Marderos'  Letter 

1 2mo 

12 

" 

Tract,  "  Hints  to  Christians  " 

(I 

64 

1870 

"  Blind  Margaret  "     . 

" 

12 

1871 

"        "Pilgrim's    Medita- 

tion," etc 

" 

6 

" 

Tract,  "  Prci^are  to  Meet  Thy 

God" 

" 

6 

" 

Sermon  by  Pastor  Marderos 

" 

24 

" 

Mountains  of  Bread     .     .     . 

" 

8 

1872 

The  Bridge  (an  allegory) 

i2mo 

8 

" 

Letters  to  Parents  .... 

" 

252 

" 

Algebra      

" 

26S 

" 

Tract,  "  Blot  Out  my  Sins  " 

" 

4 

1873 

"       "  Precious  Invitation  " 

" 

4 

" 

"       "  A  Saviour  for  You  " 

" 

44 

" 

Henry  and  his  Friends    .     . 

" 

204 

" 

Armenian  Hymn-Book     .     . 

i6mo 

430 

" 

Physiology 

1 2  mo 

220 

1874 

Geometry 

" 

^37 

it 

Faith  Explained      .... 

" 

84 

1875 

Answer  to  Hohannes  Varta- 

bed 

Svo 

37 

" 

Tract,  "  Stranger's   Medita- 

tions"      

i2mo 

6 

" 

Geography 

Svo 

140 

1876 

Maps  for  Geography  .     .     . 

" 

IS 

" 

Com.  on  Acts  of  the  Apos- 

tles      

" 

184 

" 

Com.  on  Epistle  to  Romans 

" 

128 

" 

S.  S.  Lessons  for  1877     .     . 

i2mo 

loS 

" 

How    to    Study  the    Bible. 

Moody's  Sermon      .     .     . 

" 

36 

" 

S.  S.  Question-Book  for  1878 

" 

116 

1877 

Tract,  "  President  Edwards' 

Resolutions "       .... 

1 2  mo 

8 

" 

Panoramic  Hist,  of  David   . 

1 6m  0 

12 

" 

"               "      "  Joseph 

" 

12 

" 

"              "      "  Apostles 

" 

12 

" 

Pages. 


iG 


Svo 

100 

i2mo 

204 

" 

252 

i6mo 

16 

i2mo 

144 

" 

360 

" 

172 

Svo 

78 

" 

16S 

" 

8 

32mo 

S 

S 

4Smo     52 


Armenian.""  Size 

Panoramic  Hist,  of  Israelites 

in  the  Wilderness    .     .     .     i6mo     12 
Supplement   to  Hymn  and 

Tune  Book Svo        56 

Appendix    to    Hymn     and 

Tune  Book      

S.  S.  Questions  for  1879 
Book   of   Bible    and    other 

Pictures 

Armenian  Reader  (No.  2)  . 
"  (No.  3)  . 
Hymns  on  cards  .... 
Mental  Arithmetic  .  .  . 
Divine  Origin  of  Christianity 
S.  S.  Question-Book  for  1S80 
Uprising  of  the  Armenians 
Present    Condition    of    the 

Armenians 

Tract,  "  The  Wasp's  Sting  " 

"       "  I  Can  Steer  my  own 

Ship " 

Tract,  "  Your  Debt  is  Paid  " 

"       "  Who  is   Rich    and 

Who  is  Poor?"  .... 
Scripture  Texts  for  S.  S. 
Picture    cards.      Words   of 

Wisdom 

S.  S.  Question-Book  for  iSSi 
Bible  Dictionary  .... 
Bible  Hand-Book  .... 
S.  S.  Question-Book  for  iSSi 


Armeno-Turkish. 

Child's  Book  on  the  Soul 

Self-Examination     .     .     . 

History  of  a  Bible  .     .     . 

Youth's   Book    of    Natural 
Theology 

Good  Works       .... 

Repentance    

Reading  the  Scriptures    . 

Young  Christian      .     .    . 

Piety,  from  Pike's    Persua- 
sives   

Serious  Inquiry .     .     . 

Claims  of  the  Pope 

Sermon  on  the  Mount 

Mary  Lothrop     .     .     . 

Memoir  of  Cappadose 

On  Intemperance    .     . 

Guide    to   the    Use   of 
Fathers 

On  the  Sabbath       .     . 


Year. 

IS77 

1878 


IS79 


the 


" 

14 

" 

i2mo 

176 

iSSo 

Svo 

620 

" 

1 2mo 

41S 
I  So 

" 

i6mo 

16S 

1839 

" 

48 

1842 

" 

34 

" 

1 2  mo 

-33 

1S43 

i6mo 

48 

" 

1 2mo 

20 

" 

" 

106 

1S44 

350 

" 

70 

" 

" 

20 

" 

i6mo 

112 

" 

24mo 

28 
172 

" 

i2mo 

5- 
46 

1S45 

i6mo 

31S 

'< 

(( 

116 

(( 

504 


APPENDIX. 


PRINTING  DONE 
Armeno-Turkish. 
'  Neff's     Dialogue     on     Sin 

and  Salvation 

Sermons  (eight)  .... 
Scripture  Titles  of  Christ     . 

Spelling-Book 

Earth's  Church  History  .  . 
Jones'  Catechism  .... 
Catechism  on  the  Church  . 
Narrative  Tracts  .... 
Essay  on  Fasts  and  Feasts  . 
The  World  to  Come  .  .  . 
Without  Holiness  No  Man 

Shall  See  the  Lord  .  . 
Commentary  on  Matthew  . 
Daily  Meditations  .... 
Lives  of  the  Patriarchs    .     . 

Arithmetic 

Hymn-Eook 

Geography     

Confession  and  Covenant  of 

Diarbekir  Church  .  .  . 
Rites  and  Cerem.onies      .     . 

First  Step 

Aintab   Church   Confession 

of  Faith 

Monthly  E.xtracts  from  Ave- 

daper      

Bible  Text-Book  .... 
Tract,  "  Way  of  Salvation  " 

"      "  The  Great  Sacrifice  " 

"       "  The  Lord's  Supper  " 

"      "  Repentance "      .     . 

"  "  Eternity "  .  .  .  . 
First  Book  of  Reading  .  , 
Tract,  "  Phebe,  or  the  New 

Heart" 

Tract,    "Address   to    S.    S. 

Teachers  " 

Theological  Class-Eook  .  . 
Papists  and  Protestants  .  . 
Biblical  Catechism  .  .  . 
Great  Salvation  .... 
Tract,  "  Dinah  "  .... 
Light  of  the  Soul    .... 

Golden  Rule 

Daily  Food 

Anna  Williamson   .... 
Last  Days  of  Dr.  Payson      . 
Suggestions  to  S.  S.  Teachers 
"  "     "     Scholars 

Canonical  Books  .... 
Tract,  ='  Hell "..,.-. 
Pilgrim's  Progress  .... 


AT  SMYRNA  AND  CONSTANTINOPLE.  —  Continued. 

Size.  Pages.  Year.    '  Armeno-Turkish. 

Baker's  Catechism  .     , 
Goodell's  Sermons 
Tract,  "  Sermon  for  Family  " 
"       "Serm'n  for  Children 
Scripture  Texts.     Cards 
Call  to  United  Prayer 
Scripture  Questions     . 
Life  and  Life's  Object 
Sermon  on  the  Cross  . 
Grammar  of  Mod.  Armenian 
Supplement  to  Hymn-Eook 

Arithmetic i2mo  402 

Avedaper  Almanac  .  .  .  Folio  2 
Letter  to  Churches  ...  "  2 
Week  of  Prayer  Circular     .         "  i 

Armeno-Turkish  Grammar  .  i2mo  213 
Physiology i6mo  272 


i6mo 

140 

1845 

8vo 

316 

1846 

i6mo 

104 

" 

Svo 

64 

184S 

i2mo 

408 

305 
82 

" 

1 6mo 

I.S2 

" 

1 2mo 

220 

1849 

i6mo 

II 
II 

; 

Svo 

S46 

1851 

1 6m  0 

499 

" 

Svo 

42S 
68 

1S53 

i6mo 

112 

" 

i2mo 

135 

1S54 

" 

12 

1855 

" 

192 

1856 

i6mo 

S 

1S57 

i2mo     16 


Folio 

204 

i2mo 

475 

i2mo 

9 

" 

6 

" 

14 

i6mo 

13 

" 

II 

i2mo 

62 

IS5S 
1859 


i860 


" 

II 

" 

" 

268 

1861 

" 

408 

« 

" 

45 

" 

1 6mo 

16 
19 

t( 

i2mo 

32 

" 

i6mo 

13 

" 

32mo 

1 28 

1S62 

i2mo 

21 

" 

32mo 

72 
68 

" 

1 2mo 

48 
24 

1863 

" 

596 

1S64 

Size.  P 

ages.  Year. 

.     i2mo 

343  1864 
419     " 
10     " 

1 "        " 

10     " 

.     i6mo 
.     i2mo 

51      " 

I      " 

104  1865 

40     " 

16     " 

i6mo    88 


60 
164 
294 

36 

84 
64 

4 

4 

8 

208 

S40 

4 

4 

48 

200 

3-5 


Reader  No.  i i2mo 

".      No.  2 " 

"      No.  3 

Key  to  Maps " 

Tract,  "  Lord's  Prayer  "  .     .  " 

"  "  Atonement "...  " 
"  "  Prince  and  his  Guest  "  " 
"       "  Something      Better 

than  Riches  " " 

"       "  Bridge "      .     .     .     .  " 

Messianic  Prophecies      .     .  " 

Church  History " 

Tract,  "  Blot  Out  My  Sins  " 

"       "  Precious  Invitation "  " 

"       "A  Saviour  for  You "  " 

Commentary  on  Acts  .     .     .  Svo 

Letters  to  Families      .     .     .  i2mo 
Vocabulary      of       Turkish 
Words   used   in   Revised 

Edition  of  Scriptures    .     .  i6mo     46 

S.  S.  Lessons  for  1877      •     •  i^mo  117 
How   to   Study   the    Bible. 

Moody's  Sermon      ...  " 

First  Book  for  Children  .     .  " 

Little  Joseph  and  his  Ques.  i6mo 

Commentary  on  Romans     .  Svo 

Geography  with  Maps      .     .  "      171 

S.  S.  Question-Book  for  1S78  i2mo  125 

Scripture  Picture  Cards  .     .  i6mo     12 

Panoramic  Hist,  of  David    .  "        12 

"              "       "  Samuel  "        12 

'<              "       "  Joseph  .  "        12 

"  "       "  Israelites 

in  the  Wilderness    ...  "        12 

Panoramic  Bible  Sea  Scenes  "        12 

"        Timcsof  the  Apos.  "        12 


1 866 


1867 
1868 


1869 
1870 


1872 

(t 

1S73 

U 

it 

1S75 
1876 


16  " 

45  " 

8  " 

142  1877 


APPENDIX. 


505 


PRINTING   DONE   AT   ATHENS    AND   CONSTANTINOPLE. 


Armeno-Turkish.  Size.  Pages.  Year. 
S.  S.  Question-Book  for  1879     i-mo  156  1878 
Book  of  Bible  and  other  Pict- 
ures     8vo 


Tract,  "  Tongues  of  Fire  "   . 

Book  on  Teaching  .     .     .     . 

Mental  Arithmetic  .    .     .     . 

S.  S.  Question-Book  for  1880 

Tract,  "  From  Egypt  to  Ca- 
naan " 

Tract,  "  Eternal  Life  "  .  . 
"  "  Markarid,  a  Narra- 
tive " 

Tract,  "I  Can  Steer  My 
Own  Ship  " 

Tract,  "  Your  Debt  is  Paid  " 
"  "Who  is  Rich  and 
Who  Poor?" 

Tract,  "  The  Wasp's  Sting  " 
"      "  Family  Prayer  " 

Questions  on  Betts  Maps 

Picture  Cards,  "Words  of 
Wisdom" 

Picture  Cards,  "  Words  of 
Wisdom  " 

Story  of  Two  Lambs  .     . 

Worth  of  the  Soul       .     . 

What  is  Baptism    .     .     . 

Sunday  School  Question 
Book  for  1881      .     .     . 

Notes  on  Gospels  and  Acts 

S.  S.  Question-Book  for  188 1 

Greek. 

History  of  Greece   .... 
Tract  on  Mediation  of  Christ 

Hymns 

Lessons  on  the  Orrery 
The  Two  Lambs     .     .     . 

]\eader  

Tr.  on  Self-Examination 
School  Cards      .... 
Absurdities  of  Deism 
Bible  Questions      .     .    . 
Infant  School  Manual 
Synopsis  of  Sacred  History 
Epitome  of  the  Gospel     . 
Christian  Instruction  .     . 
Dialogue  on  New  Heart 
Sailor  Boy  and  his  Bible 
The  Falsehood   .... 
Dialogue     on    the     Lord's 
Prayer     


100  " 

24  " 

96  " 

144  1879 

184  " 

38  " 

36  " 


32mo 


8 
16 

16 

8 

7 

24 


24mo     16 


4Smo 

18 

" 

i2mo 

24 
20 

u 

32mo 

8 

" 

i2mo 

194 
192 

1880 

i2mo 

120  1839 

l6mo 

24     " 
32     " 

" 

32     " 

32mo 
i2mo 

52     " 
308     " 

i6mo 
Folio 

48     " 
60  1841 

8vo 

16     " 

1 2mo 

254     " 

" 

132     " 
36     " 
68     " 

i6mo 

20     " 

32mo 

6S     " 

Greek. 

Sermon  on  the  Mount 
Mother's  Manual     .     , 
Payson's  Thoughts 
Woodbridge's  Geograj^hy 
Good  Works       .     .     . 
Balbaith's  Confession 
Faded  Leaf    .... 
Barth's  Church  History 
Hymn-Book    .... 
Church  Music     .     .     . 
Tract,  "  Salvation  " 
Picture    Cards.      Words  of 

Wisdom 48mo 


Printing   Done   at   Athens 

Jonas  King's  Defense  before 
the  Areopagus  in  1846. 

Jonas  King's  Exposition  of  an 
Apostolic  Church     .     .     . 

Jonas  King's  Religious  Rites 
of  an  Apostolic  Church    . 

Jonas  King's  Canons  of   In- 
terpretation. 

Jonas  King's  Orgies  of  Sim- 
onides. 

Jonas  King's  Answer  to  the 
Greek  Synod. 

Jonas     King's     Opinion     of 
Twelve  Lawyers,  etc. 

Jonas  King's  Miscellany 
"  "       Sermons 

Saint's  Rest    .... 

Prayers  of  the  Saints    . 

Bible  of  Divine  Origin 

Gurney  on  the  Sabbath 

Alleine's  Alarm  .     .     . 

Gallaudet's    Natural    Theol 
ogy 

Mother  at  Home     .     . 

Life  of  Josiah      ... 

Butler's  Analogy     .     . 

Library  of  the  Fathers 

Manual  of  Theology    . 

Foundations  of  History 

The  Good  Shepherd    . 

The  Best  Friend      .     . 

Practical  Discourses    .     , 

Simple  Lessons       .     . 

Call  to  the  Unconverted 

Practical  View    .... 

Russian  Tailor    .... 

Peasant  and  his  Guest 


Size.  Pages.  Year. 

64m  0 

68  1841 

l6mo 

264  1S42 

i( 

180    " 

i2mo 

296  1843 

8vo 

20    " 

i6mo 

So     " 

32mo 

60     " 

i2mo 

354  1848 

i6mo 

100  1854 

Svo 

52  185S 

i2mo 

8  i860 

8  1880 


54 
96 


8vo      843 

1S59 

Svo      657 

1S39 

i6mo 

" 

1842 

1 2mo 

1841 

i6mo 

1849 

i2mo 

1837 

" 

1S40 

401 

34 

.       136 

319 

32 

32 

284 

92 

30S 

c;o6 

20 

64 

5o6 


APPENDIX. 


PRINTING    DONE 
Greco-Turkish. 

Tract  Primer 

Hymn-Book 


AT   SMYRNA   AND   CONSTANTINOPLE.  —  Continued. 


Size.   Pages.  Year. 
i2mo     72  1864 


Tract,  "  Good  Works  "    .     . 
"       "  World  to  Come  "    . 

Catechism  (Jones)  .... 

Tract,  "  Bridge  "  .... 
"  "  Blot  Out  My  Sins  " 
■"  "  Precious  Invitation  " 
■"  "  A  Saviour  for  You  " 
"  "  First  Step  "... 
"       "  Prince  and  liis  Guest' 

Letters  to  Families      .     .     . 

Sundav  .School  Lessons  .     . 

First  Reader 

Second  Reader 

Little  Joseph  and  his  Ques. 

'Geographv  with  Maps     .     . 

Panoramic  Hist,  of  Samuel 
"  Bible  Sea  Scenes 

Pilgrim's  Progress  .... 

Hymn-Book 

Tract,  "  W^orth  of  the  Soul  " 
"       "  Family  Prayer  " 
"       "W^hat  is  Baptism?" 
"       "  Who    is    Rich   and 
Who  Poor  ?" 

Picture   Cards.      Words  of 
Wisdom 

Notes  on  Gospels  and  Acts 

Bulgarian. 

Friendly  Counsels  to  Parents 
Tree  of  Intemperance  .  . 
Something  for  the  Unlearned 
Child's  Book   on   the    Soul. 

Part  I 

Child's   Book   on    the    Soul. 

Part  II 

Tract,  "  Poor  Joseph  "  .  . 
Ques.  in  Regard  to  Reading 
Tract  on  "  Way  of  Salvation  " 
Eng.  and  Bui.  (grammar 

Tract  Primer 

Tract,  "  Self-Examination  " 

•-•'      "  Good  Works "    .     . 

'"      "  The  Two  Lambs  "  . 

""       "Conversation      with 

Young  Traveler  "... 
Tract,  "A  Church  in  Every 

House " 

Tract,     "  Basil,     the     Pious 

Child" 


i6mo 

I2mn 


16    1865 
264    1869 

28    1S7O 


1 87  2 
1873 


i«75 


4to 
i2mo 

i6mo 

8vo 

i6mo 


246 

8 

4 

4 

40 

4 

3     " 
293     " 
16  1876 
68     " 


147  1877 


i2mo  31 
i6mo  264 
i2mo     20 
321110       7 
8 


1879 


48m  o 
i2mo 


i6mo 


8     " 
239  1880 


32  1842 
12     " 
36  1843 


i2mo     61   1844 


" 

100  1852 

" 

12  185S 

" 

12  " 

" 

8  1859 

Svo 

no  " 

i2mo 

132  i860 

" 

34  " 

" 

29  " 

" 

20  " 

" 

19  " 

.< 

16  " 

Bulgarian. 
Tract,  "Maria,  the  Soldier': 

Daughter"  .... 
Tract,  "On  Salvation"  . 
Ten  Commandments  .  . 
Bui.  and  Eng.  Vocabulary 
Tract,  "  First  Step  "  .  . 
Answer  to  Papal  Slanders 
Pope  and  the  Roman  Church 
Whom  Shall  we  Believe .'' 
The  Lord's  Prayer  .  . 
Three  Hymns  with  Tunes 
Guide  to  Reading  Scriptures 
Sacred  Hymns  ... 
Cross  of  Christ  .     .     . 

On  Lying , 

Catechism  (Jones)  .     . 
Gospel  History  .     .     . 
Tract,  "  Fasting  "    .     . 
"       "  Sign  of  the  Cross  " 
"       "Come  to  Jesus" 
"       "Enlightened  Priest" 
"       "  Chrysostom  on  Read- 
ing Scriptures  "... 

Ivord's  Day 

Epitome  of  the  Gospel     . 
Hymns  and  Tunes  .     .     . 
The  One  Thing  Needful 
Lessons  in  Sacred  Music 
Questions  on  New  Test. 
Text  of  Scrip,  for  each  day 
True  Worshipers    .     .     . 

Plain  Truths 

Goodell's  Sermons       .     . 
.Spiritual  Worship  .     .     . 

Baptism 

Lord's  Sujiper     .... 
What  is  it  to  Believe  in  Chris 

and  Heavenly  Voice .'' 
Sermon  on  the  Sabbath 
The  Bible  and  Tradition 
Protestants  the  Ancient  Or 

thodox    

Confession  of  Faith  and  Cov 
Answers  to  Objections 
Tract  on  Prayer  .  .  . 
Hymn-Book  .... 
Tract  on  Intemperance 
Commentary     on     Matthew 

and  Mark  .... 
Shorter  Catechism  .  . 
Where  Did  He  Get  that  Law 
The  Infidel  Blacksmith  .  . 
Counsels  to  Young  Disciples 


Size.  Pages.  Ye.-'.r. 

I2mo 

12  1860 

" 

8  " 

Svo 

-5- 

i2mo 

8  1861 

8  " 

78  " 

24  " 

12  " 

4  " 

54  1862 

24  " 

24  " 

8  " 

264  " 

156  " 

20  1S63 

24  " 

72  " 

27  1S64 

128 


" 

86 

" 

8vo 

64 

1865 

i2mo 

6 

" 

8vo 

28 

1866 

i2mo 

7- 

" 

32mo 

60 

" 

1 2mo 

20 

" 

" 

8 

u 

" 

522 

1867 

" 

156 

" 

" 

28 

" 

" 

34 

** 

i6mo 

16 

" 

1 2mo 

12 

35 

I86S 

" 

43 

1868 

i6mo 

8 

" 

i2mo 

36 

48 

1869 

i6mo 

•54 

1872 

i2m<') 

4 

'* 

" 

562 

1873 

" 

4- 

" 

" 

8 

1874 

" 

4 

" 

" 

8 

X 

APPENDIX. 


507 


PRINTING   DONE   AT   SMYRNA   AND  CONSTANTINOPLE.  — Continued. 


Bulgarian. 

What  are  You  Waiting  for.^ 

Earthly  Care  a  Heavenly 
Discipline 

Rules  for  Holy  Living     . 

Tract,  "  Are  You  Ready  ? " 
"       "  Worth  of  the  Soul  " 
"       "  No  Thought  of  Dy- 
ing So " 

Tract,  "Do  you  Wish  to  be 
Saved .'' " 

Book  of  Bible  and  other  Pict- 
ures    

Evidences  of  Christianity     . 

Catechism 

How  to  Become  a  Christian 

Short  Account  of  the  Bible 

A  Life  for  a  Flower     .     .     . 

Behold  the  Lamb  of  God 

A  Voice  from  Heaven  and 
What  is  it  to  Believe  in 
Christ.' 

ADDENDA. 

Dairyman's  Daughter  .  . 
Henry  and  his  Bearer  .  . 
Pilgrim's  Progress  .... 
Mrs.  Riggs'  Letters  to  Moth- 
ers       

Questions  on  the  ScrijJtures 
Dew  Drops 

Hebrew-Spanish. 
Hebrew-Spanish  Primer 

History  of  Paul 

King  and  his  Son    .... 


Size.   Pages.  Year. 
i2mo       4  1874 


32mo 
i2mo 


12 

36 

S 


1S7S 


8vo    56  1878 
i2mo  412  " 


i6mo  16 


79 

235 

13S 

221 
60 


1879 


20  1851 
8  " 


Hebrew-Spanish.  Size.  Pages.  Year. 

Hymns i6mo  20  1S51 

Proofs  of  Inspiration  of  Old 

and  New  Testament     .     .  i2mo  80  1852 

Prodigal  Son "  8 

Rich  Man  and  Lazarus    .     .  "  4 

Parables  from  New  Test.     .  "  40 

The  Golden  Image      .     .     .  24mo  7 

Talents "  6 

The  Two  Liars "  6 

Child's  Book  on  the  Soul     .  "  124 
Tract    on     Advantages     of 

Drunkenness "  7 


400 


Arabo-Turkish. 

Christ's  Sermon      ....  8vo 

Catechism i2mo 

Commentary  on  Christ's  Ser- 
mon     8vo 

Commentary     on     Matthew 

and  Mark 

Hymns i6mo  104 

Judgment  and  Future  State  Svo        13 

First  Book  for  Children  .     .  i6mo     63 
Decalogue      ....     Broad  sheet     i 

Beatitudes      ....        *'  "          i 

Selected  Texts    ...         "  "          2 

Belief  and  Worship     .     .     .  i6mo  128 

Notes  on  the  Decalogue  .     .  "80 
Teachings  of  New  Testament 

on  Future  Judgment     .     .  "        16 
Firman  of  Protestant  Com- 
munity     Folio       I 

Mental  Arithmetic       .     .     .  i2mo  144 
Dictionary.      English      and 

Turkish •  Svo      827 


1S55 

1862 

1863 
1864 

1S65 
1867 


186S 
1869 


1880 


SYRIAC. 

Scriptures. 

Size.  Year.  Place. 

The  Gospels  and  Acts        i2mo  1841     Oroomiah 

New  Testament 4to  1S47  " 

Old  Testament "  1S53  " 

New  Testament  with  notes 1859  " 

"  "  with  references      .     .     .     Imp.  Svo  1S60  " 

"  "  in  Estrangelo  characters    . 

Old  Testament     "  "  "  .  " 

Pocket  Testament lumo  1S64  " 

New  Testament Svo  1S66  " 

"  "  32mo  New  York 

"  "  and  Psalms       "  " 


Modern  Syriac 

Anc.  and  Mod.  Syriac 


Modern  Syriac 


5o8 


APPENDIX. 


RELIGIOUS   BOOKS  PRINTED  AT  OROOMIAH. 


Pilgrim's  Progress.     i2mo.     1848. 

Ravs  of  Light  (monthly).     8vo.     Commenced 

1848. 
Saint's  Rest.     i2mo.     1854. 
Call  to  the  Unconverted.     i2mo.     1854. 
On  Faith.     By  W.  R.  Stocking. 
On  Repentance.     By  W.  R.  Stocking. 
Pastoral  Theology.     By  J.  G.  Cochran. 
Homiletics.     By  J.  G.  Cochran. 
Green  Pastures  for  the  Lord's  Flock.     8vg, 

pp.  392.     1855. 
Scripture  Facts.     Svo.     1S56. 
Barth's  Church  History.     8vo.     1856. 
Scripture  Geography  and  Chronology.     4to. 

1856.     By  J.  G.  Cochran. 
Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress.     8vo.     1857. 
Outlines  of  Theology.     Svo.     1857. 
Hymn-Book.     i2mo.    i860.    Several  editions. 


Questions  on  Acts.     i2mo.     1S60. 
Commentary  on  Minor  Prophets.  i2mo.  1861. 
Christian  Almanac.     i2mo.     1862. 
Pastoral  Theology.     i2mo.     1S63.     By  J.  G. 

Cochran. 
Commentary  on  Matthew.     i2mo.     1865.     ^Y 

J.  Perkins,  D.D. 
Commentary  on  Genesis.     i2mo.     1S67.     By 

J.  Perkins,  D.D. 
Commentary  on  Exodus.     i2mo.     1869.     ^7 

J.  Perkins,  D.D. 
Commentary   on   Daniel.     i2mo.     1869.     By 

J.  Perkins,  D.D. 
Almanac,     pp.  44.     1869. 
Night  of  Toil.     pp.  221.     1S69. 
Signet  Ring.     i2mo,  pp.  65.     1869. 
Revival  Hynms.     i2mo,  pp.  32.     1869. 


SECULAR   BOOKS   PRINTED   AT   OROOMIAH. 


Geography.  1 2mo. 
Mental  Arithmetic. 
Written  Arithmetic 

Stocking. 
Algebra.     i2mo.     1864. 


1850.    By  A.  H.  Wright. 
i2mo.     1856. 
8vo.     1856.     By  W.  R. 


By  J.  G.  Cochran. 


Moral  Science.     i2mo.     1867. 
Arithmetic.     Small  4to. 
Astronomy.     By  J.  G.  Cochran. 
Natural  Philosophy.     By  J.  G.  Cochran. 
History.     By  J.  G.  Cochran. 


MARATHI   PRINTED   AT    BOMBAY. 


The  Way  to  Heaven  .  .  . 
The  Heavenly  Way  .  .  . 
Catechism 

Many  other  editions     .     . 
Sermon  by  Rev.  A.  Graves 
Catechism  for  Children   .     . 
Scripture   Doctrines.     Five 

editions 

Useful  Instruction  .... 

"      History.     Four  cd.  . 

Marks  of  the  True  Religion 

The  Three  Words.     Many 

editions 

In  Whom  Shall  We  Trust  ? 

Many  editions  .... 
True  Worship  of  God.  Two 

editions 

Relief  for  the  Sin-burdened. 

Many  editions  .  .  .  . 
Glad  Tidings.  Many  ed'ns 
The  Great  Enquiry.     Many 

editions 


Rel 

igious 

Size.  Year.  Pages,    j 

8vo 

1818 

16 

1S24 

72 

32mo 

1S19 

40 
36 

i8mo 

24 
30 

Svo 

96 

iSmo 

1825 

63 

t2mo 

70 

1829 

0- 

"    1822 

i8mo 
i2mo  1S22 


1829     20 
32mo  1825     32 


Size.  Year.  Pages. 

Discoures  of  Christ  ...  24 
The  Wrath  to   Come.     By 

G.  Hall.     Many  editions  .  iSmo  1S25     28 

Miracles  of  Christ.    Two  ed.  36 

Marathi  Shlokas     ....  Svo      1833     98 

Parables  of  Christ.    Two  cd.  22 

Letters  of  Bengalee  Converts  22 

Decalogue.  Seven  editions  27 
Prayers  and  Hymns.      Four 

editions 1825     72 

On  Prayer 1833     10 

Hymns  for  Worship.      Foin- 

editions 48 

Good  Instructions  ....  1834       8 

On  .Salvation "          8 

Remedy  for  .Sin       ....  "          S 

Atonement "          8 

Birth  and  Death  of  Christ    .  "        31 

On  Death  . "        29 

On  Regeneration    ....  "16 

Biblical  Instruction     ...  "96 

Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain  iSmo  1849     5^ 


APPENDIX. 


509 


MARATHI    PRINTED   AT   BOMBAY. —  Continued. 


Henry     and     his      Bearer. 

Many  editions      .... 
Way   of    Salvation.     Many 

editions 

Nature  of  God 

Instructive  Stories       .     .     . 

Leang  Afa 

Scripture  Narratives.     Two 

editions 

Life  of  Babajee 

Child's  Book   on  the  Soul. 

A.  Abbott 

Twelve  Tracts 

Four  Tracts 

Common  Prayer  .... 
Prayers  with  Scripture  .  . 
Life    of    Christ,    from    the 

Sanskrit 

The  True  Way.  Many  ed. 
Discussions  by  G.  Bowen  . 
Mode  of  Worship  .... 
Life  of  Joseph 

"    "  Elijah  and  Jonah 
Compendium  of  Bible      .     . 
Child's  Book  on  Repentance 
Summary  of  Doctrine .     .     . 
Creed    of    Church    at 

Ahmednagar 

Earth's  Church  History  .  . 
Parley  the  Porter.  A.  Hazen 
Old  Testament  Selections  . 
Systems  of  Religion    .     .     . 


Religious   Books.  —  Continued. 
Size.  Year.  Pages.  Size.  Year.  Pages. 

Lambs  Fed.     H.  Ballantine      iSnio  1S51     52 
55       Course  of  Revelation.     H. 

Ballantine i2mo  1S52 

Examination  of  Religions    .         "      1S56 

Theological  Class-Book.  H. 

Ballantine "      1S57 

Mrs.  M.  E.  Munger.      S.  B. 

Munger "      1S58 

Commentary  on  Matthew. 
R.  S.  Wilder 8vo 

Hymns   for    Worship.      H. 

Ballantine      ....     Sq.  i6mo  1S45  '48 

Hymns  for  Worship.  H. 
Ballantine.  Several  edi- 
tions.    Enlarged      .     .     .     i2mo 

Tunes.     S.  B.  Fairbank  .     .     Svo      1853     12 

Hymns  for  Children   .     .     .     i2mo  1S62 
"       and  Songs  for  Chil- 
dren            "      1866 

Hymns     and     Tunes     for 

Children.     Mrs.  Bissell    .         "      1S74 

Child  at  Home.     A.  Hazen      iSmo  100 

Mother  at  liome.  "         "  "  100 

Life  of  Mohammed  (Eng- 
lish).    G.  Bowen      ...         "  174 

Life  of  Mohammed  (Mara- 

thi).     G.  Bowen  ....     i2mo  162 

Friendly  Words  to  Papists  55 

Miracles  of  Prophecy  (Eng- 
lish).    G.  Bowen     ...  42 

Discussions    by     the     Sea. 

(English).     G.  Bowen       .  204 


1835     24 

"        48 

"        12 

i2mo 

1S51     72 

" 

1835     76 

" 

1S36  211 

69 

126 

i2mo 

743 

566 

« 

1834  304 

39 

44 

52 

20 

64 

" 

1835    84 

" 

184S    92 

1849    70 

i2mo 

8 

Svo 

1S50  260 

iSmo 

"       48 

i2mo 

1851  230 

i6mo 

1851   100 

Size. 


Sermon  on  the  Mount 
Genesis.     Two  ed'ns 

Exodus    

Leviticus  and  Heb.  . 

Psalms 

Prophecies     of     Old 

Tesfament  .  .  . 
Poetry  of  Old  Test. 
Pentateuch  ,  .  . 
Matthew.  Three  ed. 
"  Lithog'd. 
Mark 

"        Lithographed. 
Luke.     Four  editions 


8vo 


Scriptures. 

Year.     Pages. 

Size. 

Year.     Pages. 

Before  183S 

28 

136 

160 

126 

247 

John.     Two  editions 
Acts.     Three       " 
Romans   and    Corin- 
thians.    Two  ed'ns 
Gal.  to  Philemon 
James  to  Jude      .     . 

70 
89 

108 
76 
39 

1838 

Hebrews  to   Revela- 

1839 

tion.     Two   edit'ns 

no 

1842 

88 

.S.S 

New  Testament  .     . 
I  Chronicles    .     .     . 
New  Testament  .     . 
Old  Testament     .     . 

Svo 

1845 
1846 
1851 
I 8 53  942 

82 
94 

Bible 

Ref.  Testament    .     . 

1857 

and 

1871 
1S67 

5IO 


APPENDIX. 


MARATHI. —Continued. 

Periodicals. 

Dnyaiiodaya  from  1842.     Fortnightly.     Royal  Svo,   pp.   16  each.     Now  weekly,  pp.  12,  with 

monthly  supplement  of  8  pages  for  children. 
Bombay  Witness.     English.     Weekly.     Folio.     From  1833  to  1846. 
Temperance  Advocate.     Monthly.     1S49  and  1850. 
Temperance  Repository.     Quarterly.     1851  to  1854. 

Indian  Evangelical  Review.     English.     Quarterly.     At  Bombay  from  1873  ^'^  '^79. 
Oriental  Christian  Spectator.     English.     Monthly.     48  pp.  each  from  1833. 
Bombay  Medical  and  Physical  Society's  Journal.     Svo. 


Reading-Book 

Easy    Mode     of     Learning 

English.     By  G.  Hall  . 
Help  to  Acquiring  English 
Geography  and  Astronomy 
Numerical  Tables  .     .     . 
Elementary  Arithmetic   . 
Spelling-Book.     Several  ed 
Exercises  in  Eng.  and  Mar. 
Intellectual  Arithmetic.    H 

Ballantine 

Arithmetic  in   three   parts; 

Several  editions  ... 
Easy  Lessons  in  Reading 
Maps.     Lithographed. 
Geography  and  Astronomy 

Two  editions  .... 
Almanacs.  Several  years 
For  the  Jews  .... 
First  Book  for  Children  . 
Reading-Book  .... 
Eng.  and  Mar.  Dictionary 

Primer 

The  School-Boy  .  .  . 
History  of  British  India* 
Life  of  Columbus  *     .     . 


Compassion  of  Christ  .  . 
Old  Testament  Selections  . 
Topical  S.  S.  Questions  .  . 
Pilgrim's  Progress  .  .'  . 
Christian  Evidences  .  .  . 
Natural  Theology  .     .     .     . 

Faith 

Earth's  Bible  Stories.     Old 

Testament 

Earth's  Bible  Stories.     New 

Testament 

Pleasing  Instruction    .     .     . 


Secular 
Size.  Year.  Pages. 
i6mo  1818     64 


i2mo  1819  iSo 

Svo      1S22  80 

i6mo       "  4S 

Svo      1825  48 

34 

1S35 

i2mo  1S40  169 

"       1837  186 
"       1841 


"  200 

Svo  40 

88 
iSmo  1843     ^° 

64 
i2mo  1842  294 
iSmo  1849  52 
i6mo  "  30 
Svo  "     274 

"     17S 


Grammar.  By  a  native  .  . 
Astronomy.  By  E.  Burgess 
Importance  of  Cleanliness 
Primer  and  Vocabulary  . 
Logic.  By  A.  Abbott  . 
History  of  India  .  .  . 
Natural  Philosophy  .  . 
Manual  of  Sanskrit  Gram. 
Marathi  Grammar.     By  E, 

Burgess      .     .     .     .     , 
English  Grammar  and  Sen 

fences     

Wanderings  of  Yamunabai 
Anatomy,  Human  and  Com 

parative.     H.  J.  Bruce 
Book  of  Beasts   .     .     .      Roy 

"      "   Birds     ... 

Radhanath 

Bombay  Native  Almanac  . 
Natural  Philosophy  .  .  . 
Meteorological  Observations 
Marathi  Algebra  .... 
A  Small  Arithmetic  .  .  . 
"      "      Geography     .     .     . 

Mechanics 

W^ork  on  Railways      .     .     . 


Size.  Year.  Pages. 
Svo  1S50  no 
i2mo  1846     45 

24 

i8mo  1S51  116 
i2mo  41 

"       1S51 

"       1853 
Svo       1S54     20 


Other    Works. 
Size.  Year.   Pages. 

i6mo  1819      S 


i2mo  1851  230 
"       1S44  lOI 

257 
128 
235 


iSmo 
i2mo 
i8mo 


191 

174 
326 


Ratna  Mala  .... 
Dharma  Prabodh  .  , 
Life  of  Luther  .  .  . 
Female  Education  .  , 
African  Girl,  etc.  .  . 
Christian  Narratives  , 
Wonders  of  Nature  . 
Hindoo  Festivals  .  . 
Kindness  to  Animals  , 
Pilgrimages  and  Cholera 
Dairyman's  Daughter 
Moral  Stories      ... 


i2mo 

1S51 
1857 

295 

" 

187S 

264 

al  Svo 

1S51 

24 
20 

32mo 

1844 

Svo 

1847 

168 

i2mo 

1846 

95 

4to 

Svo 

iSmo 

1848 

72 

" 

1847 

44 

r2mo 

Svo 

49 

Size.  Year.  Pages. 

32mo 

256 

iSmo 

239 

i2mo 

185 

59 

32mo 

32 

iSmo 

24S 

i2mo 

191 
86 
92 

iSmo 

52 
65 

i2mo 

86 

•Printed  for  tlie  government. 


APPENDIX. 


511 


MARATHI.  —  Continued. 


Size.  Year. 

Pages. 

Instructive  Stories  for  Chil- 

dren    

i2mo 

60 

Ayah  and  Lady  .... 

" 

66 

Flower  Gatherers    .     .     . 

iSmo 

52 

Dialogue  on  Religion 

" 

5S 

Hindoo  Domestic  Reform 

i2mo 

60 

Systems  of  Speculative  Phi- 

losophy   

" 

46 

.Size.  Year.  Pages. 

The  True  Atonement       .     .  i8mo  42 

Village  School i2mo  60 

Catechism    on    the    Lord's 

Prayer "  1836  35 

Address  to  the  Jews    ...  "  1S33  88 

Prize  Essay  on  the  Holi  .     .  iSmo  1849  7- 

.Second  Essay  on  the  Holi    .  "  "  68 

Honesty 32mo  1850  32 


TELOOGOO. 


Scriptures. 
The  Gospels     .     .     . 
Matthew       .     .    .     . 
Luke  and  John      .     . 
Acts  of  the  Apostles 


Size.  Year.       Place. 

i6mo  1853  Madras 

"  1859    " 

"•  1S61 

"  1863    " 


Religious  Books.  Size.     Year.       Place. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer  i6mo  1849  Madras 
Jewel  Mine  of  Salvation       "  "  " 


Secular  Books. 
Vocabul'y  Eng.  and  Tel. 


i2mo  1041 


ZEND 


Size.  Pages. 

Letter  to  a  Parsee     .... 

•     32mo       32 

Second  Letter  to  a  Parsee  .     . 

47 

Letter  to  a  Zoroastrian       .     . 

"              21 

Polytheism  of  Parsees   .     .     . 

.     1 2mo       43 

Size.  Pages. 

Parseeism i2mo       3S 

Life  of  Nero "         41 

"    "  Titus "  72 

"    "  Trajan 32mo       45 


GUJERATI. 


Size.   Pages. 

Gallaudet's  Nat.  Theology.*  1849  i2mo  254 

Lives  of  the  Caesars  *      ....       "  304 

Memoir  of  Columbus.     1849  .     .  144 

Female  Infanticide.*     1S49     .     .  55 

Life  of  Mohammed "  154 

Exercises  in  Eng.  and  Guj.     1849  370 

Moral  Class-Book* "  306 

Sentences.     Eng.  and  Gujerati     .  Svo 

History  of  India* i2mo  190 

English  and  Gujerati  Vocabulary    i8mo  298 


Mechanics  *  .  .  .  . 
Touchstone  of  Truth  . 
Gospel  Catechism  .  . 
Elementary  Catechism 
Henry  and  his  Bearer 
Good  Tidings  .  .  . 
In  Whom  Shall  We  Trust 

Pantheism 

Enquirer  Pointed  to  Christ 


Size.  Pages. 
i2mo 

"  121 

i.«mo  8S 
154 
154 
154 
154 
59 
132 


SCINDEE. 
Sue.   Pages. 


Scindee  and    English    Dic- 
tionary.*    1849  •     •     .     ■     Royal  Svo     500 

*  For  the  government 


Scindee  Grammar  * 


Size.  Pages. 
Royal  Svo     17S 


512 

APPEN 

DIX. 

TAMIL. 

Scriptures. 

Size. 

Year. 

Place. 

Religious  Books. 

Size, 

Year.     Place. 

T'roverbs      .... 

.     i6mo 

1837  Manepy 

Sewall  nn  Tcmjjerancc 

i2mo 

1833  Ceylon 

Timothy,     James     and 

The  Negro  Servant  .     . 

" 

<< 

John  (Epistles) 

.     32mo 

" 

Jaffna 

Krishnu  Pal     .     .     .     . 

" 

" 

Acts 

.     1 6nio 

" 

Manepy 

The  Mountain  Miller    . 

«' 

" 

Psalms 

" 

1839 

Catechism.     24  ])p.  .     . 

" 

1834         '• 

Joshua    

" 

" 

" 

Spiritual    Songs.      Dr. 

Deuteronom}   .     .     . 

" 

" 

" 

Spaulding.     Two  ed. 

32mo 

1836  Manepy 

New  Testament   .     . 

8vo 

1840 

Madras 

Scripture  History      .     . 

iSmo 

1S39 

I  and  II  Kings     .     . 

.     i6mo 

" 

Jaffna 

Compendium  of  Bible. 

I  and  II  Samuel  .     . 

" 

" 

" 

Dr.    Spaulding.     120 

Selections  from  Bible 

i2mo 

" 

Madras 

PP 

" 

Judges     

i6mo 

" 

Jaffna 

Parables  of  Christ.    394 

Luke  and  Acts     .     . 

" 

1841 

Madras 

PP 

i6mo 

" 

Ezra  to  Job     .     .     . 

" 

" 

Jaffna 

Henry  and  his  Bearer  . 

iSmo 

1S40  Madras 

Isaiah 

" 

" 

" 

The  New  Birth     .     .     . 

i2mo 

1S41 

Svo 

1844 

Madras 

On  Faith.      J.  R.  Eck- 

Bible 

" 

" 

ard 

i8mo 

1842  Jaffna 

Ephesians    .... 

32mo 

1847 

" 

E.xposition  of  Parables. 

Gospel  of  John     .     . 

i2mo 

" 

Jaffna 

F.  D.  W.  Ward     .     . 

i2mo 

1844  Madras 

" 

1849 

Madras 

Scripture  Text- Book     . 

32mo 

1845         " 

Bible        ....  4to  2 

md  Svo 

1850 

" 

Barth's  Church  Hist.    . 

i2mo 

" 

Psalms.  Eng.  and  Tam 

i2mo 

" 

Jaffna 

Line  Upon  Line.     Dr. 

"           

i6mo 

t( 

Manepy 

Spaulding     .... 

iSmo 

1S46 

New  Testament    .     . 

i2mo 

1852 

Madras 

Natural  Theology     .     . 

1 2  mo 

"      Madras 

Psalms 

i6mo 

1853 

" 

Tamil      Hymns.        Dr. 

Acts.     Eng.  and  Tam. 

i2mo 

1854  Jaffna 

Spaulding     .... 

Svo 

" 

Matthew       .... 

iSmo 

" 

" 

and  24mo      .... 

184S 

"         

i2mo 

1856 

Madras 

and  1S62. 

New  Testament   .     . 

" 

1857 

" 

Prayers 

Svo 

1S46  Jaffna 

Gospels 

i6mo 

1859 

" 

First  Catechism.      Dr. 

Genesis 

" 

" 

" 

Spaulding     .... 

i6mo 

1847 

New  Testament   .     .     . 

Svo 

" 

" 

Luther's         Catechism 

Old  Testament     .     . 

" 

i860 

" 

(smaller) 

i2mo 

" 

Pocket  Testament     . 

1 2mo 

" 

" 

Scripture  History.    Dr. 

Testament  and  Psalms 

" 

" 

" 

Spaulding     .... 

i6mo 

1S48  Madras 

Psalms 

i6mo 

" 

" 

Indian  Pilgrim      .     .     . 

i2mo 

1847         " 

Matthew  and  John    . 

" 

1861 

" 

Wesley's  Hymns.    Per- 

Luke 

" 

" 

" 

cival 

If 

1848 

New  Testament   .     .     . 

Svo 

1864 

" 

Pilgrim's  Progress.  Dr. 
Spaulding     .... 

.. 

« 

Religious 

Books. 

Rise  and  Progress    .     . 

(< 

Jaffna 

1 2  mo 

Ceylon 

I'arnes  on  Matthew  .     . 

" 

"      Madras 

The  Heavenly  Wa;/  . 

" 

n 

Evidences  of  Christ'nity 

i6mo 

"            " 

The  Means  of  Bliss 

'• 

Christianity     vs.     Hin- 

Good  Instruction .     . 

" 

dooism 

Svo 

" 

Martyrdom  of  Polycaip 

" 

Instruc'ns  to  Catechists 

i6mo 

1849        " 

Scripture  History. 

Daily     Monitor.       Dr. 

Abridged      .     .     . 

" 

Spaulding      .... 

24mo 

"      Jaffna 

Letters  to  Brahmans     . 

" 

Theology.         Rhenius. 

Swearer's  Prayer      .     . 
A  Doctrinal  Catechism 

11 

T-7A  nn 

i2mo 

1852  Madras 

" 

1  -^  PP 

Peep  of  Day    .... 

Francis  Newport       .     . 

" 

Evidences     of     Chris- 

A Hvmn-Book      .     .     . 

" 

tianity       

" 

" 

APPENDIX. 


5^3 


TAMIL.  — Continued. 


Religious   Books. 

Poetical  Bible  Com- 
pendium   

Ques.  on  Books  of  Bible 

Tamil  Hymns.  Dr.  M. 
Winslow 

Early  Piety       .... 

Life  of  Christ  .... 

Light  of  Truth      .     ,     . 

Sweet  Savors  of  Divine 
Truth.  H.  M.  Scud- 
der 

Bible  History.  Dr. 
Spaulding     .... 

Gospel  History    .     .     . 

Christian  Instructor. 
W.  Tracy.    444  pp. 

Bible  Dictionary.  Dr. 
Spaulding     .... 

Glory  of  Christ     .     .     . 

German  Hymn  Tunes  . 

Bazar  Book.  H.  M. 
Scudder.     419  pp.     . 

Book  of  Native  Prov- 
erbs.    Percival     .     . 

Church  Members'  Man- 
ual.    126  pp.     .     .     . 


Size.  Year.     Place. 

i6mo  1852  Jaffna 
Madras 

Svo  1853 

i6mo  "  " 

i2mo  "  " 

i6mo  "  " 


1S57         " 

1 8  59  Jaffna 
1 86 1  Madras 


i2mo  1862 
i6mo  1864 
Svo      1865 


1S6S  Jaffna 


Pastor's  Hand-Book. 
Notes  on  Romans.     G.  T.  Washburn. 
Children  of  the  Bible.     Mrs.  T.  S.  Smith. 
Fidelia  Fisk.      Life  of.     Miss  H.  E.  Town- 

shend. 
The  Romish  Church.     J.  Scudder. 
Friendly  Letters  to  Romanists.     J.  Scudder. 
The  Marriage  of  Priests.     J.  Scudder. 
Divine  Teaching;     H.  M.  Scudder. 
The  Jewel  Mme  of  Salvation.  H.  M.  Scudder. 
Catechism  for  Christians.     PI.  M.  Scudder. 

Periodicals. 

Lamp  of  Truth.    Svo. 

The .  Morning    Star.      4to  Diglott.      Begun 

about  1850.     Semi-monthly.    Native  editor. 
The    Children's    Friend.       Begun    in    1868. 

Monthly. 
The    Aurora.      4to.      1844.      Semi-monthlv. 

Madras. 
The  True  News  Bearer.     Monthly.     Madras. 

G.  T.  Washburn. 
Satthiawarttamani.    Diglott.    Madras.    G.  T. 

Washburn. 
Madras  Christian  Instructor.     Eight  vols,  up 

to  1850. 


Secular   Books. 

First  Lessons.  Tamil 
and  English.  Dr. 
Spaulding.  64  pp.  . 
and  1847        .     .     .     . 

Almanacs.  68  and  50  pp. 
and  1835  

Reading-Book.     64  pp. 

Spelling-Book.     48  pp. 

Spelling  and  Reading- 
Book.     56  pp.  .     .     . 

Tamil  Calendar    .     .     . 

Select  Tamil  Tales  .     . 
Hindoo  Traveler       .     . 
Phrase-Book.     Dr. 
Spaulding     .... 
and  184S       .... 
Adventures  of  Nala 
Ancient  Historv        .     . 
Manual  Tamil  Diction- 
ary.    Dr.  Spaulding 
Negandu's  Dictionary  . 
Physical  Science  .     .     . 
Daily  Reading  Lessons 
Tamil  and  English  Dic- 
tionary.    Dr.  Spauld- 
ing        

Tamil  Grammar.     Rhe- 

nius 

Tamil  Grammar.  Na- 
tive author  .... 
Classical  Reader.  Na- 
tive author  .... 
Geography  and  Atlas  . 
Oriental     Astronomer. 

H.  R.  Hoisington 
Elementary  Arithmetic 
Poem  on  Superstition  . 
Logic.     Nevius    .     .     . 
Anatomy.     S.  F.  Green, 

M.D 

Physiology.     Samuel  F. 
Green,  M.D.      .     .     . 
Algebra.  Native  author 
and  1845       .... 
Tamil  and  English  Dic- 
tionary.     Dr.    Wins- 
low.    Nearly  1000  pp. 
Geography       .... 
Mental  Arithmetic   .     . 
Surgery.     S.  F.  Green, 
m.d' 


Size.     Year.     Place. 


i2mo   1834 


Mane 


py 


1834 


i6mo  1835         " 

to  1853 
Svo      1S39  Madras 
"      Manepy 

i6mo  1 84 1 

Jaffna 
Svo        "       Madras 
i2mo     "  " 

Svo       1S42  Jaffna 

i6mo  1S43 

Svo      1844  Madras 


i2mo  1845         " 

Svo      1S46         " 

"      1847  Jaffna 
iSmo     "  " 

Svo      1 848         " 
iSmo  1S49         " 
i2mo  1850  Madras 
"         "       Jaffna 

Svo      1853 

i2mo     "  " 

1S54 


Svo      1S62  Madras 
1864  Jaffna 
1S6S 


33 


su 


APPENDIX. 


Secular  Books. 

Three  Chronological  Charts. 
Dr.  Spaulding. 

Obstetrics.     S.  F.  Green,  M.D. 

Pharmacopoeia.  "         "  " 

Medical  Vocabulary  and  Juris- 
prudence.    S.  F.  Green,  M.D. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  for 
Schools.     S.  F.  Green,  M.D. 

Chemistry.        "         "  " 


TAMIL. 

Size.     Pages. 


i2mo  25S 
Svo      500 

161 

i2mo  204 
Svo       516 


Continued. 

Secular   Books.  Size.     Pages. 

Practice    of    Medicine.       S.    F. 

Green,  M.D Svo      917 

Mother  and  Child.     S.  F.  Green, 

M.D iSmo     44 

The  Abode  of  the  Soul.     S.  F. 

Green,  M.D "         44 

Secret  Vice.     S.  F.  Green,  M.D.  "         32 

Besides   works    on    the    Hand, 

Eye,  Ear,  Foot,  etc. 


At   Singapore. 
Machopo's   Birth-Day.     The  Seamen's 

dess.     8  pp. 
Seanytery's  Birth-Day.    A  Famous  God. 
Offerings  to  the  Dead.     S  pp. 
Festival  of  Repairing  the  Tombs.     8  pp. 
New  Year's  Congratulations.     8  pp. 
Dialogue  between  Two  Friends.     43  pp. 
Sacred  Sleeve  Gem.     53  pp. 
On  Gambling.     15  pp. 
Sacred  Classic.     32  pp. 
Descent  of  Christ  to  Earth.     24  pp. 
Holy  Teachings  of  Jesus.     22  pp. 
Comfort  of  the  True  Doctrine.     87  pp. 
Redemption.     70  pp. 
Complete  Duty  of  Man.     33  pp. 
Precious  Teachings  of  Christ.     37  pp. 
Miracles  of  Jesus.     26  pp. 
New  Testament. 
Use  of  Opium. 
God  the  Lord  of  All. 
Life  of  Moses. 

True  Doctrine  its  Own  Witness. 
Gospel  Precepts. 


CHINESE. 

At   Singapore. 
God-       Religious  Magazine. 

The  Ten  Commandments  (in  Bugis).     24  pp. 
6  pp.       Parables  of  the  New  Test.  "         "  12  pp. 

The  True   God    Revealed   in   the   Bible    (in 

Malay).     16  pp. 
The  Te».Commandments  (in  Malay).     2S  pp. 
The  Religion  of  the  Bible.  "         "  16  pp. 

At   Canton. 
Good  Words  to  Admonish  the  Age. 
Scripture  Lessons. 
Political  Economy.     1847.     Svo. 
Comment  on  Matthew.     1S4S. 
Hymns  and  Psalms.     1S49. 
Catechism.     1S51.     i2mo. 
Bible  Poetry.     1851.     i2mo. 
Comment  on  Genesis.     1S51.     Svo. 
Four  Gospels.     1851.     Svo. 
Jesus  the  True  God.     i6mo. 
Crucifixion  of  Jesus.     i6mo. 
The  New  Birth.     i6mo. 
Dissuasive  from  Opium.     By  J.  T.     i2mo. 
Christian  Almanac.     1S52.     Svo. 


CHINESE.  —  Religious. 

Questions  on  the  Parables.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     Mrs.  E.  J.  G.  Bridgman  :  Peking. 

Thirteen  Village  Sermons.     1S55.     56  pp.     E.  Doty:  Hong  Kong. 

Jesus  the  True  God.     i6mo.     D.  Ball. 

Christian  Almanacs.     1843,  1^54,  1859  and  i860.     From  60  to  100  pp. 

Catechism  of  Sacred  Learning.     1853.     Fuhchau  Dialect.     126  pp.     C 

Book  on  the  Soul.     Fuhchau  Dialect.     Milne  and  Doolittle. 

Celestial  Mirror.  "  "  Milne  and  Doolittle. 

The  Ten  Commandments.     16S  pp.    J.  Doolittle. 

Hymnal.     1S72.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     D.  Blodgett  and  C.  Goodrich. 

Henry  and  his  Bearer.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     70  pp.     Peking. 

Catechism.     1S73.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     H.  Blodgett:  Peking. 

Trimetric  Classic.     1875.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     H.  Blodgett. 

Introduction  to  the  Bible.     1S70.     Shanghai  Dialect.     W,  Aitchison. 

Bible  (Geography  of  Palestine.     Shanghai  Dialect.     W.  Aitchison. 

Robinson's  Harmony  of  Gospels.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     C.  A.  Stanley 


D.  Ball :  Shanghai. 
C.  Baldwin :  Fuhchau. 


Peking. 


APPENDIX. 


515 


CHINESE.  —  Religious  (Continued). 


Martyrs  of  Madagascar. 

Life  of  Christ.     1S73. 

Doctrine  of  Holiness.     1873. 

Christian  Doctrine  (Theology). 

Little  Lapland  Girl.     1S76. 

Little  Given's  Story. 

Parley  the  Porter. 

Four  of  Moody's  Sermons. 

Homiletics  and  Pastoral  Theology. 

Woodcutter  of  Lebanon. 

Jessica's  First  Prayer. 

Shadow  of  the  Cross. 

Christian  Theology. 

Resolutions  of  Jonathan  Edwards. 

Dr.  Schaff's  Evan.  Catechism.  1881 


Mandarin  Colloquial 


Mrs.  J.  F.  Gulick. 

C.  Holcombe. 

D.  Z.  Sheffield  :  Peking. 

8vo.     240  pp.    D.  Z.  Sheffield  :  Peking 
Mrs.  E.  W.  Sheffield:  Peking. 
Miss  Mary  H.  Porter  :  Peking. 


H.  D.  Porter,  M.D. ; 
C.  Goodrich. 
Mary  E.  Andrews. 


Peking. 


D.  Z.  Sheffield  :  Peking. 
Translated  by  H.  Blodgett :  Peking. 


For  Scriptures  see  page  239. 


CHINESE.  — Secular. 


214  pp.     E.  T.  Bridgman  :  Canton. 


History  of  the  CJ.  S.  A.     1S3S  and  1846.     8vo. 
Chrestomathy.     1841.     Canton.     4to.     69S  pp.  "  " 

Easy  Lessons  in  Chinese.  ^  1842.     Canton.     S.  W.  Williams :  Canton. 
Anglo-Chinese  Manual.     1853.     Amoy.     214  pp.     E.  Doty  :  Canton. 
Chinese  Manual.     Fuhchau  Dialect.    6,000  phrases.     C.  C.  Baldwin. 


J.  G.  Bridgman  :  Canton. 

536  pp.     S.  W.  Williams :  Canton. 

C.  C.  Baldwin  and  R.  S.  Maclay. 
1S74.     12,000  characters.     Shanghai. 


868  pp.     S.  W.  Williams. 


Premare's  Chinese  Grammar.     1847.     34^  PP- 

English  and  Chinese  Vocabulary.     1844.     8vo, 

Chinese  Dictionary.     1870.     Fuhchau  Dialect. 

Syllabic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language. 

Anglo-Chinese  Dictionary.     J.  Doolittle. 

Tonic-Chinese  "  1856.     Canton  Dialect 

Geography.     Fuhchau  Dialect.     Mrs.  Baldwin. 

Manual  of  Geography.     L.  D.  Chapin. 

Astronomy  and  Meteorology.     Two  editions.     Mrs.  Happer  and  J.  Doolittle. 

Hand-Book  on  China.     Two  vols.     1422  pp.     J.  Doolittle. 

Canton  Almanacs.     1861-1865.     From  48  to  64  pp.     D.  Vrooman. 

First,  Second,  and  Third  Readers.     Fuhchau  Dialect.     C.  Hartwell. 

Map  of  the  World.     1861.     Fuhchau. 

Map  of  China.     1859.     S.  W.  Williams. 

Manual  of  Universal  History.     Mandarin  Colloquial.     Z.  Sheffield. 

Arithmetic.  "  "  S.  Holcombe. 

Arithmetic  for  Beginners.     1874.     Fuhchau. 

Intellectual  Arithmetic.     1876.     umo. 


The  following  statements,  differing  somewhat  from  those  on  page  211,  are  taken  from  an 
article  by  Mr.  Hoyt,  in  the  Chinese  Recorder,  for  1879,  page  206:  The  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  estab- 
lished the  first  mission  press  in  China.  It  was  sent  out  in  1831,  and  was  at  work  in  1832  at 
Canton,  and  at  first  printed  only  with  English  type.  Mr.  S.  W.  Williams  had  charge  of  it 
from  1S33  to  1856.  It  was  afterwards  removed  to  Peking.  Fifty-seven  different  publications 
were  issued  previous  to  1878,  varying  in  size  from  a  tract  to  an  8vo  Bible.     See,  also,  page  427. 


5i6 


APPENDIX. 


Title. 
Gospel  of  John.     Singapore 
"         "  Matthew.     Japan 
"  "  Mark  and  John.     Japa 

"  "  Matthew.     Japan 

"  "  Luke.     Japan  .     .     . 


Epistle  to  Romans.     "... 

Matthew,  Mark,  Acts,  Hebrews,  and 
Epistles  of  John.     Japan 

John,  Corinthians,  Galatians.    Japar 

Ephesians,  Philippians,  Thessalon'ns 

Philemon,  James,  Peter,  Jude,  Col 
ossians  and  Revelation     .     .     . 

New  Testament.*    i2mo,  744  pp.    . 

The  Kunten  New  Testament.  Ar 
adaptation  of  Bridgman  &  Culbert 
son's  Chinese  New  Testament  foi 
the  Japanese 

Fall  of  Man  and  the  Plan  of  Salva 
tion.     i8mo,  16  pp 

On  Christian  Doctrine.     iSmo 

Hymn-Book. 

Life  of  Christ.     Svo,  about  150  pp 

Line  upon  Line.     iSmo   .... 

Commentary  on  Matthew.     iSmo 
"    Luke      .... 

On  the  Sabbath.     Tract  .... 

Statement  of  Christian  Truth.    Tract 

Sunday  School  Question-Book 

Church  History , 


Shichi  Ichi  Zappo.     Weekly 


JAPANESE. 
Year.  Translators. 

1S3S     Rev.  C.  Gutzlaff. 
187 1     Rev.  —  GobJe. 
1S72     Rev.  J.  C.  Hepburn. 

1873         "     "  " 

1875  Missionary    Committee;    viz.,    Drs.     Hepburn, 

Brown,  Greene  and  Maclay. 

1876  Missionary  Committee,  as  above. 

1S77  "  "  "       " 

1878  "  "  "       " 

1879  "  "  "       " 

1880  "  "  "       " 

((  it  6(  a  ti 

D.  C.  Greene,  D.D. 
1876    J.  D.  Davis. 


"  Miss  Gulick. 
1879  J.  D.  Davis. 
1878     M.  L.  Gordon. 

"      J.  D.  Davis. 

"       "     "       "       and  others. 
Miss  Dudley. 
J,  D.  Davis. 

O.  H.  Gulick,  Editor. 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 

Bible.                                                           Translators.  Where  Printed.  Year. 

Matthew H.  Bingham  and  A.  Thurston  Rochester,  N.  Y.  1S28 

Mark W.  Richards  "               "             " 

Luke H.  Bingham  Honolulu  1S29 

John A.  Thurston  Rochester,  N.  V.  1S2S 

Acts W.  Richards  Honolulu  1S29 

Romans A.  Thurston  and  A.  Bishop  "  1S31 

I  Corinthians W.  Richards  "  " 

II  Corinthians A.  Thurston  "  " 

Galatians  and  Philemon      ....     A.  Thurston  and  A.  Bishop  "  " 

Colossians  and  Hebrews     ....     H.  Bingham  "  1S32 

James W.  Richards  and  L.  Andrews  "  " 

Peter,  Epistles  of W.  Richards  "  " 

John  and  Jude,  Epistles  of      .     .     .     W.  Richards  and  L.  Andrews  "  " 

Revelation W.  Richards  "  " 

*This  was  printed  in  three  editions,  viz.,  Katakana  Majiri,  Hirakana  Majiri,  being  different  forms  of  Japanese 
type,  and  a  third  in  which  the  Chinese  character  was  written  on  one  side  of  the  Hirakana. 


APPENDIX. 


517 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS.  — Continued. 
Bible.  Translators. 

Genesis A.  Thurston  and  A.  Bishop. 

Exodus W.  Richards. 

Leviticus H.  Bingham. 

Numbers  and  Deuteronomy   ...  A.  Thurston  and  A.  Bishop. 

Joshua W.  Richards. 

Judges  and  Ruth "  " 

I  Samuel A.  Thurston. 

II  Samuel A.  Bishop. 

I  Kings H.  Bingham  and  E.  W.  Clark. 

II  Kings A.  Thurston. 

I  Chronicles A.  Bishop. 

II  Chronicles J-  S.  Green. 

Ezra A.  Thurston. 

Nehemiah S.  Dibble. 

Esther W.  Richards. 

Job A.  Thurston. 

Psalms H   Bingham  and  L.  Andrews. 

Proverbs L.  Andrews. 

Ecclesiastes  and  Solomon's  Song     .  J.  S.  Green. 

Isaiah,  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  W.  Richards. 

Ezekiel H.  Bingham. 

Daniel J-  S.  Green. 

llosea  to  Mabakkuk A.Thurston. 

Zephaniah  to  Malachi A.  Bishop. 


Where  Printed 

Honolulu. 


Year. 
1836 


« 

1835 

" 

1838 

l( 

Lahaina. 

Honolulu. 

Lahaina. 

1836 
1839 
1835 

Honolulu. 

1839 

Lahaina. 

1836 

Honolulu. 

1838 
1839 

First  edition  of  New  Testament 1836 

Fourth    "        "      "  "        iSmo • 1868 

Hawaiian-English    Testament   with 

references.     i2mo 1857 

First  edition  of  Bible '839 

Second    "      "       "  1843 

Third       "      "       "          with    refer- 
ences.    Svo  and  4to 1868 


Education.  Size. 

Elementary  Lessons i2mo 

First  Book  for  Children      ....  iSmo 

First  Teacher i6mo 

First  Lessons icmo 

Second  Teacher i6mo 

Reading-Book i2mo 


First  Steps  in  Reading " 

Tract  Primer i6mo 

New  Primer i2ino 

Punctuation " 


Geography. 

Geography     

"  and  Maps  .     . 

Woodbridge's  Geography 
Questions  on  Geography 
Skeleton  Maps       .     .     . 


4to 


Pages. 

Year. 

Editions 

Writers. 

S  and  1 2 

1822 

Eight. 

H.  Bingham. 

36 

1831 

Severa 

.    " 

16 

1835 

Many. 

"         " 

48 

" 

3- 

1844 

4S 

183.S 

Four. 

S.  Dibble. 

340 

1842 

L.  Andrews  &  J.  S.Green 

16 

1854 

So 

i860 

E.  Bond. 

1862 

L.  Puller. 

-A 

1S44 

44 

1832 

S.Whitney  &W.Rich'ds. 

216 

183.S 

L.  Andrews. 

203 

1836 

Two. 

S.  Whitney. 

24  and  48 

1833 

Many. 

L.  Andrews. 

13 

1834 

"         " 

.5^8 


APPENDIX. 


SANDWICH   ISLANDS. —Continued. 

Geography.  Size.  Pages.  Year.     Editions.               Writers. 

Colored  Atlas 4to  9  1S36   Several.  L.  Andrews. 

Keith  on  the  Globes i6mo  80  1841                     "         " 

Bible  Geography •'     ■  99  1S34   Two.       S.  Dibble. 

Maps  of  Geography 4to  6  1S37    Several.  L.  Andrews. 

Government   and   Law. 

The  Constitution i2mo  24  1840 

The  Constitution  and  Laws     ...         "  196  1841 

Volumes  of  Statute  Laws    ....         "  From  1845  onward 

Penal  Code 8vo  136  1851 

Civil  Code.     Two  vols "  1859 

Decisions  Supreme  Court.  Two  vols.        "  1S57-1S65 

Legal  Form  Book i2mo  1857 

Records  of  Constitutional  Convention  Folio  72  1S64 

Reports  of  Departments      ....  8vo  From  1S45  onward 


History. 

Church  History i2mo     295 

Scripture  Chronology  and  History  .  "        216 

Hawaiian  History Svo          86 

Compendium  of  1  listorv      ....  i2mo       76 
History  of  Hawaiian  Islands  (serial) 
Antiquities  of     "              "             " 

Almanacs i2mo 

Hymn-Books. 

Hymn-Book i2mo  60 

"         "         400  hymns 

"         "         last  edition      ....     i6mo 

Hymn  and  Tune  Book i2mo  360 

Child's  Hymn-Book 241110  72 

"               "         "       with  tunes    .     .     i6mo  loi 

"  "  "  "  "  _  "  jy2 

Book  of   Tunes    with    Elements    of 

Music 

Havi'aiian  Lyre 104 


1835 

Several 

.  J.  S.  Green. 

1837 

S.  Dibble. 

1S38 

Two. 

By  Hawaiians. 

IS42 

J.  S.  Green. 

IS66-I868 

S.  M.  Kamakau. 

iS6=;-i866 

Bv  Hawaiians. 

1S34-1S62 

1823 

H.  Bingham  &  W 

Ellis 

1S67 

L.  Lyons. 

1872 

1834 

H.  Bingham. 

1837 

1842 

1S62 

1846 

185s 

Language. 

Lessons  on  the  English  Language 
Hawaiian  English  Grammar   . 

Foreign  Primer 

Latin  Lessons  for  Hawaiians  . 

English  and  Hawaiian  Lessons 

"       E.xercise-Book    .     .     . 

Spelling-Book 

Hawaiian-English  Phrase- Book 
"  "        Vocabulary 

English-Hawaiian  Grammar  . 
Hawaiian-English  Dictionary  . 
Notes  on  Hawaiian  Grammar 


i2mo 

,16 

1S37 

Three. 

8vo 

40 

S37&1854 

Two. 

L. 

Andrews. 

1 2  mo 

36 

1837 

" 

iSmo 

132 

1S39 

i6mo 

40 

1S41 

L. 

Andrews. 

iSnio 

104 

1843 

1 2  mo 

48 

1846 

J- 

S.  Emerson 

i6mo 

112 

1854 

A. 

Bishop. 

Svo 

132 
184 

32 
560 

1S35 
1S45 
T854 
186s 

L. 

Andrews. 

W.  D.  Alexander. 


APPENDIX. 


519 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. —  Continued. 


Mathematics.  Size. 

Arithmetic i6mo 

Child's  Arithmetic 24mo 

Colburn's  Mental  Arithmetic  .     .     .  i8mo 

"         Sequel i2mo 

Leonard's  Arithmetic " 

Higher  "        

Algebra " 

Bailey's  Algebra 8vo 

First  Lessons  in  Geometry      .     .     .  i6mo 

Geometry,  Sm'veying  and  Navigat'n  8vo 

Mathematics " 

Astronomy    .     . i2mo 

Miscellaneous. 

Thoughts  of  the  Chiefs iSmo 

On  Marriage i2mo 

"   Intemperance " 

Abbott's  Little  Philosopher     ...  " 

Lessons  in  Drawing " 

On  Lying 

Letter  to  the  Churches 

Eighty-four  Questions 

On  Popery 

Three  Tracts  on  Popery      ....  Svo 

Memoir  of  Bartimeus i8mo 

"         "  Opukahaia i2mo 

Thoughts  on  Popery " 

The  True  Church " 

Address  to  Women  of  Hawaii     .     .  iSmo 
Annual  Reports  of  Hawaiian  Evan- 
gelical Association 

Counsels  for  Children iSmo 

Lady  of  the  Twilight.     A  romance  . 

Pioneer  Bov,  or  Life  of  Lincoln  .     .  i2mo 


Year.  Editions.              Writers. 
1827 

1833  Many.  A.  Bishop. 

1S35  "^    "    " 

"  Two.    "    " 

1852  "    " 

1S69  C.  J.  Lyons. 

1838  A.  Bishop. 

160  1843-1858  Several.  "    " 

64     1833  Two.   L.  Andrews. 

122     1834  "    " 

168     1838  E.  W.  Clark. 

12     1837  "  "   " 


Pages. 

8 

60 
132 
116 

244 

44 


8 
12 
18 
40 
36 

8 

24 
12 

-3 

12 

64 

103 

56 
26 


1825 
1833 
1837 


183S 
1840 
1 841 

1S42 
1844 
1867 


E.  W.  Clark. 

D.  Baldwin. 

E.  W.  Clark. 
L.  Andrews. 
D.  B.  Lvman. 


1863 

1864  and 

onward. 

1S65 

1869 


Several.  R.  Armstrong. 
Two.       J.  S.  Green. 

J.  F.  Pogue. 

Mrs.  E.  H.  Anderson. 


A  Hawaiian. 


Periodicals. 
The  Hawaiian  Teacher.     Monthly 
"  "  Luminary.         '' 

"     Juvenile  Teacher  " 

"     Ant 
"     Hawaiian  Messenger  .     .     . 

News.     Weekly      .... 

Morning  Star.     Monthly 

Hawaiian  Banner.        Weekly 
"      Star  of  the  Pacific.  " 

Independent  Press.  " 

"     Xew  Era.  " 

Day  Spring.     Monthly   .     . 


1834 

1837 
1841-1845 
1845-1855 

1854 

1S54-1862  &  1864 

1856-1861 

1S61 
1861-1S70 
1S65-1870 
1866-1S70 


Religious   Books. 
A  Word  from  God Svo 

History  of  Joseph i8mo 


1025 
1826 


APPENDIX. 


SANDWICH   ISLANDS.  — Continued, 

Religious   Books.  Size.  Pages.          Year.     Editions. 

Scripture  .History 121110  36-144     1830   Several. 

Bible  Catechism 181110  216  1831    Two. 

Catechism "  56  1832 

Dying  Testimonies 121110  40  " 

Catechism  on  Genesis i6mo  56  1833 

"           "         "           i2mo  132  1852 

Bible  Class-Book i6mo  62  1834 

Exposition  of  the  Ten  Commaiid'nts  i2mo  15  " 

On  the  Sabbath "  12  1835 

Union  Questions.     Vol.  I  .     .     .     .  i6mb  156  "      Two. 

Daily  Food i8mo  36  " 

"         "        "  154  1861    Two. 

Scripture  Helps "  11 2-1 52    1835      " 

Sixteen  Sermons i2nio  296     1835  and  1841 

Child's  Catechism  on  Genesis     .     .  "  152  1S38 

Proof  Texts "  35  i839 

Experimental  Religion "  12  " 

Bible  Lessons "  83  1840 

Gallaudet's  Natural  Theology      .     .  "•  17S  "       Two. 

"            Book  on  the  Soul      .     .  iSmo  68  " 

Heavenly  Manna "  69  1841 

Attributes  of  God i2mo  12               " 

Doctrinal  Catechism 321110  32  "       Several, 

Keith  on  the  Prophecies     ....  121110  12               " 

Church  Government "  20               " 

Doctrinal  Catechism "  48  1848         " 

Pilgrim's  Progress i6mo  410  1S42 

Natural  Theology i2mo  1843 

System  of  Theology "  219  1848   Two. 

Evidences  of  Christianity    ....  "  116  1849      " 

Clark's  Scripture  Promises      ...  "  309  1858 

Evidences  of  Christianity   ....  "  1863 
Series  of  Tracts.    No  i  to  16. 

Theological  Te.xt-Book "  1S61 

Five  S.  School  Question-Books  .     .  "  12-174  1866-1870 

Pastor's  Hand-Book i6mo  104  1869 

Bible  Dictionary 8vo  1872 

Scientific. 

Animals  of  the  World.     With  chart  121110  12  1833 

History  of  Animals "  192  1S34 

Stories  About  Animals "  84  1835   Three. 

Anatomy "  60  1838 

Political  Economy Svo  128  1S39 

Wayland's  Moral  Science   ....  12010  28S  1S41    Two. 


Writers. 
H.  Bingham. 

S.  Dibble. 
S.  Ruggles. 
L.  Lyons. 
L.  Andrews. 

J.  S.  Green. 
S.  Dibble. 
J.  S.  Emerson. 
L.  Smith. 


L.  Lyons. 


S.  Dibble. 
S.  Whitney. 


R.  Armstrong. 
A.  Bishop. 

W.  P.  Alexander. 


E.  Bond,  W.  P.  Alexander 
and  O.  H.  Gulick. 


L.  Andrews. 
W.  Richards. 
S.  Dibble. 
G.  P.  Judd. 

R.    Armstrong    and    S. 
Dibble. 


IN   THE   MARQUESAN    DIALECT. 

Elementary  1 'rimer.     1S33.     By  Mr.  \V.  P.  Alexander.     i2mo. 
"  "  1834.     i2mo.     8  pp. 

1S53.         "       12    " 
"  "  l-'.y  Mr.  J.  Bicknell.     4S  pp.     i2mo.     Second  edition  1S6S. 


APPENDIX.  ♦  521 


IN    THE   MARQUESAN    DIALECT.  —  Continued. 

Gospel  of  Matthew. 

Elementary  Arithmetic.     1S69.     46  pp.     i6mo. 

"  Geography.       "         24    "  " 

Hymn-Book.     1S70.     30  pp.     i6mo. 
The  New  Testament  appeared  in  1S73,  '^•''^  ^  second  edition  in  1878. 

IN    THE   GILBERT   ISLANDS    DIALECT.* 

By  Rev.  H.  Bingham  and  Wife. 

Primer.     1S60.     20  pp.     1865.     48  pp.     1S70.     24  pp.     All  i2mo. 

Hymn-Book.     1S60,  12  pp.     i6mo.     1863.     27  pp.     i6mo. 

Eleven  Chapters  in  Matthew,     i860.     43  pp.     i2mo.     Whole  Gospel.     1864.     124  pp.     i6mo. 

1866.     49  pp.     i6mo. 
Gospel  of  John.     1864.     108  pp.     i6mo.     1866.     39  pp.     i6mo. 
Ephesians.     1864.     20  pp.     i6mo.     1866.     7  pp.     i6mo. 
Bible  Stories.     1864.     72  pp.     i6mo.     1866.     155  pp.     i6mo. 
Catechism.     By  Rev.  Mr.  Mahoe.     1S66.     75  pp.     i6mo.     1870.     24  pp.     i2mo. 

1870.     92  pp.     i2mo. 


Extracts  from  Luke. 

1869. 

24  pp. 

i2mo. 

Whole  Gospel 

Gospel  of  Mark. 

" 

69   " 

" 

Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

" 

41    " 

i> 

Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

1870. 

40   " 

" 

Arithmetic 

" 

3   " 

i6mo. 

Geography. 

" 

36  " 

i2mo. 

Reading-Book. 

" 

72   " 

It 

IN   THE   MARSHALL   ISLANDS    LANGUAGE. 

Primer.     By  Dr.  Pierson.     1858.     8  pp.     i6mo. 

Primer  and  Hymns.     By  Mr.  Doane.     i860.     44  pp.     i2mo. 

First  Lessons.  "     "         "  1861. 

Ten  Chapters  of  Matthew.     By  Mr.  Doane.     1861  and  1862.     Whole  Gospel.     1865.     79  pp. 

i2mo. 
Hymns.     By  Mr.  Doane.     1S63.     24  pp.     i6mo.     By  Mr.  Snow.     1S66.     ibmo. 
Arithmetic.     By  Mr.  Doane  and  Mr.  Aea.     1S63.     24  pp.     i6mo. 

Primer.  "     '"         "         1S63.     10  pp.     i2mo.     By  Mr.  Snow.     1866.     34  pp.     umo. 

Geography.       "     "         "  "        24  "       i6mo. 

Gospel  of  Mark.     By  Mr.  Doane.     1863.     47  pp.    i2mo.    By  Mr.  Snow.    1869.    41pp.    i2mo. 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.     By  Mr.  Snow.     1867.     75  pp.     i6mo. 
Gospel  of  John.  "      "         "         1869.     52    "       i2mo. 

Primer.  "      "         "  "         48    " 

IN   THE   KUSAIE   DIALECT. 

By  Rev.  B.  G.  Snow. 

Primer,     i860.     32  pp.     i2mo.     1864.     24  pp.     i2mo.     1867.     48  pp.     i2mo. 

i2mo.     1868.     64  pp.     i2mo. 


Gospel  of  John. 

1863. 

38  pp. 

"         "  Matthew. 

1865. 

50    " 

"  Mark. 

1S68. 

50    " 

Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

1869. 

60   " 

Epistles  of  John. 

" 

20    " 

Hymn-Book.  1865.     32    "       i6mo.     And  a  Church  Manual.     1866.     13  pp.     i2mo. 

*  111  1S74  a  quarterly  newspaper  was  issued  ;  additional  hymns  were  printed  ;  a  book  of  Eible  stories,  an  nlma- 
nac,  and  a  new  geography.  In  1877,  forty-five  new  hymns,  and  forty-seven  additional  pages  of  geography.  In 
1S7S,  Genesis  and  Galatians  ;  also  a  common  and  a  large  arithmetic. 

7 


APPENDIX. 


IN     THE     PONAPE     LANGUAGE. 
By  Dr.  L.  H.  Gulick  and  Others. 
26  and  12  pp.  i6mo.     Do.     By  Mrs.  Gulick. 


1858-1859.     36  and  20  pp. 


Primer.     1857-185S. 

i2mo. 
Hymn-Book.     1858.     19  pp.     i6mo.     Do.     By  Mr.  Sturges.     1864-1865.    8  and  27  pp.    i6mo. 
Old  Testament  Stories.     1858.    59  pp.    i6mo.    New  Testament  Stories.    1859.    40  pp.    i2mo. 
Old  and  New  Testament  Stories.     1865.     6[  pp.     i2mo. 
Eight  Chapters  of  Matthew.     1859.     20  pp.     i2mo.     Whole  Gospel.     By  Mr.  Sturges.     1870. 

48  pp.     i2mo. 
Gospel  of  John.  By  Rev.  A.  A.  Sturges. 

Nine  Chapters  of  Mark.      "       "     "     "         "  1S64.     -4   "         "         Whole  Gospel.    1870. 

27  pp.     i2mo. 
Gospel  of  Luke.  "       "     "     " 

Acts  of  the  Apostles.  "       "     "     " 

Arithmetic.  "      "     "     " 

Geography.  "       "     "     " 

Primer.     By  Mrs.  Sturges.     1867.    60  pp.     i2mo. 

Most  of  these  Micronesian  publications  are  taken  from  a  list  by  Dr.  L.  H.  Gulick,  in  Dr. 
Anderson's  Sandwich  Islands,  pp.  397-400. 


1862. 

39  PP- 

8vo. 

IS64. 

24  " 

"         Whole  Gospel 

1 866. 

51    " 

" 

" 

48   « 

" 

1869. 

36  " 
24  " 

1 6m  0. 

INDIAN    DIALECTS. 
Year. 
Cherokee:  Spelling-Book.*      By   Rev.    D.    S. 

Butterick 

Hymns.     Five  editions 1829-1836 

Scripture  E.xtracts 1831 

Poor  Sarah 1833 

On  Temperance " 

The  Duties  of  the  Married " 

Select  Scriptures 1S36 

Almanac " 

Matthew  and  Acts-t  By  S.  A.  Worcester  1S29  and  1833 
Matthew,  Acts  and  John. 

Epistles,  etc 1840-1S43 

Matthew,     p'ourth  and  fifth  editions    .     .  1S44  and  1850 

New  Testament 1850 

Luke " 

John.     Fourth  edition 1S54 

Acts ? 

Romans ? 

Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians  .     .     .  1858 

Philippians,  Colossians,  Thessalonians    .  .' 

I  and  II  Timothy .' 

Titus,  Philemon,  Hebrews ? 

James.     Second  edition 1850 

T  and  II  Peter.     Second  edition      ...  ? 

Epistles  of  John ? 

Jude  and  Revelation ? 

Geneais 1856 

Exodus 1853 

New  Testament 1S60 


Pages. 


36  to  52 


Place. 


New  Echota. 


24 
16 
124 


134 

93 
114 

55 
125 

43 
24 

49 
16 
24 
16 
66 

173 
152 


Union. 

New  Echota. 

Park  Hill. 


Park  Hill. 


Park  Hill. 


Park  Hill. 


A.  B.  S.,  New  York. 


*  Missionary  Herald,  1836,  p.  269. 

tFor  this  information  about  versions  of  Scripture  the  reader  is  indebted  to  Rev.    E.  W.    Gilman,    D.D.; 
A.  1;   S.,  New  York. 


APPENDIX. 


523 


INDIAN    DIALECTS. —  Continued. 

Year.  Pages.  Place. 

Creek:  Assistant 1834  loi  Boston. 

Sermon  and  Hymns 1S35  35  " 

Child's  Book "  24  Union. 

Osage:  First  Book 1834  126  Boston. 

.S?»£ca .-  Spelling-Book 1829  Buffalo,  New  York. 

Two  Hymn-Books "  "  »         .* 

Luke 1830  New  York. 

Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  Hymns  ..."  «         « 

Abenaqiiis:  Spelling  and  Reading-Book     .     .  "  go  Boston. 

Tracts "  36  " 

(^V^7e/«;  Spelling-Book 1833  72  Utica,  New  York. 

"             "           1836  107  Boston. 

Old  Testament  Stories "  72  " 

Gallaudet's  Reading-Book  and  New  Tes- 
tament Stories "  124  " 

Hymns "  40  " 

Choctaw :  Spelling-Book 1S25  84  Cincinnati. 

Reading-Book "  64  " 

Spelling-Book 1827  15  Greensboro',  Ala. 

Second  Reading-Book "  144  Cincinnati. 

Spelling-Book.     Enlarged "  160  " 

Hymns.     Two  editions 1829  and  1833        84  Boston. 

Old  Testament  History.     Illustrated  .     .  1831  157  Utica,  New  York. 

Parts  of  Luke  and  John.             "           .     .  "  1^2  "         "         " 

History  of  Joseph.                       "           .     .  "  48  "         "         " 

On  the  Sabbath 1834  18  Boston. 

Spelling-Book.     Illustrated 1835  72  " 

Arithmetic "  72  " 

On  the  Family "  48  " 

Watts'  Catechism 1S36  16  " 

Almanac "  16  Union. 

Friend 1836     i2mo  " 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Rev.  S.  R.  Riggs,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  for  the  following  list  of  publica- 
tions in  the  language  of  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  Indians  : 

Spelling-Book.     i2mo.     22  pp.     1836.     Crocker  &  Brewster :  Boston. 

Dr.  Watts' Catechism.     i2mo.     23  pp.     1837.     By  J.  Renville  and  Dr.  Williamson.     Crocker 

&  Brewster:  Boston. 
First  Reading-Book.     i8mo.     50  pp.     1839.     By  G.  H.  Pond  and   S.  R.   Riggs.     Kendall  & 

Henry :  Cincinnati. 
History  of  Joseph.  "         40"  "  "    G.  H.  and  S.  W.  Pond.     Kendall  &  Henry : 

Cincinnati. 
Old  Testament  Extracts.  "       120"  "  "    J.  Renville  and  T.  S.  Williamson.      Kendall 

&  Henry :  Cincinnati. 
Gospel  of  Mark.  "         96  "  "  "    J.  Renville  and  T.  S.  Williamson.     Kendall 

&  Henry :  Cincinnati. 
Wowepi   Mitowe.      My  Own  Book.     i2mo.     64  pp.     1842.     By  S.   R.   Riggs.      Crocker   & 

Brewster:  Boston. 
Second  Reader.     i8mo.     54  PP-     1842.     By  S.  W.  Pond.     Crocker  &  Brewster  :  Boston. 
Hymn-Book.  "  97  "  "  "       «  " 

Ten  Commandments  "  "       "  "  " 

Eliza  and  Sarah.  12  "  "  "  Mrs.  S.  R.  Riggs.    "       "  "  " 


524 


APPENDIX. 


Rii22;s.  Am.  Tract  Soc. :  New  York. 


and  J.  r.  Williamson.     Am. 


i2mo.     64  " 

72  " 

i6mo.     36  " 

i2mo.  408  " 

"       134  " 

Folio.      8  " 


Boston. 

N.  Y. 


Genesis,  Part  of  Psalms,  Luke,  and  John.     i2mo.     295  pp.     1842.     By  J.  Renville,  T.  S.  Will- 
iamson, G.  H.  Pond,  and  S.  R.  Riggs.     Kendall  &  Henry :  Cincinnati. 

Acts,  Paul's  Epistles,  and  Revelation.     i2mo.     22S  pp.     1S42.     By  S.  R.  Riggs.     Kendall  & 
Henry:  Cincinnati. 

Catechism.     i2mo.     12  pp.     By  S.  W.  Pond.     Hitchcock  &  Stafford :  New  Haven. 

Dakota  Lessons.  "      96  "        1850.     By  S.  R.  Riggs  and  R.  Hopkins.     Louisville,  Ky. 

Grammar  and  Dictionary.     4to.     412  pp.     1852.     By  S.  R.  Riggs.     R.Craighead:  New  York. 

Eng.  and  Dak.  Vocabulary.  8vo.    120  "  "  "   "    "  and   M.  A.    L.    Riggs.     R.    Craig- 

head :  New  York.  « 

Hymns  and  Tunes.  i2mo.     96  " 

Pilgrim's  Progress.  i6mo.  264  " 

Hymn-Book.  24mo.  1S4  " 

Tract  Soc. :  New  York. 

Precept  upon  Precept.         iSmo.  228  " 

Primer. 

Oowa  Wowapi. 

Catechism. 

New  Testament. 

English-Dakota  Vocab. 
Agency. 

Who  is  He  ?     Illustrated. 

Model  First  Reader.     Diglott.     i2mo. 
Chicago. 

Guyot's  Elementary  Geography.     4to.     90  pp.     1876.      By  S.  R.  and  A.  L.  Riggs.      Scribner, 
Armstrong  &  Co.  :  New  York. 

The  Word  Book.     i2mo.     50  pp.     1877.     By  A.  L.  Riggs.     American  Tract  Society:  N.  Y. 

Bible.     i2mo.     1693  PP-     ^^79-     ^Y    '"•   P-  Williamson  and  S.  R.  Riggs.     American  Bible 
Society :  New  York. 

The  Dakota  Friend.     Periodical.     1851  and  1852.     By  G.  H.  Pond. 

lapi   Oaye.     Word  Carrier.     Periodical.     1871-1880.      An  illustrated  monthly.      Edited  by 
S.  R.  Riggs,  J.  P.  Williamson  and  A.  L.  Riggs.     Chicago. 


1856. 
1 8  58. 
1863. 

1864. 
1S65. 


1871. 

1871. 
2  pp. 


"  J.  B.  Renville.     Am.  Tract  So. 

«  S.  R.  Riggs.  "        "        " 

"  J.  P.  Williamson.  •" 

"  S.  R.  Riggs.  "         "        "  " 

"    "  "         "  Am.  Bible  So.  " 

"  J.  P.  Williamson.  Mission  Press :  Santee 

"  S.  R.  Riggs.     Chicago. 
1873.     By  S.  R.  Riggs.      Sherwood  &  Co. : 


INDEX 


The  dates  in  connection  with  the  names  of  missionaries  are  those  of  their  leaving  this  country  and  return 
to  it,  or  of  their  death  in  their  field  of  labor.  They  do  not  give  the  dates  of  death  in  this  country.  Where  one 
date  only  is  given,  it  indicates  that  the  person  is  still  in  the  field.  The  last  date  in  connection  with  those  now 
Presbyterian  missionaries,  gives  the  year  when  they  left  the  service  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M. 


Abbeokuta,  8g. 

Abu  Ali  el    Hakem    hi   Amr-illah, 

292-293- 
Abu  el  Naja,  292. 
Abyssinia.  2. 

Acber  or  Akbar,  319,  320,  47S. 
Adams,  A.  H.,  M.D.,  1S74-79,  415. 
Adams,  John,  LL.D.,  249. 
Adams,  L.  H.,  1S65 — ,  79,  159-161. 
Adams,  N.,  M.D.,  1834-51,  477. 
Adams,  William,  D.D.,  3. 
Adger,  J.  B.,  D.D.,   1834-46,   158, 

249- 
Africa,  r,  2,  5,  S6-93,  119-121. 
African  ants,  144,  145. 
African  character,  90-92,  421. 
Agassiz,  Louis,  Prof.,  122. 
Age,  respect  for  in  West  Africa,  90. 
Agglutinate  languages,  200. 
Agnew,  Eliza,  1837 — ,  404. 
Agriculture,  Turkish,  80. 
Ahmednagar,     or      Ahmednuggur, 

girls'  school  in,  403. 
Ainsworth,  W.  F.,  66,  67,  352,  440, 

441. 
Ajntab,  82,  83. 

Aintab  Female  Seminary,  400-402. 
Aintab  Female  Seminary,  twentieth 

anniversary,  401,  402. 
Aitath,  io6-[io. 
Aitchison,  Wm  ,  1854-59,  35. 
Akkal  Druses,  295. 
Alexander,  W.  P.,  1S31 — ,  124. 
Alfoors,  39. 
Ali  Hamadi,  294. 
Allen,  David  O.,  D.D.,  1827-1853, 

57,   139,    149,   164,  167,   i68,  199, 

242,   3i9>  320,  322-324,  428,  460, 

461. 
Allen,  Orson  P.,   1855 — ,  158,  175, 

384,  398- 
Allis,  S.,  II. 

Almeida,  Francesco,  323. 
Amadia,  misery  in,  72. 
Amasia,  Antiquities  at,  161. 
Amazons  of  Dehomi,  89. 
American  languages,  189. 
Among  the  Turks,  79,  42S. 
Anatomy,  Chinese,  407,  408. 
Ancestral  worship  in  China,  285. 
Anderson,  Wm.,  418. 
Anderson,  Rufus,  D  D.,  LL.D  ,  3, 

59,  6r,  103,  150,  206,  228,  242,  317, 

3'S,  342,  347.  443,  464- 
Anderson,  Mrs   INI.,  176. 
Andes,  Patagonian,  10. 
Andrews,    Lorrin,    1S27-1842,    124, 

137,.  >S8. 
Angeliophoros,  216. 


Angora,  antiquities  at,  162. 

Ankola,  44. 

Ansairiyeh,  164. 

Antagonist,  The,  2S9,  290,  297. 

Ants,  white,  144. 

Ants,  black  and  brown,  144,  145. 

Antioch,  S4-86. 

Apaiang,  laws  of,  451. 

Apamea,  155,  156. 

Apthorpe,  G.  H.,  1833-45,  '/''• 

Arabic  periodicals  in  Beirut,  217. 

Araman,  Mr.,  393. 

Ararat,  traditions  about,  150. 

Araucanians,  6-8. 

Area,  temple  at,  153. 

Archffiology,  148-172. 

Arhan,  269. 

Arithmetic,  Hawaiian,  20. 

Arithmetic,  Dyak,  53. 

Arjish    Dagh  (Mons  Argaeus),  its 

ascent,  77,  78. 
Arjuiia,  262. 
.•\rmenia,  61. 

Armenian  Catholics  in  Syria,  303. 
Armenian     writings      previous     to 

A.  D.    1600,    150. 

Language,   194,   195. 
Armenians,  82,  382,  454,  457. 
Armenian  versions  of  Bible,  249. 
Armenian  worship,  82,  83. 
Arms,  W.,  1S33-38,  8. 
Armstrong,  R.,  1831-49,  124. 
Arnold,  Edwin,  275,  280-283. 
Arvad,  152. 
Aryans,  198. 
Asiianti,  88,  89. 

History  of,   329-333. 
Ashitha,  112,  349,  353>  35^,  360. 
Ashmore,  W.,  D.D.,  239: 
Ashmunazer,  148. 
Assyrian,  difficulties  of,  177-183. 
Assyrian  words,  1S2-3. 
Athanasius  Mutran,  342. 
Atkinson,  Rev.  G.  H.,  D.D.,  13,  14. 
Atkinson,  Rev.  J.  L.,  25. 
Atolls,  94,  95. 
.Aurora  (Tamil),  21S. 
Aurungabad,  antiquities  at,  167. 
Avedaper,  2i'i. 
.4vicenna,  406. 
Awashonks,  whaler,  420. 
Ayer  Bangy,  45. 

Baal  markos,  152. 

r.acon,  Leonard,  D.D.,  443. 

Badir  Khan  Bey,  30S,  351,  353,  358, 

3'io,  477- 
Baker  Pasha,  3S5. 
Balahissar,  antiquities  at,  162. 


Balbi,  22. 

Baldwin,  Caleb  C,  D.D.,   1847—, 

238,  239,  390. 
Baldwin,  S.  L.,  D.D.,  239. 
Bali  and  Lombok,  44. 
Ball,  D.,  M.D.,  183S-66,  211. 
Ballagh,  Mrs.  J.,  176. 
Ballantine,  Henry,   1S35-1865,  226, 

242. 
Bamboo,  The,  125,  126. 
Baptism,  Yezidee,  312,  3x3. 
Bardjewan,  292. 
Barnes,  Sir  Edward,  209,  210. 
Barnum,  Herman  N.,  D.D.,  1858 — , 

163,  384,  385,  456- 
Barrows,  John  O.,  1869 — ,  158. 
Barsabas,  342. 

Bartlett,  S.  C,  D.D.,  318,  432. 
Bartlett,  Cornelia  C. ,  400. 
Bastawa,  heroine  of,  71,  72. 
Batara  guru,  260. 
Batenites,  293. 
P)ath,  Marquis  of,  3S3. 
Battas,  43. 

Their  religious  ideas,  260. 
Batticotta  Seminary,  388. 
Batticotta  Training  School,  388. 
Baxter,  Hon.  W.  E.,  3S8. 
Beadle,    Elias   R.,   1839 — ,  43,  137, 

'55,  164,  174. 
Bear  hunt  in  India,  139. 
Bechuanas  and  candles,  423. 
Beejapur,  antiquities  at,  168. 
Begu,  260,  261. 
Beirut,  100,  103,  106— no. 
Belshazzar  monument,   so    called, 

163. 
Bencoolen,  42,  43,  45. 
Benga  Scriptures,  251. 
Bengal,  56. 

Benjamin,  N.,  1836-55,  163,  216. 
Bentinck,  Lord  Wm.,  478,  482. 
ISerachah,  Valley  of,  157. 
Berawola,  349,  359,  360. 
Berdizawi,  66. 
Berry,  John  C,  M.D.,   1872—,  25, 

212,  2ig,  415. 
Beth  anoth,  157. 
Beth  zur,  157. 

Bettelheim,  B.  J.,  M.D.,  240. 
Bezjian,  A.  H.,  3S7. 
Bhagavat,  Geeta,  262. 
Bhamdun,  108-110,  432. 
Bible  translations,  number  of  since 

iSg4,  22S. 
Eicknell,  Rev.  James,  23;. 
Bid-lie,  Commodore,  24. 
Bikshu,  269,  270. 
Bill  m,  Araucanian  god,  7. 


(525) 


526 


INDEX. 


Bingham,   Hiram,  1819-41,  16,  137, 

174,  3i8. 

Bingham,   Hiram,  Jr.,  1856 — ,  123, 

206,  235. 
Bird,  Isaac,  1S22-36,  59,  150,  2SS. 
Birds  of  Western  India,  140. 
Bissell,  Lemuel,  D.D.,  i?si — ,  317. 
Bites,  effects  of,  413. 
Bitlis,  112,  402,  403. 
Black,  James,  437. 
Blanford,  VV.  T.,  140. 
Bliss,  Annie,  396. 
Bliss,  Daniel,  D.D.,  1855-64,  174, 

175.  376. 

Bliss,  E.  E.,  1843 — ,  207,  20S,  216, 

456. 
Blodgett,  Henry,  D.D.,  1854—,  23, 

32,  35.  J24,  23S,  239,  468. 
Boa  constrictor,  144. 
Board,  American,  its  work  in  1879, 

Bodhisattwas,  271,  272,  276. 

Bolas,  Patagonian,  9,  136. 

Bombay  periodicals,  218. 

Boni  tribe,  39. 

Bontain,  39. 

Boone,  W.  J.,  Rt.  Rev.,  239,  255. 

Boots,  Patagonian,  9. 

Bowen,  G.,  1847-55,  21S. 

Boyle,  Robert,  184. 

Borneo,  50-55. 

Botta,  P.  E.,  Mons.,  177,  215. 

Bozrah,  151. 

Brahma,  264,  273,  275. 

Brahmans,  261,  479. 

Brant,  Joseph,  229. 

Breath,  E.,  1S40-61,  209,  427. 

Brerewood,  347. 

Bridges,  Nestorian,  67,  441. 

Bridgman,  Elijah  C,  D.D.,  1829- 

61,   172,  173,  175,  238,  239.  241, 

25s,  2S7. 
Brigham,  J.  C,  D.D.,   1823-24,  6, 

135- 
Brigstocke,  R.  W. ,  376,  437. 
British  Quarterly  Review,  40S,  409. 
Brown,  N.,  D.D.,  241. 
Brown,  S.  R.,  D.D.,  175,  240,  469. 
Bruce,  Henry  J.,   1S62 — ,  141,  174, 

175,  176,  226,  410. 
Brusa,  105-110. 

Bryant,  J.  C,  1846-51,  192,  422. 
Bshindelayeh,  154. 
Buchanan,    Rev.    Claudius,   D.D., 

341-344. 
Buckle,  Captain,  417. 
Buddha,  26S-283. 
Buddhism,  26S-283,  467. 
Buddliist  books,  271. 
Buenos  Ayres,  6,  135. 
Bugis,  39,  41,  46,  51,  211. 
Buhtan,  351. 
Bukit  Tinggi,  43. 
Bulgarians,  3S2,  454,  457. 
Bulgarian  language,  194. 
Bulgarian  Scriptures,  250. 
Bunyan,  John,  214. 
Burdon,  J.  S.,  Rev.,  D.D.,  239. 
Burgess,    Ebenezer,   1839-55,    i70j 

175.  195- 
Burial,    Dyak,  54;    Hawaiian,   19; 

Nyas,  48  ;  Patagonian,  9. 
Bush,  Caroline  E.,  1870 — ,  399. 
Bushnell,  Albert,  1844-70,  87,  451. 
Butler's  Classical  Atlas  corrected, 

60,  158. 
Butler,  Elizur,  M.D.,  1820-52,  367, 

370. 
Rutler,  John  A.,  1S50-54,  142. 
liutler,  W.,  D.D.,  166,  167. 
Biitung,  or  Boutong,  40. 
Byington,  C,  1820-59,  213. 

Cabral,  Alvarez,  323. 
Calamina,  what?  343,  note. 
Calapooahs,  12. 

Calhoun,   S.  H.,   1S44-70,  741  437, 
477- 


Callina,  what?  344,  note. 
Caiman,  Rev.  Mr.,  100. 
Campbell,  J.,  2. 
Campbell,  Sir  Neill,  333. 
Candles  an  evidence  of  piety,  423. 
Cannibals,  Batta,  49;    Dyak,    52; 

Hawaiian,  20. 
Canning,  Sir  Stratford,  312,  453. 
Canterbury,  Archbishop  of,  459. 
Canton,  115. 

Meteorological  table,  117. 
Capo  d'Istrias,  60. 
Capron,  Sarah  B.,  1856 — ,  176,  410, 

464,  465,  475,  476. 
Capuchins  in  Syria,  304. 
Carmelites  in  Syria,  304. 
Carey,  Dr.,  478. 
Caroline  Island  Scriptures,  235. 
Carruth,  Ellen,  393. 
Carthage,  reservoir  of,  150. 
Caste,  479-482  ;  Restoration  to,  4S0, 

481 ;  Arcot  mission  and,  4S1. 
Caswell,  J.,  1839—,  48,  114. 
Cawals,  309,  313,  316. 
Cazenove,  12. 

Census,  report  on,  in  India,  464. 
Central  Turkey,  79-84. 
Chamberlain,  Dr.,  of  Arcot,  176. 
Chamberlain,  M.  A.  J.,  Mrs.,  176: 

Qiiere,  Mrs.  M.  P.  Chamberlain, 

1827-72,  died,  1880? 
Charhpion,  George,  1834-9,  '4'.  '7^- 
Chandragupta,  319. 
Chang-lu-seng,  419. 
Chaney,  Rev.  G.  L.,  448,  449,  450. 
Chan  Laison,  469. 
Chapin,  A.,  M.D.,  1S31-35,  175. 
Chenooks,  12. 
Cherokee  language    and   alphabet, 

1S9;   Country,  361. 
Cherokee  Scriptures,  2'o. 
Cherokees,  Expulsion  of,  360 — . 
Cherokees,  treaties  with,  361. 
Chesney,  F.  R.,  Col.,  66,  67,  441. 
Chester,  Mr.,  369. 
Chester,    Edward,    M.D.,    1858—, 

410. 
Child,  Druse,  who  remembered  a 

preexistent  state,  290. 
Children's  Friend  (Tamil'),  21S. 
Chiltz  tribe,  12. 
China,  2,32-38;  dishonesty  in,  467. 

Early  missions  to,  339-34S. 

History  of,  324-329. 

Meteorology  of,  114-116. 

Population  of,  329. 

Press  in,  211. 
Chinese  Encyclopedia,  2. 
Chinese  movable  types,  427. 
Chinese  Recorder  and  IMissionary 

Journal,  35.  _ 
Chinese  Repository,  32-35. 
Chinese   Scriptures,  237-239,    and 

254-256. 
Ching  ting  fu,  35. 
Choctaw  Scriptures,  230. 
Christ,   Druses  hold  to  be  a  false 

Messiah,  291. 
Christie,  T.  D.,  1877 — ,  78,  79. 
Chumba,  349. 
Chung  Yung,  265. 
Churchill,  Col.  Charles  Henry,  2SS, 

2S9-297. 
Chusan,  116. 
Circassians,  81. 
Circumcision,  Yezidee,  314. 
Clark,  Alvin,  of  Boston,  375. 
Clark,  Pres.  E.  W.,  392. 
Classics,  Chinese,  265. 
Clayton,  Judge,  367,  368. 
Climate  of  Peking,  36,  37. 
Clive,  Lord,  322. 
Closson,  Sarah  A.,  1867 — ,  400. 
Coach,  South  American,  6. 
Coan,  Titus,   1833 — ,  8,   10,  05-99, 

135,  136,  137.  '74.  448,  449 
Cochran,  Jos.  G.,  1S47-70,  360. 
Codex,  Syriac,  of  9th  century,  375. 


Coins,  ancient,  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege, 176. 

Cole,  Richard,  427. 

Cole,  R.  M.,  186S— ,  476. 

Coleman,  Lyman,  D.D.,  151. 

Colenso,  Bishop,  483,  484. 

College,  Armenia,  384-386. 

College,  Central  Turkey,  3S6,  387. 

College,  Jaffna,  389,  390. 

College,  Robert,  3S0-383. 

College,  Syrian  Protestant,  374-379. 

Colton,  J.  H.,  92,  93. 

Commandments,  The  seven  Druse, 
293.  294- 

Commerce  and  the  Arts,  417-429. 

Commerce  of  Hawaiian  Islands,  17. 

Compression  of  ladies'  feet  in 
China,  injurious  effects  of,  413. 

Confidence  of  natives  in  mission- 
aries, 477. 

Confucius,  264-67. 

Congo,  2;  Kingdom  of,  333-339, 
424. 

Connor,  Rev.  Mr.,  288. 

Constantinople,  105-110. 

Constantinople  Home,  395-397. 

Coral  Islands,  94. 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  322,  323. 

Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  344. 

Courtship,  Araucanian,  7. 

Crawford,  Rev.  J.,  437. 

Cromlechs  on  the  Pulney  hills,  169. 

Cruelties,  Hawaiian,  20. 

Culbertson,  M.  S.,  D.D.,  238,  239, 

24I;255. 

Cuneiform  inscriptions,  177-183. 
Cuttub  ed  Deen,  319. 

Dabool,  massacre  at,  323. 

Dahar,  pass  of,  61,  62. 

Daimio  in  Japan,  24. 

Dakota  gods,  257-259;  home,  373  ; 

language,  230-234;   music,   222; 

offerings,     259;      schools,     373; 

Scriptures,  230-235;    songs,  221. 
Dakotas,    economy     of     missions 

among,  425. 
Dalhousie,  Marquis  of,  482. 
Damon,  Rev.  S.  H.,  443 
Dana,  j.  D  ,  Prof.  22,  137. 
Dana,  R.  H.,  Jr.,  Hon.,  212,  444, 

445- 
Daphne,  85,  153. 
Daseni,  307. 
David,  Armand,  123. 
Davis,  Rev.  J.  D.,  1871 — ,  25,  212, 

391,  392,  472- 
Dean,  Dr.,  256. 
Debata  hasi  asi,  260. 
DeForest,  Henry  A.,  M.D.,  1842- 

1856,  105-112,  152,  155. 
DeForest,  Mrs.  C.  S.,  392. 
Dehomi,  89. 
Deir  el  Kulah,  152. 
Delaware,  Epistles  of  John  in,  229. 
Delhi,  Jumma  Musjid  at,  164. 
Dencke,  Rev.  C.  F.,  229. 
Derbe,  160. 

Dev,  or  Deva,  269,  271,  274. 
Devil,  Druses  hold  that  Christ  was 

incarnation  of,  291. 
Dharma,  269,  273. 
Dibble,    Sheldon,    1830-1845,    137, 

i8g,  318. 
Dibs,  431,  432,  433,  436,  437,  43S. 
Di  Cesnola,  General,  376. 
Dickinson,.J.  T.,  1835-40,  38. 
Diego  Cam,  334. 
Dikfile  Scriptures,  251. 
Dindigul,  antiquities  at,  167. 
Dionysius  Carabet,  208,  249. 
Diseases  in  China,  413. 
Diss,  351 ;  Massacre  in,  356. 
Distance,  sympathy  with  suffering 

of  relatives,  at  a,  50. 
Djedjizian  Hagopos,  38  2. 
Dnyanodaya,  217. 
Doane,  E.  T.,  1854 — ,  206,  235,450. 


INDEX. 


5  =  7 


Dodd,  Edward  M.,  1S49-1S65,  60, 

163. 
Dodge,  Asa,  M.D.,  1832-35,  151. 
Dodge,  Prof.  D.  S.,  376. 
Dohne,  Jacob  L.,  1851-1861,  124. 
Doketae,  290. 
Doolittle,  Justus,  1S49-69,  128,278, 

279,  2S0,  283-86. 
Dorazy,  El,  293. 
Dotj',  E.,  1S36-5?,  239. 
Dowlutabad,  antiquities  at,  167. 
Dragon,  Chinese,  138,  2S4. 
Drakensber^  Mountains,  99. 
Drivers,  African  ants,  144. 
Druses,  2SS-297. 
Druse  era,  295. 
Druse  form  of  initiation,  295. 
Druse  resurrection,  294. 
Druse  seven  commandments,  293, 

294. 
Dunbar,  John,  1S34-46,  11. 
Dunmore,  G.  W.,  1S50-61,  78. 
Duplicity,  African,  421. 
Dupuis,  M.,  331. 
Duree,  Mar  Ishaya,  bishop  of,  65, 

35.6- 
Durian  (fruit),  40. 
Dwight,    Harrison    G.    O.,    D.D., 

1829-62,    60,   61,    150,    151,    158, 

174,  207,  216. 
Dyaks,  51-54. 
Dyer,  Samuel,  Rev.,  427. 
Dynasties,  Chinese,  326-328. 

Earthquake  in  Syria,  100 — ,  102. 

East  India  Company,  210,  324,  47S, 
479.  482. 

East  Indies,  37 — ,  55. 

Eckard,  J.  R.,  1833-43,  170. 

Edendale,  423. 

Edkins,  J.,  D.D.,  239. 

Education,  372 — ,  405. 

Education  of  Wotnan,  392 — ,  405. 

Education  in  Bulgaria,  3S7. 

Education  in  China,  390, 

Education  in  Japan,  391,  392,  471, 
472. 

Edwards,  Mrs.  Mary  K.,  1S6S— , 
405. 

Egede,  Hans,  2. 

El  Bara,  155. 

Elephant  hunting  in  West  Africa, 
;43- 

Eliot,  John,  5,  228;  his  Indian 
Bible,  229. 

Ellora,  caves  of,  170. 

Ely,  Charlotte  E.,  1868—,  402. 

Emperors  of  Ming  and  Tsing  dy- 
nasties, list  of,  3  28. 

E'-nee-pee,  259. 

Ennis,  Jacob,  1S36-40,  42,  260. 

Ephesus,  antiquities  at,  162. 

Erd-kuude,  by  Carl  Ritter,  3. 

Erpenius,  244. 

Erzrum,  105-1 11. 

Estancias  of  Buenos  Ayres,  135. 

Ethnography,  197-233. 

Ethnological  Society,  New  York,  5. 

Eucratides,  King,  340. 

Euyuk,  antiquities  at,  i6i. 

Evarts,  Jeremiah,  Esq.,  360-371. 

Everett,  Hon.  Edward,  366. 

Everett,  Eliza  D.,  1S6S-70,  393,  394. 

Everett,  J.  S.,  1S45-56,  175. 

Execution,  Araucanian,  7. 

Fairbanks,  Sam'l  B.,  D.D.,  1846—, 
139-141,  174,  176,  242,  428. 

Fairbanks,  Mrs.  Mary  B.,  1856-7S, 
740. 

Famine  relief,  474-476. 

Famine  in  China,  475 ;  in  India, 
475-476- 

Fantis,  330-333. 

Farkin  (Mia  Farekin?),  158. 

Farnam,  Rev.  Mr.,  249. 

Farnham,  J.  M.  W.,  D.D.,  249. 

Farnsw-orth,  W.  A.,  1S52 — ,  77,  78. 


Fauna  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  138. 

Of  Buenos  Ayres,  135. 

Of  China,  13S. 

Of  Hawaiian  Islands,  17,  136. 

Of  Oregon,  136. 

Of  Patagonia,  136. 
Feather  cloak  of    Kamehameha  I, 

■7-  .         ,  .   . 

Feet,  compression  of,  injurious,  413. 

Feltou,  Prof.  C.  C,  233. 

Feng  Shui,  2S4. 

Fennel,  354. 

Ferguson,  James,  157. 

Fielde,_A.  M.,  Miss,  239. 

Filial  piety  in  China,  266. 

Fire,  holy,  at  Jerusalem,  305-307; 

worship  of  among  Yezidees,  312. 
Fisk,  Pliny,  1S19-1825,  59,  150,  174. 
Fisk,  Fidelia,  1843-185S,  405. 
Flora  of  Hawaiian  Islands,  16  ;  of 

China,   125-130;  of  Japan,   132; 

of  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  132  ;  of 

Zululand,  133-135. 
Ford,  H.  A.,  M  D.,  1850-58,  87. 
Foreigners  in  India,  interest  of  in 

missions,  462. 
Fort  Dekock,  43. 
I'"ort  Marlborough,  46. 
Fossils  of  Syria,  375. 
r'ossil  fish  of  Lebanon,  375. 
Fountains  in  Lebanon,  112. 
Fowaris  Tnooh,  2SS. 
Franciscans  in  Syria,  304. 
Freeman,  Rev.  Mr.,  229. 
Frelingliuvsen,     Hon.     Theodore, 

366. 
Frere,  Sir  Bartle,  211,  422,  462. 
Fritcher,  Eliza,  1863 — ,  399. 
Fruit  of  the  vine,  430. 
Fuh,  268. 
Fuhchau,  115,  468. 
Fuhhi,  the  Chinese  Noah,  325. 
Funerals,  Yezidee,  311. 

Gaboon,  scenery  of  the  upper,  87, 

88. 
Galilee,  populousness  of,  152. 
Gallery,  Nineveh,  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege, 175. 
Gama,  Vasco  da,  322,  323. 
Gamble,  William,  427. 
Ganges,  56. 
Garda  Buggard,  461. 
Garrett,  J.,  iSig-31,  209,  210. 
Gatew-ay  in  Sivas,  157. 
Gautama,  26S-2S3. 
Geography,  what?  2. 
Geogtapa,  antiquities  in,  163. 
Geology,  94-102. 
Georgia,    her     dealings    with     the 

Cherokees,  362-371. 
Ghauts,  55. 
Giaghi,  3.^3,  334- 
Giaour  Dagh,  ruins  in,  160,  161. 
Gibson,  O.,  Rev.,  238,  239. 
Gilbert  Islands,  21. 
Gilbert    Islands    language,    Lord's 

prayer  in,  236. 
Gilbert  Islands  language.  Scriptures 

"1,  235- 
GiUolo  (Halmaihera),  40,  41. 
Oilman,  E.  W.,  D.D.,  230-235. 
Gilmer,  Governor,  36S. 
Glynn,  Captain,  24. 
Goa,  inquisition  at,  342. 
God  of  the  Battas,  260-261. 
God  of  the  Buddhists,  272,  274,  275. 
God  of  the  Dakotas,  257,  258. 
God  of  the  Druses,  289. 
Gods  of  the  Hindoos,  263-264. 
Godinia,  269. 
Goodell,  William,  D.D.,  1822-1S65, 

103,  104,  207,  227,  249,  452,  457. 
Goodrich,  Chauncey,  i856 — ,  37. 
Goodrich,  J.,  1S22-36,  137,  174,  175, 

176. 
Gordon,  M.  L.,  M.D.,  1S72— ,  392, 

415.  472- 


Gorilla,  143,  144. 

Gould,  A.  A.,  M.D.,  137. 

Gough,  F.  F.,  Rev.,  239. 

Gourd,  Jonah's?  74. 

Gouvea,  Don  Francis,  334. 

Govea  Antonius,  343. 

Government  of  Hawaiian  Islands, 

Grant,  Asahel,   M.D.,  1835-44,  35, 

66,  14S,   149,  164,   174,  308,  309, 

314,  321,  348-359.  408,  429,452, 

477- 
Grant,  Mrs.  Judith  S.,  1835-39,405. 
Graves,  A.,  1S17-43,  242. 
Grebo  language,  igi. 
Greece,  59,  60. 
Greek  Catliolics,  303. 
Greeks,  454. 
Green,  Daniel    C,    D.D.,   1S69 — , 

240. 
Green,  J.  K.,  1859 — ,  216. 
Green,  J.  S.,  10. 
Green,  Samuel  F.,   M.D.,  1847-73, 

410. 
Greenland,  2. 

Gregory,  Rufka,  Miss,  393. 
Gridley,  Elnathan,  1826-27,  77. 
Griswold,  Benj.,  1S41-44,  87. 
Grosvenor,  E   A.,  3S2. 
Grout,  A.,  1834,  7°,  45')  477- 
Grout,  Lewis,  1846-62,  99,  100,  133- 

135,  141-143,  192,    193,  200,  201- 

203,  422. 
Guanacos,  g,  136. 
Guess's  Cherokee  alphabet,  189. 
Gulick,  John  T.,  1S64 — ,  37,  137. 
Gulick,  Luther  H.,  M.D.,  1851-75, 

25,  137,  206,  235,  450. 
Gulick,  0.  H.,  1871 — ,  137,  219. 
Gulick,  W.  H.,  1871—,  77. 
Gulick,  Mrs.  A.  G.,  176. 
Gutzlaff,  Rev.  Chas.,  32,  38,  41,  42, 

23S.  240,  255,  256. 
Gypsies  in  Turkey,  164. 

Hadjin,  79. 

Hafiz  Pasha,  308,  309,  352,  353. 

Hagop  Matteosian,  454,  455, 

Hakem,  El,  292,  293. 

Haklena,  274. 

Hakodadi,  24,  29-30. 

Hale,  Horatio,  124. 

Haliacmon,  60. 

Hall,  Basil,  Capt.,  29. 

Hall,  G.,  1S12-26,  242. 

Hallock,  H.,  1826-42,  175,206,427. 

Halmaihera (Gillolo),  40.    41. 

Hamadan,  78. 

Hamlin,   Cyrus,  D.D.,  1838-60,  3, 

79,   164,   174,  207,  208,  380,  428, 

453.  455.  456- 
Hamze,  290,  291,  295,  314. 
Haran,  159. 
Harmattan,  121. 
Harpoot    Female    Seminary,    397; 

Examination  of,  398. 
Harris,  J.,  D.D.,  123. 
Harris,  Consul-Gen'l  at  Japan,  24. 
Harris.  T.  S.,  1S22-30,  230. 
Hartwell,  C,  1852—,  175,  23S,  239, 

412,  468. 
Hasbeya,  massacre  at,  294,  295. 
Hastings,  E.  P.,  1S46— ,  389. 
Hastings,  Warren,  322. 
Hatti  Hamayoon,  453. 
Hanran,  ruins  in,  151. 
Hawaiian    Islands,     15-20,    95-99, 

1 18,  1 19. 
Hawaiian     language,      18S,      198; 

Lord's  prayer  in,  236. 
Hawaiian  Missionary  Society,  445. 
Hawaiian  people,  19S;  decrease  of, 

199.  _ 
Hawaiian  Scriptures,  235. 
Ha-yo-ka,  258. 

Hazen,  A.,  1846-73,  210,  242. 
Heads,  how  prepared   among  Dy- 
aks, 52. 


528 


INDEX. 


Hebard,  S.,  1S35-41,  174. 

Heber,  Reginald,  56. 

Hebrew  Spanish  Scriptures,  249. 

Heiyo,  354,  355- 

Henderson,  £benezer,  2. 

Henry,  Prof.  Jos.,  233. 

Hepburn,  J.  C,  M.D.,  LL.D.,240, 

241. 
Herald,  New  York,  424. 
Hermit,  Buddhist,  279. 
Herrick,  G.  F.,  1859 — ,  249. 
Herrick,  J.,  1845—,  S'?- 
Hermel,  Kamoa  of,  156. 
Herschel,  Sir  John  F.  W.,  6. 
Hhamsin,  152. 
Hill,  A.,  229. 
Hilo,  16,  96,  97,  98. 
Himalaya,  56. 
Himmaleh,  brig,  38. 
Hindooism,  261-264. 
Hindoos,  261,  319. 
Hirakana  character,  241. 
Hitchcock,  E.,  Jr.,  Dr.,  175. 
Hoisington,    Henry    R.,     1S33-50, 

196,  261-264,  3S8. 
Hoku  Loa,  215. 
Hoku  Pakifika,  215. 
Holcombe,   Chester,    1S69-77,   37, 

467. 
Holladay,  A.  L.,  1837-46,  195. 
Hollister,  Mary  G.,  1867 — ,  402. 
Homes,  H.  A.,  1834-51,  175,  437- 

440. 
Hong  Kong,  1 15. 
Honolulu,  16. 
Hopkins,  M.,  D.D.,  174. 
Horses  of  Buenos  Ayres,  6,  135. 
Hospital  of  the  Order  of  Knights  of 

St.  John  in  Beirut,  379. 
Hospital  at  Fuhchau,  412. 
Hottentots,  193,  200. 
Howe,  E.,  Dr.,  60. 
Howland,  W.  W.,  1S45 — >  227,317. 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  13. 
Human  sacrifice  among   the  Paw- 
nees, 12 ;    in    Hawaiian    Islands, 

18. 
Hume,  R.  W.,  1839-55,  217. 
Hunt,  P.  R.,  1840—,  78,  427. 
Hunt,  T.  P.,  389. 
Hurter,  G.  C,  184-164,  208. 
Hussein  Bey,  312,  313. 
Hutchinson,  Mr.,  331. 

lapi  Oaye,  218. 

Iceland,  2. 

Illuminatcjr,  263. 

Immodesty,  Hawaiian,  20. 

Impaleinent,  69,  358. 

India,    55-57;    early    missions    to, 

339-348;     moral    condition   of, 

462;    names  of,  55;  temperature, 

112-113. 
Indian  Evangelical  Review,  218. 
Indians  of  the  interior  of  Oregon, 

12. 
Indus,  56- 

Infanticide  in  Hawaiian  Islands,  19. 
Ingersoll,  David,  Capt.,  41,  42. 
Ireland,  William,  1848 — ,  317,  405. 
Irving,  Edward',  473. 
Islam,  spirit  of,  320-322,  350,  351. 
Islands,  coral,  94. 
Islands,  volcanic,  95. 
Isniael  Pasha,  351,  357. 
Iwayid,  296. 

Jaballaha,  342. 

Jackson,    President   Andrew,   367, 

370. 
Jackson,  Ellen,  393. 
Jacombs,  Miss,  394. 
Jahhal  Druses,  295. 
Jainas,  460. 
Jambudvipa,  272,  277. 
Janizary  atrocities,  453. 

Japan,  23-25. 
apaiiese  Scriptures,  240,  241. 


Javanese,  51. 

Jehangcer,  320. 

Jenkins,  Rev.  E.  E.,  205. 

Jcrba,  island  of,  150. 

Jerusalem,  106-110;  holy  fire  at, 
305-307. 

Jessup,  Henry  II.,  D.D.,  1855- 
70,.  393,  394,  437>.456i  457.  460. 

Jesuits,  the,  in  Syria,  305. 

Jiduma  on  the  Gaboon,  S7. 

Jish,  ICO. 

Joel's  description  of  locusts  illus- 
trated, 147. 

John  de  Monte  Corvino,  237. 

Jolinson,  Sir  A.,  123. 

Johnson,  E.,  1836-67,  117,  iiS. 

Johnson,  T.  P.,  1833-53,  400. 

Jones,  John  and  Peter,  229. 

Jones,  Capt.  L.  L.,  391. 

Joonnur,  inscriptions  at,  164. 

Joseph,  a  Gilbert  Islander,  22. 

Journal  of  American  Oriental  So- 
ciety, contributions  of  mission- 
aries to,  1S8,  4S5,  4S6. 

Journal  of  Society  of  Arts,  423. 

Judd,  G.  P.,  M.D.,  1827-42,  137. 

Juggernaut,  264. 

Ka,gosima,  28. 
Kahuku,  99. 

Kaimoku  or  Keaumoku,  212. 
Kalgan,  37. 
Kalapana,  98. 
Kalpa,  277,  319. 
Kapapala,  99. 
Kapilavastu,  268. 
Karangan,  53. 
Kashiapa,  273. 
Katakama  character,  241. 
Kamakura,  273. 
Kasha  Jindo,  358. 
Kau,  gg. 

Kaushamba,  272. 
Kaygaum,  149. 
Kayu.ses,  12,  14. 
Keaina,  gg. 
Kualakomo,  98. 
Keblah  Yezidee,  312. 
Kehama,  curse  of,  275. 
Kekela,  421. 
Kelishin,  149. 
Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  463. 
Kesta,  antiquities  at,  349. 
Khabor,  66. 
Khalweh  Druse,  296. 
Khan  Mahmud,  356. 
Khurrum,  320. 
Kiangnam,  Viceroy  of,  211. 
Kilauea,  15,  95,  99. 
Kilima  Njaro,  g2. 
Kilamooks,  12. 
King,  Charles  W.,  37,  42. 
King,    Jonas,   D.D.,   i822-(;g,    59, 
..•5".  '58,  194,  206,  208,  453. 
Kingsbury,  Cyrus,  6. 
Kioto  Home,  25. 
Kioto  Training  School,  391. 
Kirttan,  226. 
Kitchen  god,  282. 
Kiusiu,  25. 
Klicatals,  12. 

Knapp,  G.  C,  1S55 — ,  112. 
Knapp,   Alzina  M.,   Mrs.,   1S55— , 

402. 
Knight,  J.,  124. 
Kobe,  24,  25 
Kona,  16,  99 
Koormanjie,  243. 
Kotcheks,  309,  312,  313. 
Kra|)f,  Dr.,  92. 
Krcos,  or  Kriis,  90. 
Kshatrivas,  261. 
Kublai  Khan,  327. 
Kumavada,  274. 
Kung  lii'ts,  264-267. 
Kung  Kill,  265. 
Kuntcn  character,  241. 
Kiir,  Bey  of  Kavendooz,  308,  350. 


Kurdish  Scriptures,  243. 

Kurdish  tortures,  35S,  359. 

Kiirds,  64,  81,  350. 

Kurdistan,  Gospel  in,  45S. 

Kusaie,  20. 

Kusaiean  language.   Lord's  prayer 

in,  236. 
Kushinagara,  272. 
Kwahlamba,  99,  119,  j2o. 
Kwan  Wha,  238. 
Kwan-yin,  276,  278. 

Labaree,    B.,    Jr.,   Mrs.,    1,860-70, 

176,  433. 
Ladakeea,  153. 
Laframboise,  Miss  J.  A.,   1869-71,. 

374. 
Eagos,  423,  424. 
Lama,  Hawaii,  215. 
Lama,  Mian,  35. 
Lambuth,  J.  W.,  Rev.,  23g. 
Land,  The,  and  the  Book,  75,  76. 
Languages  used  by  Missionaries  of 
the    Board,   188;   of   South   Sea 
Islands,  i8g;  of  .America,  189. 
Lanneau,  J.  F.,  1835-46,  105. 
Laots,  283. 

Lapping  water  (Judges  vii:  5),  202. 
Lassar,  Mr.,  254. 
Latins  in  Syria,  304. 
Laurie,  Thomas,  1S42-46,  66-71,  72, 

74,  174,  177-183,  309-316,  317- 
Laut,  Pulo,  51. 
Lawrence,  Lord,  463. 
Lay,  G.  T.,  38. 
Layard,    Austen    Henry,   307-316, 

348-350,  353,  357,  359,  360. 
Lazarists  in  Syria,  304. 
Earned,  D.  W.,  1875 — ,  392. 
Lebanon,  150. 

Lee,  Henry,  of  Manchester,  375. 
Leibnitz,  184. 

Leonard,  J.  Y.,  1857 — ,  456. 
Lepsius,  R.,  Prof.,  186, 
Lettres  Edifianteset  Curieuses,  125. 
Lewchew,  26-29,  41. 
Lewis,  Prof.  Edwin  R.,  M.D.,  376. 
Leyburn,  G.  \V.,  1S37-42,  60,  15.S. 
Lezan,  Slaughter  of  Nestorians  at, 

.359-. 
Liberia,  91. 

Light  of  Asia,  275,  2S0-2S3. 
Light  of  Sivan,  261. 
Lima  Puluh,  43. 
Lincoln,  Pres  ,  421. 
Lindley,  Daniel,  1834-73,  86,  92. 
Linga,  262. 
Lin-tsi,  274. 
Literature,   character    of    heathen, 

204. 
Livingstone,  David,  M.  D  ,go. 
Lobdell,  Henr)',  1851-55,  3,  74,  7,S, 
148,  149,  164,   175,  30S,  310,  313, 
316,  408. 
Locusts  described,  146,  147. 
Loftus,  W.  K.,  149. 
Logan,  R.  W.,  1S74— ,  235. 
Lnhan,  272. 
Lombok,  44. 

London  Quarterly,  210,  457. 
Long,  A.  L.,  D.  L).,  193,  382. 
Loochoo,  see  Lewchew. 
Loom,  Patagonian,  g. 
Lord,  Dr.,  340. 
Lord,  E.  C.,  Rev.,  239. 
Love,  \V.  De  L.,  181. 
Lue-kung  and  Lue-]io,  284. 
Lulhcr  on   Bible   translation,   245, 

246. 
Lu-tsu,  283,  284. 
Lydias,  60. 

Lyman,  D.  B.,  1831-71?  444. 
Lyman,  Henry,  1833-34,  43-50. 
Lyman,  Mrs.,  50. 
Lyons,  J.  L.,  1S54-63,  2og. 
Lystra,  160. 

Maan,  Emir,  2S8. 


INDEX. 


529 


Macao,   115,  meteorological  tables, 

117. 
Macarthy,  Sir  Charles,  331,  332. 
Macdonald,  Rev.  R.  S.,  219. 
Macgowan,  I.,  M.D.,  175. 
Maclay,   R.    S.,   D.D.,     23S,   239, 

240. 
Macy,  W.  A.,  1S49-59,  124. 
Madras,  literary  work  at,  210. 
Madras  Times,  464. 
Magadha,  268,  272. 
Magazine   of     Useful    Knowledge, 

Smyrna,  216. 
Mahabharata,  262,  3:9. 
INIahmoud  of  Persia,  34S. 
Maitland,  Sir  Peregrine,  477. 
Makassar,  38. 
Malabar,  Syrian  Christians  of,  341- 

344- 
Malays,  47,  48,  50,  51. 
Malek  Berkho,  355,  356. 
Malek  of  Chumba,  355,  357. 
Malta,  St.  Paul's  Bay  in,  150. 
Mana  Madura,  antiquities  in,  169. 
Manchuria,  116. 

Mandarin,  colloquial,  35,  238,  239. 
Mandeling,  44. 
Mandingo  language,  191. 
Mangana  mulan,  260. 
Mangosteen  (fruit),  40. 
Mango  tree,  465. 
Maps,  4. 
Marash,  S3,  84. 
Marathi,  209. 

Scriptures,  242. 
Marco  Polo,  346,  347. 
Marden,     Henry,     1869 — ,     79-S6, 

425- 
Maritzburg  Mountain,  100. 
Mar,  Joseph,  342. 
IMarkub,  Castle  ot,  154. 
Maronites,  297-303. 

Their  clergy,  297-299. 

Their  convents,  299-301. 

Their  liturgy,  297. 

Their  preachers,  301. 

Their  schools  and  colleges,  301- 

303- 
Marquesan,  Lord's  Prayer  in,  236. 
Marquesan  Scriptures,  235. 
Marquesas  Islands,  21. 
Marquis  of  Bath,  383. 
Mar  Sawa,  357. 
Marsden,  Mr.,  2. 
Marsh,  Dwight,  W.,  D.D.,  1849-61, 

3,  149,  164,  174. 
Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  369. 
Marshall  Islands,  20. 
Marshall  Islands,  Language,  Lord's 

Prayer  in,  236. 
Marshall    Islands,    Scriptures    in, 

235- 
Mar  Shnnon,  339,    351,   352,    355, 

35(^- 
Marshman,  Dr.,  238,  254-256. 
Martin,  James,  M.D.,  86. 
Martin,  W.  A.  P.,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

239.  411,418,  419,  469. 
Masada,  157^ 
Mason,  Rev.  F.,  125. 
Massacre  of  Mountain  Nestorians, 

348-360. 
Massacre  at  Hasbeya,  294,  295. 
Massachusetts     Indian     language, 

229. 
Matsayuma,  Mr.,  240. 
Matsu,  276. 
Matthew,  Joseph,  342. 
Matua,  43. 

Mauna  Haleakala,  15. 
Mauna  Hualalai,  15. 
Mauna  Kea,  15,  96,  97. 
Mauna  Loa,  15,  ^6,  97,  99. 
Maury,  Lieut.  M.  F.,  121. 
Maxims  of  Confucius,  265,  26/. 
Maxims  of  Mencius,  266. 
Maya,  268. 
Means,  J.  O.,  D.D.,  i,  92. 


Mechanic  Arts,  426-429. 

Medhurst,  W.  H.,  23S,  239,  255. 

Medical  Science,  406-416. 

Medicine,  Arab,  406. 

Medicine,  Chinese,  407,  40S. 

Medicine  Men,  Indian,  259,  260. 

Medicine,  Turkish,  406,  409. 

Megiddo,  157. 

Me'hdi,  314. 

Mehemet  Resliid  Pasha,  30S,  309, 
352- 

Melcon,  H.  A.,  385. 

Melek  Taoos,  315. 

Melithreptes,  Pacifica.  16. 

Mencius,  265-266. 

Meiie,  45,  49. 

Menu,  Institutes  of,  262,  319,  479. 

Merolla,  Father,  336-339. 

Meshakah,  Michael,  209,  224,  437. 

Metempsychosis,  271,  290. 

Meteorology  in  Turkey,  103-112. 

Meteorology  in  Syria,  103-112. 

Metropolitans,  Nestorian,  346. 

Micha,  Ibn  Yonan,  441. 

Micronesia,  20-22,  94. 

Micronesian  commerce  and  mis- 
sions, 425. 

Middle  Kingdom,  32,  33. 

Mikado  of  Japan,  24. 

Mildmay  Conference,  228. 

Milne,  Rev.  W.,  D.D,,  255. 

Minatchi,  Temple  of,  170. 

Mingti,  Emperor,  277- 

Minor,  E.  S.,  1833-51,  210. 

Mishakah,  Michael,  M.D.,  20S, 
2og,  224,  2SS. 

Mitchell,  Dr.  M.,  442. 

Miwa,  Mr.,  240. 

Moffat,  Robert,  423. 

Mogul  splendor,  164-168,  319,  320. 

Mohammed  Injeh  Bairakdar,  Pasha, 
69,  70,  ?oS,  353. 

Mohammed  Kasim,  319. 

Mohammed  Shah,  Mausoleum  of, 
168. 

Mohammedanism  inconsistent  with 
national  prosperity,  320-322. 

Mohawk  Scriptures,  229. 

Moluccas,  41. 

Mongolia,  116. 

Moomtaji  Mahal,  166. 

More,  Mrs.  Hannah,  206. 

Morgan,  H.  B,,  1S52-65,  153,  174. 

Morgan,  L.  H.,  4. 

Morning  Star,  16,  217  (Arabic),  218 
(Tamil),  219  (Zulu). 

Morris,  Hon.  E.  Joy,  3S0. 

Morrison,  J.  R.,  32,  23S,  239. 

Morrison,  Robert,  D.D.,  23S,  255. 

Morrison  Education  Society,  390. 

Morrison,  Ship,  41,  42. 

Morse,  C.  F.,  1S57-70,  194. 

Mortlock  Islands,  Gospel  of  Mark 
for,  235. 

Mosul,  temperature  of,  105-112. 

Mothers,  regard  for  in  West  Africa, 
90. 

Mother,  a  model,  266. 

Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  Cabi- 
nets, 176. 

Mpongwe  language,  igi;  Script- 
ures, 251 ;  verbs,  192. 

Miiller,  Max,  185. 

Munson,  Samuel,  1S33-34,  43-50. 

Murdock,  Dr.  J.,  205. 

Music,  Arab,  224-225. 

Music,  Dakota,  222. 

Music,  Chinese,  222-224. 

Music  in  India,  225-227. 

Muzzy,  C.  F.,  1836-60,  176. 

Nagasaki,  24. 
Nairanjana  l!uddha,  270. 
Nakhchevan,  150. 
Nakos,  397- 

Namo  Onieto  Fuh,  280. 
Napa  or  Nafa,  26. 
Naraput  .Singh,  4S0. 


Nardenk,  439,  440. 

Nass  language,  10. 

National  regeneration,  442-473. 

Nazareth,  river,  S7. 

Nazareth  town,  earthquake  in,  102. 

Neander,  237,  342. 

Neesima,  Joseph  H.,  25,  391,  392. 

Neilgherry  hills,  55,  56. 

Neill,  Rev.  E.  D.,  233. 

Nelson,  Col.,  36S. 

Nestorian    massacre,    348-360;    in 

Ashitha,     358;     Chumba,     357; 

Diss,    356;    Lezan,    359;     Sers- 

pidho,  357  ;  Tehoma,  360. 
Nestorian  missions,  342,  345. 
Nestorians,  mountain,  65  ;   number 

that  perished  in  massacre,  360. 
Nestorians,  61. 
Nestorian  monument  in  China,  172, 

173,  345- 
Nevius,  J.  L.,  Rev.,  264-267. 
Newell,  S.,  1812-21,  242. 
Newspapers  in  Japan,  25. 
Nez  Perces,  12. 
Ngansih,  345. 
Ningpo,  115. 
Niobe,     statue    of,    near    Smyrna, 

162. 
Nile,  2. 
Niinkelsus,  11. 

Nineveh,  Gallery  of,  Amherst  Col- 
lege, 175. 
Niphon,  25. 

Nirvana,  269,  270,  272,  274,  276. 
Nomr,  450. 
NoidhofT,  C,  212. 
Norris,  H.  L.,  387,  409. 
Norris,  Sarah   F.,   M.D.,    1S73— , 

410. 
North  China  branch  of  the  Royal 

Asiatic  Society,  123. 
Northern  and  Southern  Buddhism, 

278. 
Northwest  Coast,  10. 
Noyes,  Hon.  E.  F.,  379,  424. 
Nurullah  Bey,  65,  66,  350,  352. 
Nyas,  45,  49. 

Obscurer,  263. 
Observer,  New  York,  215. 
Offerings,  Dakota.  259 
Ogden,"Miss  E.  K.,    M.D.,   1876- 

80,  410. 
Ogova  (Ogowai),  87. 
Ojibwa  Scriptures,  229. 
Okayama,  25, 
Okuno,  Mr.,  240. 
Olopun  or  Olopuen,  173,  345. 
Olyphant  &  Co.,  37,  41. 
Omens,  Dyak,  54. 
Oodooville  Fem.  Boarding  School, 

404. 
Oodoopitty  Female  Seminary,  404. 
Oon-ktay-he,  257. 
Opatinia,  449,  450. 
Opium,  329,  466,  467. 
Opium  caters  cured,  413,  414. 
Oppression,   Malay,    53 ;     Russian, 

62-64 ;  Turkish,  67-72. 
Ordeal  by  red  water,  89. 
Oregon,  11. 

Oriental  American  Society,  3,  226. 
Oriental     Translation     Society     of 

London,  123. 
Oroomiah,  105-111. 
Osai,  330. 
Osai    Akwasi,    330 ;    Osai   Apoko, 

330;    Osai    Kudjoh,    330;     Osai 

Kwamina,  330;  Osai  Tutu,  329; 

Osai  Tutu  Kwamina,  330,  331. 
Osaka,  25. 
Osgood,  Dauphin  W.,  M.D.,    1869 

-80,  407,  412-415,  466. 
Osgood,  Dr.,  of  New  York,  206. 
Osman  Bey,  294. 
Ostrich  of  Buenos  Ayres,  135. 
Ostrom,  A.,  Rev.,  239. 
Osunkerhine,  Peter,  229. 


INDEX. 


Ouseley,  Sir  W.,  123. 

Padang,  43,  44,  4^- 

Paddock,  Miss  Martha  M.,  1879—, 
374- 

Paddy,  132- 

Pagodas,  171;  Porcelain  at  Nan- 
king, 1 71-2;  atT'ung-cho,  172. 

Panayotes  Constantinides,  249. 

Panaretoff,  Stephen,  3S2. 

Pan  Mountain,  35.   , 

Pangwes,  87. 

Panther,  consternation  caused  by 
a,  145- 

Papal  translation  of  Bible  into 
Chinese,  254. 

Paris,  J.  D.,  1S42 — ,  70,  96. 

Park,  Charles  \V.,  1870 — ,  217,  218. 

Parker,  Peter,  M.D.,  1834-47,  37, 
41,  42,  411- 

Parker,  Samuel,  1835-37,  11-13,  121, 
125,  136,  137. 

Parmelee,  M.  P.,  1S63— ,  74,  m. 

Parsonage  in  Kessab,  456. 

Parsons,  E.  C,  1875 — ,  396. 

Parsons,  J.  W.,  1850-S0,  60,  162. 

Parvin,  Theophilus,  1823-25,  6. 

Passover  wine  at  Hebron,  432,  441. 

Pasha  of   Mosul,  his  severity,  6g, 

7°- 
Pashas,   Turkish,    how    appointed 

and  paid,  68. 
Paspati,  Dr.,  164. 
Patagonia,  8. 

Patrick,  Mary  M.,  1S71— ,  396. 
Pawnee  human  sacrifice,  12. 
Pays,  Father,  2. 
Peabody,  A.  P.,  D.D.,  22,  75. 
Peet,  L.  B.,  1839-71,  23S,  239. 
Peking,  35,  36,  114,  115. 
Pekmez,  see  Dibs. 
Percival,  Lieut.  John,  418,  445. 
Perkins,  Justin,  D.D.,    1S33-1S69, 

62-64,    148,    151,     163,    174,    175, 

195.  243,317,  350,  352,  431- 

Periaculum,  antiquities  in,  i6g. 

Perry,  Commodore,  24,  42. 

Persia,  agriculture  and  fruits,  64. 

Persians,  64. 

Pettibone,  I.  F.,  1855—,  396. 

Philology,  123-125,  184-196. 

Pickering,  John,  LL.  D.,  22,  1S6. 

Pierce,  Ellen  M.,  1874—,  402. 

Piercy,  G.,  Rev.,  239. 

Pierson,  G.,  M.D.,  1S52-60,  206, 
450. 

Pierson,  I.,  1870 — ,  450. 

Pig  and  Hawaiian  girls,  136,  137. 

Pinjera  Pole,  460,  461. 

Pojaruyong,  43,  171. 

Pohlman.W.  J.,  1S38-48. 

Polo,  Marco,  23. 

Polyandry  in  Hawaiian  Islands,  19. 

Polygamy,  482-4S4. 

Polygamy,  Araucanian,  8;  in  Mo- 
sul, 321  ;  on  Northwest  Coast, 
11;  of  Oregon  Indians,  12;  at 
Sandwich  Islands,  18. 

Polyglot,  Arabic,  244. 

Pompeiopolis,  160. 

Ponape,  20. 

Ponapean  version,  253. 

Pond,  S.  W.,  1S37-54,  230,  233. 

Pond,  G.  H.,  1837-52,  230,  232. 

Pontianak,  50,  54. 

Poor,  D.,  O.D.,  1815-55,  175,  38S. 

Popery  and  Buddhism,  resem- 
blances, 280. 

Popery  and  the  slave  trade,  338. 

Population  of  Bencoolen,  42;  of 
China,  329;  of  Dayaks,  52;  of 
India,  57;  of  Japan,  23  ;  of  Lew- 
chew,  26;  of  Makassar,  39;  of 
Nyas,  49;  of  Salayer,  40;  ofrei- 
nati  and  Tidore,  41. 

Porter,  H.  D.,  M.D.,  1872—,  411. 

Porter,  Prof.  Harvey,  376. 

Poner,  J.  L.,  D.D.,  >S'. 


Porter,  Miss  Mary  H.,  186S — ,  390. 

Porus,  319. 

Post,  G.  E.,  M.D.,  1S63-70,    376, 

379,  437- 

Powell,  G.  M.,  5. 

Powers,  P.  O.,  1S34-72,  175. 

Prajna  Paramita,  271. 

Prasenajit,  272. 

Pratimokshu  Sutra,  273 

Pratt,  A.  T.,  M.D.,  1853-72,  157, 
249,  410. 

Prayer  of  Chinese  Emperor,  286, 
287. 

Prayer,  The  Lord's,  in  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Pacific,  236. 

Preserver,  263. 

Preston,  C.  F.,  Rev.,  239. 

Preston,  Ira  M.,  1848767,  87. 

Preexistence  of  souls,  290. 

Prester  John,  347. 

Priaman,  45. 

Priests,     Buddhist,    279;    Yezidee, 

313; 

Printing,  why  not  invented  earlier, 
205. 

Proctor,  Isaac,  1S22-33,  367. 

Proctor,  Myra  A.,  1859 — ,  3S6,  401, 
402. 

Profile,  wonderful,  i6r. 

Protestants  in  Turkey,  424,  455. 

Psychology,  50. 

Publications,  Missionary,  in  China, 
46S. 

Pulliyar,  263,  264. 

Puhiey  hills,  56,  169. 

Pulo  Batu,  46. 

Punishments,  Araucanian,  7  ;  Ny- 
as, 48. 

Punka,  113. 

Pun  tsau,  12S,  407. 

Puranas,  263,  319- 

Purusha  and  Sakti,  263. 

P'usa,  269,  271,  278. 

Puthu,  Mandapam,  170. 

Pwanku,  the  Chinese  creator,  325. 

Quarries  of  Nineveh,  149. 
Queen  Charlotte  Island,  10. 

Rafts,  living,  145. 
Rahula,  270. 

Railroad,  Horse,  in  Tripoli,  460. 
Rajagriha,  270. 
Rajangs,  42. 
Raniayana,  262,  319. 
Ramsay,  Alexander,  233. 
Rankin,  H.  V.,  Rev.,  239. 
Rappleye,  Julia  A  ,  395,  396. 
Rassam,  Charles,  311,  352. 
Rationalists,  Chinese,  283-285. 
Reynolds,   G.    C,    M.D.,    1869—, 

385- 
Ravs  of  Light,  Syriac,  217. 
Read,  Hon.  W.  B.,  469. 
Rebman,  J  ,  92. 
Recipes,  Chinese,  407. 
Redcliffe,  Lord,  312,  453. 
Red  wan.    Letter   from   church    in, 

4.S8. 
Red  water,  ordeal  by,  89. 
Reed,  Rev.  C.  E.  B  ,  228. 
Religion   divorced    from  morality, 

452- 

Renville,  Mr.,  232. 

Repository,  Cliinese,  32-35. 

Reproducer,  263. 

Resemblances  between  Popery  and 
Buddhism,  280. 

Resurrection,  the  Druse,  294. 
Yezidee,  315. 

Revenue,  none  accepted  from 
opitim  in  China,  467. 

Reynolds,  Capt.,  213. 

Rhea,  S.  A.,  1851-65,  124. 

Riblah,  156. 

Rich,  Claudius,  James,  309  ;  Rich- 
ard W.,  1822-38,  417,  443. 

Richardson,  James,  88. 


Rice,  H.  M.,  233. 

Rice,  Mary  S.,  i84>-69,  405. 

Riggs,  A.  L.,  1870—,  221,  257-260, 

374- 
Ridgs,  Edward,  i86g— ,  157. 
Riggs,  Elias,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  1S32— 

193,  194,  195,  2'7>  249- 
Ri.ggs,  Stephen  R  ,  LL.D  ,  1S37 — 

190,  230-35,  374. 
Riggs,  Mrs.  Mary  A.  C,  230-231. 
Rig  Veda,  478. 
Kipa's  College,  254. 
Rising,  Rev.  Franklin  S  ,  445-44S. 
Ritter,  Carl,  3,  22,  158,  341. 
River,  The,  in  Ezekiel,  76. 
Robert,  Christopher  R.,  380. 
Robert  College,  3S0-383. 
Roberts,  J.  S.,  Rev.,  239. 
Robertson,  Rev.  J.,  437. 
Robinson,  Edward,    D.D.,  73,  74, 

•52,  I57. 
Rocky  Mountains  and  Railroads, 

II. 
Rubruquis,  William  de,  i,  346,  347. 
Rudra,  263. 
Ruk,  450. 

Rum  and  missions,  418. 
Rumaish,  100. 

Russell,  \V.  A.,  Right  Rev.,  239. 
Russian  oppression,  62-64. 

Sabat,  Dyak  custom,  54. 

Sabbatical  review,  153. 

Sabbath,  Yezidee,  311. 

Sacca,  49. 

Sacrifice,  human,  among  Pawnees, 

12. 
Saduk  Ejnebi,  letter  from,  459. 
Safet,  earthquake  in,  loi. 
Safeeta,  153. 
Sago,  132. 
Sajour  river,  157. 
Saiaberka,  349,  355, 
Salayer,  isle  of,  40. 
Salisbury,  Prof.  E.  E.,  224. 
Salliootlas,  12. 
Salinas,    ancient    sculpture      near, 

164. 
Samadhi,  269. 
Samarchar,  Darpan,  215. 
Sambas,  5  i. 
Sandracottus,  319. 
Sandwich    Islands,    15-20,    95-99. 

Climate,  118,  119. 

Commerce  and  missions,  425. 

Progress  at,  442-449. 
Sanga,  Sangarania,  269. 
Sanskrit    and    other  languages   of 

India,  199. 
Santee  Agency,   Normal  Training 

School,  373. 
Sarvartha,  268. 
Satan,  worship  of,  315. 
Satsuma,  2S. 
Satthia  warttamani,  218. 
Saudoc,  64. 

Savce,  A.  H.,  Prof.,  177,  180,  181. 
Sciiaff,  P.,  D.D..  289,  317. 
Schaufflcr,   W.  G.,  D.D.,  1S31-61, 

60,  158,  20S,  249,  430. 
Schereschewskj',    S.    I.   J.,  D.D., 

238,  239,  256. 
Schermerhorn,  Rev.  J.  F.,  370. 
Schlicnz,  C. ,  Rev.,  244. 
Schneider,   Benj.,   D.I).,     1833-75, 

156,  174. 
School,  Sunday,  in  Ainlab,  82,  S3. 
Schools,  our,  in  Turkey,  3S7,  388. 
Schools  in  Ceylon,  388. 
Schullz,  65. 

Schwartz,  Rev.  Mr.,  249. 
Scientists,  missionaries  as,  122. 
.Scott,  Rev.  T.  J., '205. 
Scott,  Gen.  Winfiold,  370. 
Scudder,  D.  C,  1861-62,  168,  169. 
Scudder,  E.  C,  1855-57. 
Sruddcr,  II.  M.,  1844-57,  462. 
Scudder,  J.,  M.D.,  1819-1855,  410. 


INDEX. 


531 


Seelye,  J.  H.,  President,  423. 
Seethumbarum,  Temple  of,  171. 
Seleucia,  154. 
Seminary,  Fem.,  Aintab,  400-402. 

Beirut,  393,  394. 

Harpoot,  397-399- 
Seneca  Scriptures,  230. 
Sepulchre  of  our  Lord,  illus.,  156. 
Seringham,  Pagodas  of,  171. 
Serspidho,  349. 
Sesostris,  statue  of,  near  Smyrna, 

162. 
Sewny,  K.  H.,  387. 
Sexagenary  cycle  invented  by  Yau 

the  Great,  325. 
Sexual    polarity    of    divine  beings 

among  Druses,  290. 
Seymour,  Harriet,  1867 — ,  399. 
Shakya,   Shakya    muni,   268,    270, 

271,  272. 
Shalemar,  garden  at,  164. 
Shanghai,    meteorological    tables, 

1 18. 
Shanghai,  46S. 
Shargars,  11. 

Shattuck,  Corinna,  1873 — ,  402. 
Shattuck,  L.  W.,  Miss,  176. 
Shedd,  J.  H.,  D.D.,    1S59-70,  78, 

433-436,  460- 
Shehoa,  155. 
Sheikh  Abdullah,  47. 
Sheikh  Adi,  308,  339,  311-316. 
Sheikh  Nasr,  313,  314. 
Sheraasha  Hinno,  358. 
Shenstone,  Sir  Theophilus,  477. 
Shepard,  Miss  Martha  A.,  1875 — , 

374. 
Shichi  Ichi  Zappo,  212,  219. 
Shikoku,  25. 

Shimavonian,  C  M.,  384. 
Shipara  discipline,  272. 
Shirasawabi,  31. 
Shirawaty,  57. 
Shops  in  Hakodadi,  30. 
Shravasti,  270,  271. 
Shudi,  26. 

Siam,  temperature  of,  114. 
Sibasa,  261. 
Sibley,  H.  H.,  233. 
Sidda,  268. 
Siddharta,  26S. 
Simabara,  24. 
Simoda,  24. 

Simpson,  Geo.,  Sir,  13. 
Sign  language  of  Dyaks,  53. 
Silliman,  Prof.  B.,  122. 
Simla,  56. 

Simon,  St.,  mount,  ruins  on,  154. 
Sinai,  151,  152. 
Singan-fu,  Nestorian  monument  in, 

17=.  173,  345- 
Sisson,  Elizabeth,  1S72-7S,  464. 
Sitka  language,  10. 
Siva,  263. 

Siva  Gnana  Potham,  261. 
Sivas,  gateway  in,  157. 
Slavery  on  Northwest  Coast,  n  ;  in 

Oregon,  12;  in  Nyas,  48. 
Slave-trade  and  Popery,  33S. 
Slavonic  language,  193,  194. 
Smith,  Azariah,  M.D.,  1842-51,66, 

105-112,   137,   174,  316,  348,349, 

400,  408,  409. 
Smith  and  Dvvight's  travels  in  Ar- 
menia, 61,  62,  317,  318,  352. 
Smith,  Eli,  D.D.,   1S20-57,  61,  73, 

151,  224-25,   244,   427,  431,  432, 

438- 
Smith,  George,  205. 
Smithsonian  Contributions  to 

Knowledge,  122,  190. 
Smyrna,  105-110. 
Snow,  B.  G.,  1851-80,  124,  206,  235, 

450. 
Soli,  160. 
Soripada,  260. 
Souls,    number    of,    unchangeable 

among  Druses,  290. 


South  African  climate,  119,  120. 
Southey,  R.,  275. 
Spaulding,  Henry  H.,  13,  14. 
Spaulding,  E.,  1831-36,  175. 
Spaulding,    Levi,   D.D.,    1819-73, 

124,  242,  404- 
Spaulding,  Mrs.  Mary  C,  1819-74, 

3-12,  404. 
Spirit,  Great,  Indian  idea  of,  259. 
Stanley,  H.  M.,  193,  336. 
Statistics,    Missionary,    of    China, 

470. 
Steetgar,  10. 
Stevens,  E.,  1835-37,  38. 
Stevens,  J.  D.,  1S29-39,  230. 
Steward,  the  unjust,  67-71. 
Stewart,  C.  S.,  1822-25,  124,  137. 
Stoddard,  David  T.,  1843-57,  6,  124, 

174,  175.  195,  243. 
Stone,  S.  B.,  1S50-75,  92. 
Stronach,  Rev.  J.,  239,  255. 
Strong's  Island,  Gospels  and  Acts 

for,  235. 
Strong,  Rev.  E.  E.,  2S07283. 
Studies  in  College  in  Beirut,  377. 
Sturgis,  A.  A.,  1852 — ,  206,  235,  450. 
Subchaljesu,  346. 
Subuctajee,  3  19. 
Suddhodana,  26S. 
Sudras,  or  Soodras,  262,  479,  4S0. 
Sumatra,  42-50. 
Sumeru  mountain,  276,  277. 
Sun,  worship  of,  312 
Suttee,  478,  479. 
Swallow,  Prof.  E.  H.,  112. 
Sympathy  with  distant  suffering  of 

friends,  50. 
Syriac,  modern,  195. 
Syrian  Catholics,  304. 
Syrian  Evangelical  Girls'  Seminary, 

393,  394- 
Syrian   Protestant  College  at  Bei- 
rut, 374-379- 

Tablets,  metal,  of  Malabar,  344. 

Tabu  in  Hawaiian  Islands,  18. 

Taha  Effendi,  3S7. 

Ta  Hioh,  265. 

Takahashi,  Mr.,  240. 

Takoo-Shkan,  25S. 

Tai  Tsung,  Emperor,  327. 

Tai-yuan-fu,  37. 

Taj  IMahal  at  Agra,  164-167,  320. 

Talas,  400. 

Talmage,  Rev.  J.  V.  N.,  239. 

I'amerlane  (Timur  Lenk),  319,  348. 

Tamil,  195, 199,  210;  medical  works, 

410. 
Tamil  Scriptures,  242. 
Tamong,  45, 
Tandjang  alam,  43. 
Tandoor,  61. 

Taou  Kwang,  his  prayer,  2S6,  287. 
Tappanooly  bay,  49. 
Tatsin,  what?  344,  345. 
Tail  sect,  or  Tauists,  283-2S5. 
Tavernier,  166. 
Tavetian,  Nectar  Der,  399. 
Taylor,  I.  H.,  239. 
Taylor,  "W.,  M.D.,  24. 
Tcherky,  69. 
Tea,  12S-130. 

Tehonia,  or  Tekhoma,  350,  360. 
Temple,  Amelia  C,  394. 
Temple,  Sir  Richard,  463. 
Temple,  D.Tniel,   1822-44,  206,  216. 
Temples,  Buddhist,  278. 
Temples  in  China,  2S6. 
Tent,  Patagonian,  8. 
Teppa  Kulam,  Madura,  168. 
Ternati  and  Tidore,  40,  41. 
Theophilus  of  Diu.  344. 
Thessalonica,  antiquities  at,  163. 
Thibet,  116 

Thomas,  the  Apostle,  341,  343. 
Thompson,  A.  C,  D.  D.,  3S9,  420. 
Thompson,  Rev.  E.  H.,  239. 
Thompson,  John,  1S28-32,  367,  36S. 


Thompson,  L.,  1840-43,  74. 
Thompson,  J.  P.,  D.D.,  453. 
Thomson,  VV.   M.,  D.D.,    1S32-70, 

73,  75,  76,   I0O-IO2,  13S,  146,  147, 

152-156,  164,  437,  477. 
Three  Pure  Ones,  2S4. 
T  hurston.  A.,  1819-68,  174. 
Tiberias,  earthquake  in,  loi. 
Tieh,  sale  of  to  women,  2S0. 
Tigris.    Assyrian    antiquities    near 

sources  of,  163. 
Times,  New  York,  426. 
Tipping,  Mr.,  157. 
Tirumal  Naick,  or  Tirrumalu  Nay- 

agan,  170,  171. 
Toba,  41. 

Tocat,  antiquities  in,  i6r. 
Tombs  in  Lewchew,  28  ;  in  Oorfa, 

156. 
Tomson,  Cora  W.,  1873-79,  396. 
Toonkan,  258. 
Topes,  340. 

Torch-light  (Zulu),  219. 
Torrey,  C.  C,  1S55-60,  230. 
Tortosa,  153. 
Townshend,    Harriet     E.,    1867 — , 

404. 
Tracy,  Ira,  1833-41,  267,  268. 
Tracy,  Jos.,  D.D.,  317. 
Tracy,  W.,  1836-77,  170,  171. 
Tradclonko,  7. 

Treat,  A.  O.,  M.D.,  25,  125,  466. 
Trebizond,  105-111. 
Triad,  263. 
Trigantius,  343. 
Trowbridge,    Tillman   C,    1855 — , 

164,  3S6,  3S7. 
True  News  Bearer  (Tamil),  218. 
Tuckey,  Capt.,  336. 
Turcomans,  81. 
Turkish  Scriptures,   243,  244,  248, 

249,  250. 
Turner,  Prof.  W.  W.,  233. 
Tushita  Paradise,  270. 
Tuttivam,  law  of  the,  261. 
Twan-tsi-sin-yau,  274. 
Tycoon  of  Japan,  24. 
Tyerman  and  Bennett,  2. 
Tyler,  President  John,  .,  14. 
Tyler,  Josiah,   1849 — >  92,  175,  477, 

478. 
Tyler,  Professor  W.  S.,  149,  184- 

196. 
Type  printing,  427,  428. 
Tyre,  100. 

Ulmen,  Araucanian,  7. 
Umbaquas,  12. 
Um  el  awamid,  152 
Unitarians  of  Syria,  2S9. 
Universal  intelligence,  2S9. 
Universal  soul,  2^9. 
Unkh  Khan  and  fasting,  34S. 
Upasaka,  270. 

Vaishyas,  262. 

Van  der  Stell,  Simon,  422. 

Van  Dyck,  C.  V.  A.,  M.D  ,  D.D., 
1840-70,  105,  376,  377,  379,  406, 
408,  433,  437.  438.. 

Van  Dyck,  Wm.  Thomson,  M.D., 
376. 

Van  Dyck,  Miss  Lizzie,  393. 

Van  Lennep,  Henry  J.,  1S39-69, 
145,  146,  161,  162,  174,  175,  384. 

Vedas,  262,  479. 

Vegetables  of  Hawaii,  19. 

Veiling  in  flesh,  instead  of  incarna- 
tion, 291. 

Veys,  92.  " 

Vihara,  269. 

Vine,  fruit  of  the,  430. 

Vineyards,  Turkish,  80. 

Virago,  Patagonian,  9. 

Virtues,  Five  Chinese,  266,  267, 

Vishnu,  263. 

Volcanoes  of  Hawaii,  16, 95-99, 137. 

Vrooman,  D.,  1851-66,  32. 


53- 


INDEX, 


Wady  el  Kuril,  152. 

Wa-kan-tan-ka,  25S. 

Wa-ke-yan,  257. 

Walker,  Wm.,  1841-70,  87,  175,  41S. 

Wansiaiig,  Premier,  470. 

War  and  missions,  476-478. 

War-club,  Araucanian,  7. 

Ward,  N.,  M.D.,  1S33-47,  i75.  388, 

410. 
Ward,  F.  DeW.,  1S36-46,  57,  139. 
Warren,  W.,  D.D.,  6. 
Washburn,  George,  1858-68,  3S2. 
Washburn,  George  T.,  1S60 — ,  167, 

21S,  227,  242. 
Watson,  Mrs.,  394. 
Webb,  Edward,  1845-65,  196,  226. 
Webb,  Susan,  Miss,  1879 — ,  374. 
Webster,  Dai.iel,  14. 
Wedding,  Malay,  47;   Nyasdo.,47. 
Weddings  in  India,  465. 
Wen  Li,  23S. 

West,  H.  S.,  M.D.,  1859-76,  409. 
West,  Maria  A.,  1853-80,  397,  400, 

440,  441. 
West  African  climate,  120;  natural 

history,  143-145. 
Western  Africa,  86-92,    451. 
Westminster  Review,  204. 
Wetmore,  C.  H.,  M.D.,   184S-60, 

98. 
Whalon,  Mr.,  421. 
Wheeler,    Crosby   H.,    1S57 — ,    74, 

3S4,  385,  398- 
Whiting,  G.   B.,   1830-55,  74,   105, 

174. 
Whiting,  Mrs.  M.  S.,  392,  393- 
Whitman,     Marcus,     1S35-47,    11; 

saved   Gregon   to  U.  S.,   13-15; 

death  of,  14. 
Whitney,  J.  F.,  1871— ,  235. 
Whitney,   Prof.   W.  D.,  3,  4,   1S8, 

193,  196. 


Wiley,  J.  W.,  D.D.,  46S. 
Wilkes,  Commodore,  22. 
Williams,  Rev.  Mr.,  229. 
Williams,  Rev.  John,  421,  422. 
Williams,  Mrs.  K.  P.,  18,  395. 
Williams,  S.  Wells,  LL.D.,  1833-57, 

25,  26-32,  37,  41,  42,  122-131,  138, 

174,  222,  224,   240,   264-266,  287, 

324-329,  390,  427,  469.  47°- 
Williams,  Mrs.  S.  W.,  254-256. 
Williamson,    J.    P.,    1S60-71,   219, 

373,  374- 
Williamson,  T.  S.,  M.D.,  1834-71, 

230-235,  415,  416,  425- 
Wilson,  Dr.  John,  of  Bombay,  42S. 
Wilson,    John      Leighton,    D.D., 

1833-53,  8S-92,  143-145,  191,  192, 

|99,  329-339,  .421,  424- 
Wines  of  the  Bible,  430-441. 
Wines,  ancient,  439. 
Wines,  sweet,  432. 
Winslow,   Miron,    D.D.,     1818-64, 

124,  171,  174,  242,  404- 
Wirt,  William,  369,  370. 
Witchcraft  in  Oregon,  12  ;  in  West 

Africa,  89. 
Wolcott,    Samuel,   D.D.,    1840-43, 

74,  157,  174,  436. 
Wolfe,  S.,  38. 
Wolfe,  Rev.  J.  R.,  239. 
Woman  in  China,  467,  46S;  Druse, 

296;  in  India,  464,  465  ;  in  Japan, 

471  ;  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  19, 

20;  in  Syria,  393,  394,  456,  457; 

among  the  Yezidees,  311;  among 

the  Zulus,  2o^,  422. 
Wood,  Geo.  W.,  D.D.,  1838—317, 

445- 
Woodin,  S.  F.,  1850—,  239. 
Woods   Natural  History    Cabinet, 

Amherst  College,  174. 
Worcester,  I.  R.,  D.D.,  23,  317. 


Worcester,  S.  A.,  1S25-59,  230,  367^ 

368.  _ 
Worship,  Ancestral,  285. 
Worship,  Buddhist,  279. 
Worship,  State,  in  China,  285,  286. 
Wortabet,  Rev,  John,  M.D.,  2S8- 

297,  376.  378,  379.  394,  437- 
Wright,  A.  H.,  M.D.,  1840-65,  174, 

243- 
Wright,  Alfred,  1S21-53,  230. 
Wright,  Rev.  W.,  437. 
Wu  wei  kiau,  274, 

Xavier,  23,  338,  339. 
Xenophon,  3. 
Xulla  islands,  40. 

Vazile  kaya,  161. 
Yealth,  11. 
Yaminamoto,  472, 
Yedo,  24. 
Yesso,  25. 

Yezidees,  164,  307-316. 
Y'in  and  Yang,  324. 
Yojana,  277, 
Young,  John,  442. 
Yozghal,  antiquities  at,  162. 
Yuga,  319. 
Yung  Wing,  469. 

Zab,  66. 

Zeiner  Bey,  350,  358,  359. 

Zingian  (or  Bantu)  race,  200. 

Zornitza,  217,  454. 

Zoweida,  151. 

Zulus,  201,  451,  452. 

Zulu  kraal,  201 ;  land,  141-143,200— 
203;  language,  192,  200;  polyg- 
amy, 203,  483;  Scriptures,  252  j 
wardrobe,  202 ;  women,  202,  203. 


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